A review of the therapeutic uses of thrombin

Thrombosis and Haemostasis

Volumn 91, Issue 5, 2004, Pages 851-860

  Lundblad, Roger L ^a   Bradshaw, Ralph A ^b   Gabriel, Don ^a   Ortel, Thomas L ^c   Lawson, Jeffrey ^c   Mann, Kenneth G ^d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA   (United States)

^c DUKE UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT   (United States)

Author keywords

Interventional radiology; Pseudoaneurysms; Thrombin; Topical hemostatic agents; Vascular surgery

Indexed keywords

ADRENALIN; BLOOD CLOTTING FACTOR 11; BLOOD CLOTTING FACTOR 13; BLOOD CLOTTING FACTOR 5; BLOOD CLOTTING FACTOR 8; CELL SURFACE RECEPTOR; CHITIN; COLLAGEN; COLLAGEN DERIVATIVE; CYANOACRYLATE DERIVATIVE; DEXTRAN; FIBRIN; FIBRIN GLUE; FIBRINOGEN; GELATIN SPONGE; HEMOSTATIC AGENT; MICROCRYSTALLINE COLLAGEN; OXIDIZED CELLULOSE; PROTEIN C; PROTHROMBIN; RECOMBINANT PROTEIN; RECOMBINANT THROMBIN; THROMBIN; THROMBIN JMI; THROMBOSTAT; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VASOPRESSIN;

BLOOD CLOTTING; DRUG FORMULATION; DRUG MANUFACTURE; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG USE; FALSE ANEURYSM; HEMOSTASIS; HUMAN; MEDICAL DOCUMENTATION; MITOGENICITY; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; THROMBOCYTE AGGREGATION; WOUND HEALING;

ADMINISTRATION, TOPICAL; ANEURYSM, FALSE; HEMOSTASIS; HEMOSTATIC TECHNIQUES; HUMANS; THROMBIN; WOUND HEALING;

EID: 2442537883     PISSN: 03406245     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (241)

1. Schmidt A. Neue Untersuchungen über die Fasterstoffgerinnung. Pflügers Arch ges. Physiol 1872; 6; 413-538.
2. Buchanan A. On the coagulation of the blood and other fibriniferous liquids. London Medical Gazette I 1845; New Series, p. 617 (reprinted J Physiol 1878, 2: 158-63.)
3. Gamgee A. Some old and new experiments on the fibrin-ferment. J Physiol 1978; 2: 145-57.
4. Howell WH. Theories of blood coagulation. Physiol Rev 1935; 15: 435-70.
5. Milstone JH. On the evolution of blood clotting theory. Medicine 1952, 411-47.
6. Beck EA. Historical development of the prothrombin concept. in Prothrombin and Related Coagulation Factors. ed. HC Hempker and JJ Veltkamp, Leiden University Press, Leiden, The Netherlands, 1975; 15-24.
7. Seegers WH, Warner ED, Brinkhous KM, et al. The use of purified thrombin as a hemostatic agent. Science 1939; 89: 86.
8. Warner ED, Brinkhous KM, Seegers WH, et al. Further experience with the use of thrombin as a hemostatic agent. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology 1939; 41: 655-57.
9. Tidrick RT, Seegers WH, Warner ED. Clinical Experience with Thrombin as an Hemostatic Agent. Surgery 1943; 14: 191-6.
10. Light RU. The antigenicity of bovine thrombin: clinical evaluation. J Neurosurg 1945; 2: 516-23.
11. Light RU. Hemostasis in neurosurgery. J Neurosurg 1945; 2: 414-34.
12. Seegers WH. Thrombin as a hemostatic agent In: Prothrombin, W.H. Seegers, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1962; 581-91.
13. Verstraete M. Hemostatic Drugs. In Haemostasis and Thrombosis, ed. A.L. Bloom and D.P. Thomas, Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, United Kingdom, 1981; 491-502.
14. Gamba G, Fornasari PM, Grignani G, et al. Haemostasis During Transvesical Prostatic Adenomectomy. A Controlled Trial on the Effect of Drugs with Antifibrinolytic and Thrombin-like Activities. Blut 1979; 39: 89-98.
15. Sanfilippo JS, Barrows GH, Yussman MA. Comparison of Avitene, Topical Thrombin, and Gelfoam as Sole Hemostatic Agent in Turboplasties. Fertility and Sterility 1980; 33: 311-6.
16. Vaziri ND, Robinson MA, Barton C, et al. Control of Bleeding from Cannulation Sites with Topical Thrombin in Dialyzed Patients. J Dial 1978; 2: 393-8.
17. Rengachary SS, Manguoglu AB. Control of bone bleeding during Cloward procedure. Technical note. J Neurosurg 1980; 52: 138-9.
18. Vaziri NE. (1979), Topical Thrombin and Control of Bleeding from the Fistula Puncture Sites in Dialyzed Patients. Nephron 1979; 24: 254-6
19. Jasani B, Baxter-Smith DC, Donaldson LJ, et al. Topical Thrombin and Control of Wound Hematoma. Lancet 1977; II: 332-3.
20. Bookstein JJ, Chlosta EM, Foley D, et al. Transcatheter Hemostasis of Gastrointestinal Bleeding Using Modified Autogenous Clot. Radiology 1974; 113: 277-85.
21. Machovich R. Clinical use of thrombin. In The Thrombin, Volume II, ed. R. Machovich, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. 1984; 105-6.
22. Verstraete M. Hemostatic Drugs. In Haemostasis and Thrombosis, 2nd Edn., ed. A.L. Bloom and D.P. Thomas, Churchill Livingston, Edinburg, United Kingdom. 1987; 607-17.
23. Clark RA. Fibrin sealant in wound repair: a systematic survey of the literature. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2000; 9: 2371-92.
24. Rodeo SA. Arthroscopic meniscal repair with use of the outside-in technique. Instr Course Lect 2000; 49: 195-206.
25. Kumar U. Albala DM. Newer techniques in intracorporeal tissue approximation: suturing, tissue adhesives, and microclips. Urol Clin North Am 2001; 28: 15-21.
26. Mintz PD, Mayers L, Avery N, et al.. Fibrin sealant: clinical use and the development of the University of Virginia Tissue Adhesive Center. Ann Clin Lab Sci 2001; 31: 108-18.
27. Athanasiou KA, Shah AR, Hernandez RJ, et al. Basic science of articular cartilage repair. Clin Sports Med 2001; 20: 223-47.
28. Amrani DL, Diorio JP. Delmotte Y. Wound healing. Role of commercial fibrin sealants. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2001; 936: 566-79.
29. Drake DB, Ferguson RE Jr. Fibrin sealants in microvascular surgery: current status. J Long Term Eff Med Implants. 2001; 11: 65-72.
30. Currie LJ, Sharpe JR, Martin R. The use of fibrin glue in skin grafts and tissue-engineered skin replacements: a review. Plast Reconstr Surg 2001; 108: 1713-26
31. Shekarriz B. Stoller ML. The use of fibrin sealant in urology. J Urol 2002; 167: 1218-25.
32. Radosevich M, Goubran HA, Burnouf T. Fibrin sealant: Scientific rationale, production methods, and current clinical use. Vox Sanguinis 1997; 72: 133-43.
33. Jackson MR. Fibrin sealants in surgical practice: An overview. Am J Surg 2001; 182: 1S-7S.
34. Kjaergard HK. Suture support: Is it advantageous?, Am J Surg 2001; 182: 15S-20S.
35. Reece TB, Maxey TS, Kron IL. A prospectus on tissue adhesion. Am J Surg 2001; 182: 40S-44S.
36. Sharma A, Kaur R, Kumar S, et al. (2003), Fibrin glue versus N-butyl-2-cyanoacrylate in corneal perforations, Ophthalmology 2003; 110: 291-8.
37. Maleux G, Hendrickx S, Vaninbroukx J, et al. (2003), Percutaneous injection of human thrombin to treat iatrogenic femoral pseudo-aneurysms: short- and midterm ultrasound follow-up, Eur Radiol 2003; 13: 209-12.
38. Feld RS, Sullivan E, Morrison P. (2003), Thrombin injection for failed stent graft repair of perforated atherosclerotic aortic ulcer, J Vasc Surg 2003; 37: 194-7.
39. Rodeheaver GT, Hartsell L, Faulkner BC, et al. (1995), Influence of Biobrane Construction on Adherence. Journal of Burn Care and Rehabilitation 1995; 16: 321-23.
40. Smith DJ. Use of Biobrane in Wound Management. J Burn Care Rehabil 1995; 16: 317-20.
41. Shibata H, Shioya N, Kuroyanagi Y. Development of new wound dressing composed of spongy collagen sheet containing dibutyryl cyclic AMP. J Biomater Sci Polym Ed 1997; 8: 601-21.
42. Lorenz Ch, Petracic A, Hohl H.-P, et al. Early wound closure and early reconstitution. Experience with a dermal substitute in a child with 60 per cent surface area burn. Burns 1997; 23: 505-8.
43. Krasner D. A Quick Reference Guide to Wound Care Product Categories. in Wound Care. A Collaborative Practice Manual for Physical Therapists and Nurses. ed. C. Sussman and PM Bates-Jensen, Aspen, Gaithersburg, Md. 1998; Appendix B., 477-81.
44. Eggebrecht H, Haude M, Woertgen U, et al. Systematic use of a collagen-based vascular closure device immediately after cardiac catheterization procedures in 1,317 consecutive patients. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2002; 57: 486-95..
45. Paola LD, Cogo A, Deanesi W, et al. Using Hyaluronic Acid Derivatives and Cultured Autologous Fibroblasts and Keratinocytes in a Lower Limb Wound in a Patient with Diabetes: A Case Report. Ostomy Wound Manage 2002; 48: 46-9.
46. Guerret S, Gouignon E, Harmann DJ, et al. Long-term remodeling of a bilayered living human skin equivalent (Apigrof®) grafted onto nude mice; immunological localization of human cells and characterization of extracellular matrix, Wound Rep Regen 2003; 11: 35-45.
47. Kohno H, Nagasue N, Chang Y.-C, et al. Comparison of Topical Hemostatic Agents in Elective Hepatic Resection: A Clinical Prospective Randomized Trial. World J Surg 1992; 16; 966-70.
48. Guglielmi A, Ruzzenente A, Sandri M, et al. Risk assessment and prediction of rebleeding in bleeding gastroduodenal ulcer. Endoscopy 2002; 34: 778-86.
49. Fletcher H, Frederick J, Hardie M, et al. A Randomized Comparison of Vasopressin and Tourniquet as Hemostatic Agents During Myomectomy. Obstet Gynecol 1996; 87: 1014-8.
50. Rossman JA, Rees TD. A Comparative Evaluation of Hemostatic Agents in the Management of Soft Tissue Graft Donor Site Bleeding. J Periodontol 1999; 70: 1369-75.
51. Halfpenny W, Fraser JS, Adlam DM. Comparison of 2 hemostatic agents for the prevention of postextraction hemorrhage in patients on anticoagulants. Oral Surg, Oral Med, Oral Pathol 2001; 92: 257-59.
52. Veves A, Sheehan P, Phan HT. A Randomized Controlled Trial of Promogran (A Collagen/Oxidized Regenerated Cellulose Dressing) vs. Standard Treatment in the Management of Diabetic Foot Ulcers. Arch Surg 2002; 137: 822-7.
53. HemCon, Inc., Portland, Oregon, http://www.hemcon.com
54. Schwartz SI. Hemostasis, surgical bleeding, and transfusion. in Principles of Surgery, 4th Edn., ed. S.I. Schwartz, G.T. Shires, F.C. Spencer and E.H. Storer, McGraw-Hill, New York, New York. 1984; 100-1.
55. Maluf-Filho F, Sakai P, Ishioka S, et al. (2001), Endoscopic Sclerosis versus Cyanoacrylate Endoscopic Injection for the First Episode of Variceal Bleeding: A Prospective, Controlled, and Randomized Study in Child-Pugh Class C Patients. Endoscopy 2001; 33: 421-7.
56. Bruns TB, Worthington JM. Using tissue adhesive for wound repair: a practical guide to dermabond. Am Fam Physician 2000; 61: 1383-8.
57. Gosain AK. The current status of tissue glues: I. For bone fixation. Plast Reconstr Surg 2002; 109: 2581-3.
58. Gosain AK, Lyon VB. The current status of tissue glues: Part II. For adhesion of soft tissues. Plast Reconstr Surg 2002; 110: 1581-4.
59. Totaro P, Minzioni G. Patch-and-glue technique for left ventricular free wall rupture. Ann of Thorac Surg 2002; 74: 294-5.
60. Plow EF, Ginsberg MH. The molecular basis for platelet function. In Hematology. Basic Principles and Clinical Practice. 3rd Edn. ed. R.Hoffman, E.J. Benz, Jr., S.J. Shattil, B. Furie, H.J. Cohen, L.E. Silberstein and P. McGlave, Churchill Livingstone, New York, New York 2000; 1741-52.
61. Marcus AJ. Platelets and their disorders. In Disorders of Hemostasis, ed. O.D. Ratnoff and C.D. Forbes, 3rd Edn., W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA. 1996; 79-137.
62. Packham MA, Rand ML, Kinlough-Rathbone RL. Aggregation. in Platelets in Thrombotic and Non-Thrombotic Disesase. Pathology, Pharmacology and Therapeutics, ed. P. Gresele, C. Page, V Foster and J Vermylen, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 2002; 338-56.
63. Brass LF. The molecular basis for platelet activation. in Hematology. Basic Principles and Clinical Practice. 3rd Edn., ed. R. Hoffman, E.J. Benz, Jr., S.J. Shattil, B. Furie, HJ Cohen, LE Silberstein and P McGlave, Churchill Livingston, New York, New York. 2000; 1753-70.
64. Marcus AJ. Safier LB. Thromboregulation: multicellular modulation of platelet reactivity in hemostasis and thrombosis. FASEB J 1993; 7: 16-522.
65. Hoylaerts MF, Oury C, Toth-Zamboki E, et al. ADP receptors platelet activation and aggregation. Platelets 2000; 11: 307-9.
66. Kroll MH. Sullivan R. Mechanisms of platelet activation. in Thrombosis and Hemostasis, 2nd Edn., ed. J. Loscalzo and A.J. Shafer, Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, MD. 1998; 261-91.
67. Vu, T-KH, Hung DT, Wheaton VI, et al. Molecular cloning of a functional thrombin receptor reveals a novel proteolytic mechanism of receptor activation. Cell 1991; 64: 1057-68.
68. 2+ mobilization. FEBS Lett 1991; 288: 123-8.
69. Hung DT, Wong YH, Vu T.-KH, et al. The cloned platelet thrombin receptor couples to at least two distinct effectors to stimulate both phosphoinositide hydrolysis and inhibit adenyl cyclase. J Biol Chem 1992; 353: 20831-4.
70. Couglin SR. How thrombin 'talks' to cells. Molecular mechanisms and roles in vivo. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1998; 18: 514-8.
71. Kahn ML, Nakanishi-Matsui M, Shapiro MJ, et al. Protease-activated receptors 1 and 4 mediate activation of human platelets by thrombin. J Clin Invest 1999; 103: 879-87.
72. Fukami MH, Holmsen H, Kowalska MA, et al. Platelet secretion. in Hemostasis and Thrombosis. Basic Principles and Clinical Practice. 4th Edn., ed. R.W., Colman, J. Hirsh, V.J. Marder, A.W. Clowes and J.N. George. Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA. 2001; 561-73.
73. Heemskerk JWM, Siljander PRM, Bevers EM, et al. Receptors and signalling mechanisms in the procoagulant response of platelets. Platelets 2000; 11: 301-6.
74. Andersen H, Greenberg DL, Fujikawa K, et al. Protease-activated receptor 1 is the primary mediator of thrombin-stimulated platelet procoagulant activity. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 1999; 96: 11189-93.
75. Hempker HC. Platelet procoagulant activities: the amplification loops between platelets and the plasmatic clotting system. in Platelets in Thrombotic and Non-Thrombotic Disease. Pathology, Pharmacology and Therapeutics, ed. P. Gresele, C. Page, V. Foster and J. Vermylen, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 2002; 381-92.
76. Heemskerk JWM, Bevers EM, Lindhout T. Platelet activation and blood coagulation. Thromb Haemost 2002; 88: 186-93.
77. Ganguly P. Binding of thrombin to human platelets. Nature 1974; 247: 306-7.
78. Tollefsen DM, Feagler JR, Majerus PW. The binding of thrombin to the surface of human platelets. J Biol Chem 1974; 249: 2646-51.
79. Tollefsen DM. Majerus PW. Evidence for a single class of thrombin-bindning sites of human platelets. Biochemistry 1976; 15: 2144-9.
80. Martin BM, Wasiewski WW, Fenton JWII, et al. Equilibrium binding of thrombin to platelets. Biochemistry 1976; 15: 4886-93.
81. Workman GF, Jr. White GC II, Lundblad RL. Structure Function Relationships in the Interaction of α-Thrombin with Blood Platelets. J Biol Chem 1977; 252: 7118-23.
82. White GC II, Workman GF Jr, Lundblad RL. The binding of Thrombin to Thrombasthenic Platelets. J Lab Clin Med 1978; 91: 76-82.
83. Okumura T, Hasitz M, Jamieson GA. Platelet glycocalicin. Interaction with thrombin and role as thrombin receptor. J Biol Chem 1978; 253: 3435-43.
84. Jamieson GA, Okumura T. Reduced thrombin binding and aggregation in Bernard-Soulier platelets. J Clin Invest 1978; 61: 861-4.
85. Jamieson GA, Jung SM, Ordinas A. Factors affecting the high-affinity binding of thrombin to platelets. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1981; 370: 96-100.
86. Harmon JT, Jamieson GA. Thrombin binds to a high-affinity approximately 900,000-dalton site on human platelets. Biochemistry 1985; 24: 58-64.
87. De Candia E, Hall SW, Rutella S, et al. Binding of Thrombin to Glycoprotein Ib Accelerates the Hydrolysis of Par-1 on Intact Platelets. J Biol Chem 2001; 276: 4692-8.
88. Mazzucatto M, De Marco L, Masoth A, et al. Characterization of the initial α-thrombin interaction with glycoprotein Ibα in relation to platelet activation, J Biol Chem 1998; 273: 1880-7.
89. Wu H-f, White GC II, Workman EF Jr, et al. Affinity Chromatography of Platelets on Immobilized Thrombin: Retention of Catalytic Activity by Platelet-Bound Thrombin. Thromb Res 1992; 67: 419-27.
90. Mosesson M. Antithrombin I. Inhibition of thrombin generation in plasma by fibrin formation. Thromb Haemost 2003; 89: 9-12.
91. Hogg PJ, Jackson CM. Fibrin monomer protects thrombin from inactivation by antithrombin III: implications for heparin efficacy. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 1989; 86: 3619-23.
92. Jenny NS, Mann KG. Coagulation cascade: An overview. in Thrombosis and Hemorrhage, 2nd Edn., ed. J.Loscalzo and A.I. Schafer, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD. 1998; 3-27.
93. Colman, RW, Clowes AW, George IN, et al. Overview of hemostasis, in Hemostasis and Thrombosis. Basic Principles and Clinical Practice, 4th Edn, ed. R.W. Colman, J. Hirsh, V.J. Marder, A.W. Clowes, and J.N. George, Lippinott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA. 2001; 2-16.
94. Minnema MC, Ten Cate H, Hack CE.(1999), The role of factor XI in coagulation: a matter of revision. Semin Thromb Hemost 1999; 25: 419-28.
95. Baglia FA, Walsh PN. Thrombin-mediated feedback activation of factor XI on the activated platelet surface is preferred over contact activation by factor XIIa or factor XIa. J Biol Chem 2000; 275: 20514-19.
96. Rapaport SI, Schiffman S, Patch MJ, et al. The importance of the activation of antihemophilic globulin and proaccerelin by traces of thrombin in the generation of intrinsic prothrombinase activity. Blood 1963; 21: 221-6.
97. Butenas S, van't Veer C, Mann KG. "Normal" thrombin generation. Blood 1999; 94: 2169-78.
98. Nesheim JE, Mann KG. Thrombin-catalyzed activation of single-chain bovine factor V. J. Biol Chem 1979; 254, 1326-34.
99. Thompson AR. Structure and function of the factor VIII gene and protein. Sem Thromb Hemost 2003; 29: 11-22.
100. Pieters J, Lindhout T, Hempker HC. In situ-generated thrombin is the only enzyme that effectively activates factor VIII and factor V in thromboplastin-activated plasma. Blood 1989; 74: 1021-4.
101. Hettasch JM, Greenberg CS. Fibrin formation and stabilization. in Thrombosis and Hemorrhage., 2nd Edn., ed. J. Loscalzo and A.I. Schafer, Williams & Wilkins, Baltmore, MD. 1998; 129-54.
102. Hantgan RP, Simpson-Haidaris PS, Francis CW, et al. Fibrinogen structure and physiology. In Thrombosis and Hemostasis. Basic Principles and Clinical Practice. 4th Edn., eds. R.W. Colman,, J. Hirsh, V.J. Marder, A. W. Clowes and J.N. George. Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA., 2001; 203-32.
103. Mosesson MW, Siebenlist KR, Meh DA. The structure and biological features of fibrinogen and fibrin. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2001; 936: 11-30.
104. Loewy AG, McDonagh JM, Mikkola H, et al. Structure and function of factor XIII. in Hemostasis and Thrombosis. Basic Principles and Clinical Practice. 4th Edn., ed. R.W., Colman, J. Hirsh, V.J. Marder, A.W. Clowes and J.N. George. Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA. 1998; 233-47.
105. Lorand L. Factor XIII: Structure, activation and interactions with fibrinogen and fibrin. Ann NY Acad Sci 2001; 936: 291-311.
106. Siddelmann JJ, Gram J, Jesparson J, et al. Fibrin clot formation and lysis: Basic mechanisms, Sem Thromb Hemost 2000; 26: 605-18.
107. Gabriel DA, Smith LA, Folds JD, et al. The influence of immunoglobulin (IgG) on the assembly of fibrin gels, J Lab Clin Med 1983; 101: 545-52.
108. Bale MD, Mosher DF. Effects of thrombospondin on fibrin polymerization and structure, J Biol Chem 1986; 261: 862-8.
109. Wolberg AS, Gabriel DA, Hoffman M. Analyzing fibrin clot structure using a microplate reader, Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis 2002; 13: 533-9.
110. Carr ME, Gabriel DA. The effect of dextran 70 on the structure of plasma-derived fibrin gels, J Lab Clin Med 1980; 96: 985-93.
111. Nair CH, Dhall DP. Studies on fibrin network structures: the effect of some plasma proteins, Thromb Res 1991; 61: 315-25.
112. Gabriel DA, Muga K, Boothroyd EM (1992), The effect of fibrin structure on fibrinolysis, J Biol Chem 1992; 267: 24259-63.
113. Carr ME Jr, Alving BM. Effect of fibrin structure on plasmin-mediated dissolution of plasma clots, Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis 1995; 6: 567-73.
114. Wu JH, Siddiqui K, Diamond SL. Transport phenomena and clot dissolving therapy: an experimental investigation of diffusion-controlled and permeation-enhanced fibrinolysis. Thromb Haemost 1994; 72: 105-12.
115. Meh DA, Mosesson MW, DiOrio JP, et al. Disintegration and reorganization of fibrin networks during tissue-type plasminogen activator-induced clot lysis, Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis 2001; 12: 627-37
116. Reeder SB, Widlus DM, Lazinger M. Low-dose thrombin injection to treat iatrogenic femoral artery pseudoaneurysms. AJR 2001; 177: 595-8.
117. Mann KG, Elion J, Butkowski RJ, et al. Prothrombin. Methods Enzymol 1981; 80 Pt.C: 286-302.
118. Lundblad RL, Kingdon HS, Mann KG. Thrombin. Methods Enzymol. 1976; 45: 156-76.
119. Mann KG, Krishnaswamy S, Lawson JH. Surface-dependent hemostasis. Semin Hematol 1992; 29: 213-26.
120. Tollersrud OK, Helgeland L. On the quantification of prothrombin from different species using Echis carinatus as activator. Thromb Res 1986; 42; 737-47.
121. Jenny R, Church W, Odegaard B, et al. Purification of six human vitamin K-dependent proteins in a single chromatographic step using immunoaffinity columns. Prep Biochem 1986; 16: 227-45.
122. Flengsrud R. Purification and some characteristics of the human coagulation factor VII. Eur J Biochem 1979; 98: 455-64.
123. Suomela H, Myllyla G, Raaska E. Preparation and properties of a therapeutic factor IX concentrate. Vox Sanguines 1977; 33: 37-50.
124. White GC 2nd, Lundblad RL, Kingdon HS. Prothrombin complex concentrates: preparation, properties, and clinical uses. Curr Top Hematol 1979; 2: 203-44.
125. Lawson JH, Kalafatis M, Stram S, et al. (1994), A model for the tissue factor pathway to thrombin. I. An empirical study. J Biol Chem 1994; 269: 23357-66.
126. Radcliffe RD, Barton PG. Comparisons of the molecular forms of activated bovine factor X. Properties of activation with Russell's viper venom, insoluble trypsin, sodium citrate, tissue factor, and the intrinsic system. J Biol Chem 1973; 248: 6788-95.
127. Lundblad RL. A rapid method for the purification of bovine thrombin and inhibition of the purified enzyme with phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, Biochemistry 1971; 10: 2501-6.
128. Church FC, Winna HC. Rapid sulfopropyldisk chromatographic purification of bovine and human thrombin. Anal Biochem 1986; 157: 77-83.
129. Griffith MJ. Covalent modification of human alpha-thrombin with pyridoxal-5′-phosphate. Effect of phosphopyridoxylation on the interaction of thrombin with heparin. J Biol Chem 1979; 254: 3401-6.
130. DiBella EE, Maurer MC, Scheraga HA. Expression and folding of recombinant bovine prothrombin-2 and its activation to thrombin. J Biol Chem 1995; 270: 163-9.
131. Russo G, Gast A, Schlaeger E.-J, et al. Stable expression and purification of a secreted human recombinant prethormbin-2 and its activation to thrombin. Protein Expr Purif 1997; 10: 214-25.
132. Côté HCF, Stevens WK, Bajzar L, et al. Characterization of a stable form of human meizothrombin derived from recombinant prothrombin (R155A, R271A, and R284A), J Biol Chem 1994; 269: 11374-80.
133. Soejima K, Mimura N, Yonemura H, et al. (2001), An efficient refolding method for the preparation of recombinant human prothrombin-2 and characterization of the recombinant-derived α-thrombin. J Biochem 2001; 130: 269-77.
134. ZymoGenetics delays studies on one drug; may begin another early, Puget Sound Business Journal, September 1 2002 (http://www.bizjournals.com/seattle/stories/2002/09/16/daily/12.html)
135. Price BD. General patient care and safety. in Surgical Technology for the Surgical Technologist: A positive care approach. ed B.L. Caruthers, P. Price, T.L. Junge and B.D. Price. Delmer Thompson Learning, Albany, New York, 2001; 118-49.
136. Jackson MR. Topical Hemostatic Agents for Localized Bleeding. In Consultative Hemostasis and Thrombosis, ed. C.J. Kitchens, B.M. Alvig and C.M. Kessler, W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, PA, 2002; 419-24.
137. Frey KB. Orthopedic Surgery. in Surgical Technology for the Surgical Technologist: A positive care approach. ed B.L. Caruthers, P. Price, T.L. Junge and B.D. Price. Delmer Thompson Learning, Albany, New York, 2001; 668-98.
138. Noel AA, Swan KG, Deitch EA. Hemostasis. in Tools of the Trade and Rules of the Road. A Surgical Guide. ed. E.A. Deitch, Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia, PA, 1997; 74-84.
139. Raina, S, Upperman JS, Deitch EA. Control of Hemorrhage. in Tools of the Trade and Rules of the Road. A Surgical Guide. ed. E.A. Deitch, Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia, PA. 1997; 163-74.
140. Kansal N, Koneru B, Deitch EA. Dressings and Bandages. in Tools of the Trade and Rules of the Road. A Surgical Guide. ed. E.A. Deitch. Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia, PA, 1997; pps.
141. Ofodile FA, Sadana MK. The role of topical thrombin in skin grafting. J Natl Med Assoc 1991; 83: 416-8.
142. Higuchi D, Sei Y, Suzuki T, et al. Management of wounds treated by thrombin coagulation. Burns Incl Therm Inj 1987; 13: 75-6.
143. Robertson RD, Bond P, Wallace B, et al. The tumescent technique to significantly reduce blood loss during burn surgery. Burns 2001; 27: 835-8.
144. Gomez M, Logsetty S, Fish JS. Reduced blood loss during burn surgery. J Burn Care Rehabil 2001; 22: 111-7.
145. Cartotto R, Musgrave MA, Beveridge M, et al. Minimizing blood loss during surgery. J Trauma 2000; 49: 1034-9.
146. Barret JP, Dziewulski P, Wolf SE, et al. Effect of topical and subcutaneous epinephrine in combination with topical thrombin in blood loss during immediate near-total burn wound excision in pediatric burned patients. Burns 1999; 25: 509-13.
147. Sawada Y, Yotsuyanagi T. A technique of haemostasis of the extremities after debridement of burn wounds. Burns 1992; 18: 412-5.
148. Sawada Y, Ara M, Yotsuyanagi T. A thrombin ointment that achieves rapid haemostasis of split thickness donor wounds, particularly on the scalp. Burns 1991; 17: 225-7.
149. Brezel BS, McGeever KE, Stein JM. Epinephrine v thrombin for split-thickness donor site hemostasis. J Burn Care Rehabil 1987; 8: 132-4.
150. Prasad JK, Taddonio FE, Thomson PD. Prospective comparison of a bovine collagen dressing to bovine spray thrombin for control of haemorrhage of skin graft donor sites. Burns 1991; 17: 70-1.
151. Kudryashov BA. Use of the enzyme thrombin as a hemostatic during the World War II. Biokhimia 1975; 40: 452-5.
152. Gamba G, Fornasari PM, Grignani G, et al. Haemostasis during transvesical prostatic adenomectomy. A controlled trial on the effects of drugs with antifibrinolytic and thrombin-like activities. Blut 1979; 39: 89-98.
153. Sanfilippo JS, Barrows GH, Yussman MA, Comparison of avitene, topical thrombin, and gelfoam as sole hemostatic agent in turboplasties. Fertil Steril 1980; 33: 311-6.
154. Vaziri ND, Robinson MA, Barton C, et al.. Control of bleeding from cannulation sites with topical thrombin in dialyzed patients. J Dialysis 1978; 2: 393-8.
155. Jasani B, Baxter-Smith DC, Donaldson U, et al. Topical thrombin and control of wound haematoma. Lancet 1977; 2(8033): 332-3.
156. Rengachary SS, Manguoglu AB. Control of bone bleeding during Cloward procedure. Technical Note. J Neurosurg 1980; 52: 138-9.
157. Vaziri ND. Topical thrombin and control of bleeding from the fistula puncture sites in dialyzed patients. Nephron 1979; 24: 254-6.
158. Guimarães CA (2002), Massive Hemoptysis, in Thoracic Surgery, 2nd Edn,. ed. F.G. Pearson JD, Cooper J, Deslauriers RJ, et al. Churchill Livingstone, New York, New York, 2002; 717-36.
159. Moore WS. Vascular Surgery. A comprehensive review, 6th edn., W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, PA. 2002; 689-90.
160. Morgan R, Belli A-M. Current treatment methods of Postcatheterization pseudoaneurysm. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2003; 14: 697-710.
161. Katzenschlager R, Ugurluoglu A, Ahmadi AS, et al. (1995), Incidence of pseudoaneurysm after diagnostic and therapeutic angiography. Radiology 1995; 195: 463-6.
162. Self SB. Cardiopulmonary consult. Thrombin injection for pseudoaneurysm. http://www.jewishheartlung.org/education/cardiopulmonary/thrombin.html
163. Kruger K, Zahringer M, Sohngen FD, et al. Femoral pseudoaneurysms: management with percutaneous thrombin injections - success rate and effects on systemic coagulation, Radiology 2003; 226: 452-8.
164. Teh LG, Sieunarine K. Thrombin injection for repair of pseudoaneurysms: a case for caution, Australas Radiol 2003; 47: 64-6.
165. Xue M, Del Bigio MR. Acute tissue damage after injection of thrombin and plasmin into rat striatum, Stroke 2001; 32: 2164-9.
166. Xi G, Reiser G, Keep RE The role of thrombin and thrombin receptors in ischemic, hemorrhagic and traumatic brain injury: deleterious or protective?, J Neurochem 2003; 84: 3-9.
167. Akassoglou K, Akpinar P, Murray S, et al. (2003), Fibrin is a regulator of Schwann cell migration after sciatic nerve injury in mice, Neurosci Lett 2003; 338: 185-8.
168. Olsen DM, Rodriguez JA, Vranic M, et al. A prospective study of ultrasound scan-guided thrombin injection of femoral pseudoaneurysm: A trend toward minimal medication. J Vasc Surg 2002; 36: 779-82.
169. Carrasco H, Parry CF. Transcatheter embolization of abdominal artery aneurysms. AJR 1982; 138: 729-33.
170. McLean GK, Stein EJ, Burke DR, et al. Steel occlusion coils: Pretreatment with thrombin. Radiology 1986; 158: 549-50.
171. Schwartz LB, Clark ET, Gewerts BL. Anastomotic and other pseudoaneurysms. in Vascular Surgery, 6th Edn, ed. R. B. Rutherford. W.B. Saunders Company. Philadelphia, PA, 2000; 752-63.
172. Ansell JE, Wildrich WC, Johnson WC, et al. Gelfoam and Autologous Clot Embolization: Effect on Coagulation. Invest Radiol 1978; 13: 115-20.
173. Gianturco C, Anderson JH, Wallace S. Mechanical devices for arterial occlusion. AJR 1975; 124: 428-35.
174. Goldman ML, Freeny PC, Tallman JM, et al. Transcatheter vascular occlusion therapy with isobutyl-2-cyanoacrylate (Bucrylate®) for control of massive upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Radiology 1978; 129: 41-9.
175. Goldman ML, Serrafizadeh MS, Philip PK, et al. Bucrylate embolization of abdominal aortic aneurysms: An adjunct to nonresective therapy. AJR 1980; 135: 1195-200.
176. Cope C, Zeit R. Coagulation of aneurysms by percutaneous thrombin injection. AJR 1986; 147: 383-7.
177. Berguer R, Schneider J, Wilner HI. Induced thrombosis of inoperable abdominal aortic aneurysm. Surgery 1978; 84: 425-9.
178. Reuter SP, Carlson SN. Thrombosis of a common iliac artery aneurysm by selective embolization and extraanatomic bypass. AJR 1980; 134: 1248-50.
179. Rogoff PA, Stock JO. Percutaneous trans-abdominal embolization of an iliac artery aneurysm. AJR 1985; 145: 1258-60.
180. Schwartz SI. Hemostasis, Surgical Bleeding, and Transfusion, Chapter 3. In Principles of Surgery, 4th Edn., ed. S.I. Schwartz, G.T. Shires, F.C. Spencer and E.D. Stover. McGraw-Hill, New York, New York 1984; 100-47.
181. Kang SS, Labropoulos N, Mansour A, et al. Percutaneous ultrasound guided thrombin injection: A new method for treating postcatheterization femoral pseudoaneurysms. J Vasc Surg 1998; 27: 1032-8.
182. Kang SS, Labropoulos N. Nonoperative treatment of femoral pseudoaneurysms. in Practical Vascular Surgery, ed. J.S.T. Yao and W.H. Pearce, Appleton & Lange, Stamford, CT. 1999; 353-61.
183. Ferguson JD, Whatling PJ, Martin V, et al. Ultrasound guided percutaneous thrombin injection of iatrogenic femoral artery pseudoaneurysms after coronary angiography and intervention. Heart 2001; 85: E5.
184. Pezzolo JA, Dupuy DE, Cronin JJ. Percutaneous injection of thrombin for the treatment of pseudoaneurysms after catheterization: An alternative to sonographically guided compression. AJR 2000; 175: 1035-40.
185. Maleux G, Hendricks S, Vaninbroudx J, et al. Percutaneous injection of human thrombin to treat iatrogenic femoral aneurysms: short- and midterm ultrasound follow-up, Eur Radiol 2003; 13: 209-12.
186. Lian C-S, Ho F-M, Chen M-F, et al. Treatment of iatrogenic femoral artery pseudoaneurysm with percutaneous thrombin injection. J Vasc Surg 1997; 26: 18-23.
187. Sackett WR, Taylor SM, Coffey CB, et al. Ultrasound-guided thrombin injection of iatrogenic femoral pseudoanerysms: a prospective analysis. Am Surg 2000; 66: 937-40.
188. McCoy D, Sharfstein B, Walker W, et al. Ultrasound-guided percutaneous thrombin injection for femoral artery. Am Surg 2000; 66: 975-7.
189. Morrison SL, Obrand DA, Steinmetz OR, et al. Treatment of femoral artery pseudoaneurysms with percutaneous thrombin injection. Ann Vasc Surg 2000; 14: 634-9.
190. Hughes MM, McCall JM, Nott DM, et al. Treatment of iatrogenic femoral artery pseu- doaneurysms using ultrasound-guided injection of thrombin. Clin Radiol 2000; 55: 749-51.
191. Sheivman RG, Brophy DP. Treatment of iatrogenic femoral pseudoaneurysms with percutaneous thrombin injection: experience in 54 patients. Radiology 2001; 219: 123-7.
192. Calton WC Jr, Franklin DP, Elmore JR, et al. Ultrasound-guided thrombin injection is a safe and durable treatment for femoral pseudoaneurysms. Vasc Surg 2001; 35: 379-83.
193. Vermeulen EG, Umans U, Rijbroek A, et al. Percutaneous duplex-guided thrombin injection for treatment of iatrogenic femoral artery pseudoaneurysms. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 2000; 20: 302-4.
194. Tamin WZ, Arbid EJ, Andrews LS, et al. Percutaneous induced thrombosis of iatrogenic femoral pseudoaneurysms following catheterization. Ann Vasc Surg 2000; 14: 254-9.
195. Reeder SB, Widlus DM, Lazinger M. Low-dose thrombin injection to treat iatrogenic femoral artery pseudoaneurysms. AJR 2001; 177: 595-8.
196. Ferguson JD, Whatling PJ, Martin V, et al. (2001), Ultrasound guided percutaneous thrombin injection of iatrogenic femoral artery pseudoaneurysms after coronary angiography and intervention. Heart 2001; 85: E5.
197. Bloom AI, Sasson T, Verstandig A, et al. Ultrasound-guided thrombin injection for the treatment of iatrogenic pseudoaneurysm of the femoral artery. Isr Med Assoc J 2001; 3: 649-52.
198. Pezzullo JA, Dupuy DE, Cronan JJ. Percutaneous injection of thrombin for the treatment of pseudoaneurysms after catheterization: an alternative to sonographically guided compression. AJR 2000; 175: 1035-40.
199. Paulson EK, Sheafor DH, Kliewer MA, et al. Treatment of iatrogenic femoral arterial pseudoaneurysms: comparison of US-guided thrombin injection with compression repair. Radiology 2000; 215: 403-8.
200. Brophy DP, Sheiman RG, Amatulle P, et al. Iatrogenic femoral pseudoaneurysms: thrombin injection after failed US-guided compression. Radiology 2000; 214: 278-82.
201. Partap VA, Cassoff J. Ultrasound-guided percutaneous thrombin injection for treatment of femoral pseudoaneurysms: technical note. Can Assoc Radiol J 2000; 50: 182-4.
202. Owen RJ, Haslam PJ, Elliott ST, et al. Percutaneous ablation of peripheral pseudoaneurysms using thrombin: a simple and effective solution. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 2000; 23: 441-6.
203. Weinmann EE, Chayen D, Kobzantzev ZV, et al. (2002), Treatment of postcatheterization false aneurysms: ultrasound-guided compression vs ultrasound-guided thrombin injection. Eur J Vasc Surg 2002; 23: 68-72.
204. Paulson EK, Nelson RC, Mayes CE, et al. Sonographically guided thrombin injection of iatrogenic femoral pseudoaneurysms: further experience of a single institution. AJR 2001; 177; 309-16.
205. Olsen, DM, Rodriguez JA, Vranic M, et al. A prospective study of ultrasound scan-guided thrombin injection of femoral pseudoaneurysm: A trend toward minimal medication. J Vasc Surg 2002; 36: 779-82.
206. Criado E. Regarding "Thrombin injection for failed stent graft repair of perforated atherosclerotic aortic ulcer", J Vasc Surg 2003; 37: 222-3.
207. Sultan S, Nicholls S, Madhavan P, et al. Ultrasound guided human thrombin injection. A new modality in the management of femoral artery pseudo-aneurysms. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 2001; 22: 542-5.
208. Quarmby JW, Engelke C, Chitolie A, et al. Autologous thrombin for treatment of pseudoaneurysms. Lancet 2002; 359: 946-7.
209. Elford J, Burell C, Freeman S, et al. Human thrombin injection for the percutaneous treatment of iatrogenic pseudoaneurysms. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 2002; 25: 115-8.
210. Engelke C, Quarmby U, Ubhayakar G, et al. Autologous thrombin: a new embolization treatment for traumatic intrasplenic pseudoaneurysm. J Endovasc Ther 2002 9: 36-7.
211. Tisseel, http://www.baxter.ca/htdocs/en/doctors/biosurgery/products_tisseel.html
212. www.kingpharma.com
213. King Pharmaceuticals 2001 Annual Report; (http://www.kingpharma.com/anual_report.asp)
214. Ortel TL, Charles LA, Keller FG, et al. Topical thrombin and acquired coagulation factor inhibitors: clinical spectrum and laboratory diagnosis. Am J Hematol 1994; 45: 128-35.
215. Ortel TL, Mercer MC, Thames EH, et al. Immunologic impact and clinical outcomes after surgical exposure to bovine thrombin. Ann Surg 2001; 233: 88-96.
216. Schoenecker JG, Hauck RK, Mercer MC, et al. Exposure to topical bovine thrombin during surgery elicits a response again the xenogenic carbohydrate galactose alpha-1-3-galactose. J Clin Immunol 2000; 20: 434-44.
217. Su Z, Izumi T, Thames EH, et al. Antiphospholipid antibodies after surgical exposure to topical bovine thrombin. J Lab Clin Med 2002; 139: 349-56.
218. Neschis DG, Heyman MR, Cheanvechai V, et al. Coagulopathy as a result of factor V inhibitor after exposure to bovine topical thrombin. J Vasc Surg 2002; 35: 400-2.
219. Israels SJ, Israels ED. Development of antibodies to bovine and human factor V in two children after exposure to topical bovine thrombin. Am J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 1994; 16: 249-54.
220. Spero JA. Bovine thrombin-induced inhibitor of factor V and bleeding risk in postoperative neurosurgical patients. Report of three cases. J Neurosurg 1993; 78: 817-20.
221. Rapaport SI, Zivelin A, Minow RA, et al. Clinical significance of antibodies to bovine and human thrombin and factor V after surgical use of bovine thrombin. Am J Clin Pathol 1992; 97; 84-91.
222. Zehnder JL, Leung LL. Development of antibodies to thrombin and factor V with recurrent bleeding in a patient exposed to topical bovine thrombin. Blood 1990; 76: 2011-6.
223. Berruyer M, Amiral J, Ffrench P, et al. Immunization by bovine thrombin used with fibrin glue during cardiovascular operations. Development of thrombin and factor V inhibitors. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1993; 105: 892-7.
224. Kajitani M, Ozdemir A, Aguinaga M, et al. Severe hemorrhagic complication due to acquired factor V inhibitor after single exposure to bovine thrombin product. J Card Surg 2000; 15: 378-82.
225. Muntean W, Zenz W, Edlinger G, et al. (1997), Severe bleeding due to factor V inhibitor after repeated operations using fibrin sealant containing bovine thrombin. Thromb Haemost 1997; 77: 1223.
226. Cmolik BL, Spero JA, Magovern GJ, et al. Redo cardiac surgery: late bleeding complications from topical thrombin-induced factor V deficiency. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1993; 105: 222-7.
227. Flaherty MJ, Henderson R, Wener MH. Iatrogenic immunization with bovine thrombin: a mechanism for prolonged thrombin times after surgery. Ann Intern Med 1989; 111: 631-4.
228. Banninger H, Hardegger T, Tobler A, et al. Fibrin glue in surgery: frequent development of inhibitors of bovine thrombin and human factor V. Brit J Haematol 1993; 85: 528-32.
229. Cruickshank MK, Black J, Wall W. Development of a factor V and thrombin inhibitor following partial hepatic resection and the use of topical thrombin concentrate. Clin Lab Hematol 1994; 16: 187-90.
230. Muntean W, Zenz W, Finding K, et al. Inhibitor to factor V after exposure to fibrin sealant during cardiac surgery in a two-year-old child. Acta Paediatr 1994; 83: 84-7.
231. Chouhan VD, De La Cadena RA, Nagaswami C, et al. Simultaneous occurrence of human antibodies directed against fibrinogen, thrombin, and factor V following exposure to bovine thrombin: effects on blood coagulation, protein C activation and platelet function. Thromb Haemost 1997; 77: 343-9.
232. Dorion RP, Hamati HF, Landis B, et al. Risk and clinical significance of developing antibodies induced by topical thrombin preparations. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1998; 122: 887-94.
233. Christie RJ, Carrington L, Alving B. Postoperative bleeding induced by topical bovine thrombin: report of two cases. Surgery 1997; 121: 708-10.
234. Zumberg MS, Waples JM, Kao KJ, et al. Management of a patient with a mechanical aortic valve and antibodies to both thrombin and factor V after repeat exposure to fibrin sealant. Am J Hematol 2000; 64: 59-63.
235. 235, Tarantino MD, Ross MP, Daniels TM, et al. (1997), Modulation of an acquired factor V inhibitor with intravenous immune globulin. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 1997; 19: 226-31.
236. Nelson PA, Powers JN, Estridge TD, et al. Serological analysis of patients treated with a new surgical hemostat containing bovine proteins and autologous plasma. J Biomed Mater Res 2001; 58: 710-9.
237. Gershon SK, Chang AC, Purvis WV, et al. Misadministration of Topical Bovine Thrombin. JAMA 1999; 282: 1919.
238. Schoenecker JG, Johnson RK, Lesher AP, et al. (2001), Exposure of mice to topical bovine thrombin induces systemic autoimmunity Am J Pathol 2001; 159: 1957-69.
239. Zehnder JL, Leung LL. Immunological Consequences of Topical Bovine Thrombin. Am J Pathol 2001; 159: 2371.
240. Streiff MB, Ness PM. Acquired FV inhibitors: a needless iatrogenic complication of bovine thrombin exposure. Transfusion 2002; 42: 18-26.
241. Michaud SE, Wang LZ, Korde N, et al. Purification of salmon thrombin and its potential as an alternative to mammalian thrombins in fibrin sealants. Thromb Res 2002; 107: 245-54.