Intellectual property, indigenous knowledge, and biodiversity

Capitalism, Nature, Socialism

Volumn 16, Issue 3, 2005, Pages 27-48

  Martin, George ^a,b,c   Vermeylen, Saskia ^b  

^a MONTCLAIR STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF SURREY   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BIODIVERSITY; INDIGENOUS POPULATION; INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS; TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE;

HOODIA;

EID: 24944486821     PISSN: 10455752     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10455750500208748     Document Type: Review

References (120)

1. P. Drahos, A Philosophy of Intellectual Property (Hants, U.K.: Darmouth Publishing Company, 1996).
2. B. Parry, "Cultures of Knowledge: Investigating Intellectual Property Rights and Relations in the Pacific," Antipode, 34, 2002, p. 679.
3. W. Pretorius, "TRIPS and Developing Countries: How Level is the Playing Field?" in P. Drahos and R. Mayne (eds.), Global Intellectual Property Rights: Knowledge, Access and Development (Basingstoke, U.K.: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002).
4. In recent decades, the drug industry has moved from an emphasis on research to one on marketing. A watershed in this transformation was the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980 in the U.S., which allowed publicly funded researchers to patent and license their discoveries in the private sector. Such changes in the drug industry have played a role - as yet unspecified - in the growing appropriation of indigenous knowledge. See Stephen S. Hall, "The Drug Lords," The New York Times Book Review, November 14, 2004.
5. D.B. Resnik, "A Pluralistic Account of Intellectual Property," Journal of Business Ethics, 46, 2003.
6. S.P. Mulligan, "For Whose Benefit? Limits to Sharing Benefits in the Bioprospecting 'Regime,'" Environmental Politics, 8, 1999.
7. Michael Brown, Who Owns Native Culture? (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), p. 4.
8. Parry, op. cit.
9. Drahos, op. cit., p. 17.
10. Parry, op. cit.
11. Drahos, op. cit.
12. W. Van Caenegem, "Intellectual Property Law and the Idea of Progress," Intellectual Property Quarterly, 3, 2003.
13. T. Greaves, "IPR, A Current Survey." In T. Greaves (ed.), Intellectual Property Rights for Indigenous Peoples, A Sourcebook (Oklahoma City: Society for Applied Anthropology, 1994).
14. S.B. Brush, "A Non-Market Approach to Protecting Biological Resources," in Greaves (ed.), ibid., p. 133.
15. A.R. Chapman, "A Human Rights Perspective on Intellectual Property, Scientific Progress, and Access to the Benefits of Science," paper presented at the Traditional Knowledge and Cultural Expressions Program, Geneva, 1998, p. 16.
16. N. Zerbe, "Contested Ownership: TRIPS, CBD, and Implications for Southern African Biodiversity," Perspectives on Global Development and Technology, 1, 2002.
17. A.T. Mushita and C.B. Thompson, "Patenting Biodiversity? Rejecting WTO/ TRIPS in Southern Africa," Global Environmental Politics, 2, 2002.
18. G. Stenton, "Biopiracy Within the Pharmaceutical Industry: A Stark Illustration of How Abusive, Manipulative and Perverse the Patenting Process Can Be Towards Countries of the South," European Intellectual Property Review, 26, 2004.
19. Mushita and Thompson, op. cit.
20. Van Caenegem, op. cit.
21. G. Rodriguez Stevenson, "Trade Secrets: The Secret to Protecting Indigenous Ethnobiological (Medicinal) Knowledge," New York University Journal of International Law and Politics, 32, 2000.
22. Stenton, op. cit.
23. Parry, op. cit.
24. J.M. Meyer, "On Nature, Property and Biotechnology," The Journal of Political Philosophy, 8, 2000, p. 159.
25. K. Plenderleith, Indigenous Knowledge and Ethics (New York: Routledge, 2004).
26. Parry, op. cit., pp. 686-687.
27. B. Martin, "Against Intellectual Property," Philosophy and Social Action, 21, 1995.
28. G. Dutfield, "The Public and Private Domains: Intellectual Property Rights in Traditional Knowledge," Science Communication, 21, 2000.
29. S. Sahai, "Indigenous Knowledge and its Protection in India," in Christophe Bellmann, Graham Dutfield and Ricardo Meléndez-Ortiz (eds.), Trading in Knowledge: Development Perspectives on TRIPS, Trade and Sustainability (London: Earthscan, 2003).
30. C. Takeshita, "Bioprospecting and Its Discontents: Indigenous Resistances as Legitimate Politics," Alternatives, 26, 2001.
31. V. Shiva, Biopiracy (Boston: South End Press, 1997);
32. V. Shiva, Protect or Plunder? (London: Zed, 2001).
33. For an informative discussion of biopiracy and the North's "ecological debt" to the South, see Joan Martinez-Alier, "International Biopiracy versus the Value of Local Knowledge," Capitalism Nature Socialism, 11, 2000.
34. D.A. Posey and G. Dutfield, Beyond Intellectual Property (Ottawa: International Development Research Center, 1996).
35. G. Dutfield, Intellectual Property Rights, Trade and Biodiversity: Seeds and Plant Varieties (London: Earthscan, 2002).
36. D.A. Posey and G. Dutfield, "Plants, Patents and Traditional Knowledge: Ethical Concerns of Indigenous and Traditional Peoples," in G. Van Overwalle (ed.), Patent Law, Ethics and Biotechnology (Brussels: Bruylant, 1998), p. 114.
37. W. Weeraworawit, "International Legal Protection for Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore: Challenges for the Intellectual Property System," in Bellmann, et. al. (eds.), op. cit.
38. D.A. Posey, "Commodification of the Sacred Through Intellectual Property Rights," Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 83, 2002.
39. T. Simpson and V. Jackson, "Effective Protection for Indigenous Cultural Knowledge: A Challenge for the Next Millennium," Indigenous Affairs, 3, 1998.
40. Pretorius, op. cit.
41. B. Tobin, "Redefining Perspectives in the Search for Protection of Traditional Knowledge: A Case Study from Peru," Review of European Community and International Environmental Law, 10, 2001.
42. An alternative indigenous definition offers a more unified concept of knowledge. According to Amazon peoples, knowledge is the result of a cumulative and collaborative process throughout the existence of a group and its practices. Innovations are recent insights applied to new problems and in this respect are additions to collective knowledge. See Tobin, op. cit.
43. A. Zerda-Sarmiento and C. Forero-Pineda, "Intellectual Property Rights Over Ethnic Communities' Knowledge," International Social Science Journal, 54, 2002.
44. Mushita and Thompson, op. cit.
45. Martin, op. cit.;
46. May, op, cit.
47. Mushita and Thompson, op. cit.
48. I b i d.
49. Zerbe, op. cit.
50. E. Hettinger, "Justifying Intellectual Property," Philosophy and Public Affairs, 18, 1989.
51. S. Gudeman, "Sketches, Qualms, and Other Thoughts on Intellectual Property Rights." In S.B. Brush and D. Stabinsky (eds.), Valuing Local Knowledge: Indigenous People and Intellectual Property Rights (Washington, DC: Island Press, 1996);
52. C. May, "Thinking, Buying, Selling: Intellectual Property Rights in Political Economy," New Political Economy, 3, 1998.
53. J. Tully, "Aboriginal Property and Western Theory: Recovering a Middle Ground," Social Philosophy and Policy, 11, 1994.
54. John Locke, Two Treatises of Government, (ed.) Peter Laslett, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1963);
55. Tully, op. cit.
56. Tully, ibid.
57. G.C. Marks, "Indigenous Peoples in International Law: The Significance of Francisco De Vitoria and Bartolome De Las Casas," in J.S. Anaya (ed.), International Law and Indigenous Peoples (Hants, U.K.: Darmouth, 2003).
58. Cited in C.B. Macpherson, Property: Mainstream and Critical Positions (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978), p. 31. Although this statement appears contemptuous of the concept of private property, Rousseau did believe in property rights. But, he saw those rights as limited to the amount of property a man could work on by himself.
59. Countries that wish to enjoy the benefits of World Trade Organization membership are obliged to comply with TRIPS.
60. The CBD came into being during the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and entered into force in 1993.
61. Posey and Dutfield, 1996, op. cit.;
62. T. Simpson, Indigenous Heritage and Self-Determination (Copenhagen: IWGIA, 1997).
63. Zerbe, op. cit.
64. I b i d.
65. R.A. Sedjo, "Property Rights, Genetic Resources, and Biotechnical Change," Journal of Law and Economics, 35, 1992.
66. R.H. Coase, "The Problem of Social Cost," The Journal of Law & Economics, 3, 1960;
67. H. Demsetz, "Toward a Theory of Property Rights," American Economic Review, 57, 1967.
68. S.B. Brush, "Is Common Heritage Outmoded?" in Brush and Stabinsky (eds.), 1996, op. cit., p. 158.
69. V. Boisvert and A. Caron, "The Convention on Biological Diversity: An Institutionalist Perspective on the Debate," Journal of Economic Issues, 36, 2002, p. 152.
70. Brush, 1996, op. cit.
71. Boisvert and Caron, op. cit.
72. CIPR, "Integrating Intellectual Property Rights and Development Policies" (London: Commission on Intellectual Property Rights, 2002).
73. Posey and Dutfield 1996, op. cit.
74. Brush, 1996, op. cit.
75. P. Drahos, "Negotiating Intellectual Property Rights: Between Coercion and Dialogue," in Drahos and Mayne (eds.), op. cit.
76. Drahos, 1996, op. cit.
77. L.R. Helfer, "Human Rights and Intellectual Property: Conflict or Coexistence?" Minnesota Intellectual Property Review, Fall, 2003;
78. Tobin, op. cit.
79. R.J. Coombe, "Intellectual Property, Human Rights & Sovereignty," Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies, 6, 1998.
80. A.R. Chapman, "The Human Rights Implications of Intellectual Property Protection," Journal of International Economic Law, 5, 2002.
81. Coombe, op. cit.
82. Helfer, op. cit.;
83. Tobin, op. cit.
84. UN, "Human Rights and Intellectual Property," Statement by the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, November 26, 2001, p. 7.
85. Chapman, 2002, op. cit.
86. I b i d.
87. I b i d.
88. and Chapman, 1998, op. cit.
89. Chapman, 1998, op. cit.
90. Coombe, op. cit.
91. Chapman, 1998, op. cit.
92. Tobin, op. cit.
93. Dutfield, 2002, op. cit.;
94. Timmermans, op. cit.
95. Dutfield, 2000, op. cit.
96. See J. Suzman, An Introduction to the Regional Assessment of the Status of the San in Southern Africa (Windhoek: Legal Assistance Centre, 2001).
97. D. Firn, "Phylopharm Pins Hopes on the New Hoodia Diet," Financial Times, June 17, 2004;
98. D.J. Stephenson, The Patenting of P57 and Intellectual Property Rights of the San Peoples of Southern Africa (Boulder: First Peoples Worldwide, 2003).
99. S. Laird and R. Wynberg, "Institutional Policies for Biodiversity Research," in S. Laird (ed.), Biodiversity and Traditional Knowledge: Equitable Partnership in Practice (London: Earthscan, 2002).
100. R.K. Hitchcock, "We are the First People: Land, Natural Resources and Identity in the Central Kalahari, Botswana," Journal of Southern African Studies, 28, 2002, pp. 797-824.
101. R. Wynberg, "Bioprospecting Delivers Limited Benefits in South Africa," European Intellectual Property Review, 26, 2004, pp. 239-243.
102. Ibid., p. 241.
103. Coombe, op. cit.
104. L.T. Smith, Decolonizing Methodologies, Research and Indigenous Peoples (London: Zed, 1999).
105. I b i d.
106. S.P. Mulligan, op. cit.
107. Saskia Vermeylen is doing this study as her Ph.D dissertation at the University of Surrey.
108. R. Sylvain, "Land, Water and Truth: San Identity and Global Indigenism," American Anthropologist, 104, 2002, pp. 1074-1085;
109. S. Robins, "NGOs, Bushmen and Double Vision: The # khomani San Land Claim and the Cultural Policies of Community Development in the Kalahari," Journal of Southern African Studies, 27, 2001, pp. 833-853;
110. S. Robins, "Whose Modernity? Indigenous Modernities and Land Claims after Apartheid," Development and Change, 34, 2003, pp. 265-285.
111. Zerbe, op. cit.
112. "King and Eyzaguirre, op. cit.
113. H.M. Spector, "An Outline of a Theory Justifying Intellectual and Industrial Property Rights," European Intellectual Property Review, 8, 1989.
114. Jacqueline Switzer, Environmental Politics: Domestic and Global Dimensions (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2004), pp. 334-335.
115. David Downes, "How Intellectual Property Could be a Tool to Protect Traditional Knowledge." In K. Gallagher and J. Werksman (eds.), The Earthscan Reader on International Trade and Sustainable Development (London: Earthscan, 2002), p. 398.
116. Brown, op. cit., p. 238.
117. Ibid., p. 89.
118. Ibid., p. 245.
119. There may be another argument in the making for indigenous peoples. The Inuit of the Arctic have announced their intention to get a ruling from the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights that the U.S., through its contributions to global warming, is threatening their very existence. See Andrew C. Revkin, "Eskimos Seek to Recast Global Warming as a Rights Issue," New York Times, December 15, 2004, p. A3.
120. Greg Buckman, Globalization: Tame It or Scrap It? (London: Zed, 2004), pp. 132-133.