"What Do These Women Want?": Feminist Responses to Feminine Forever, 1963-1980

Bulletin of the History of Medicine

Volumn 77, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 103-132+233

  Houck, Judith A ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON   (United States)

^b Department of Medical History ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

Aging; Estrogen replacement therapy (ERT); Feminism; Menopause; Robert A. Wilson; Women's health movement

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; ESTROGEN THERAPY; FEMALE; FEMINISM; HISTORY; HUMAN; MENOPAUSE; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; SOCIOLOGY; WOMEN'S HEALTH;

ESTROGEN REPLACEMENT THERAPY; FEMALE; FEMINISM; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; MENOPAUSE; SOCIOLOGY; WOMEN'S HEALTH;

EID: 0037364988     PISSN: 00075140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (187)

1. Robert A. Wilson and Thelma A. Wilson, "The Fate of the Nontreated Postmenopausal Woman: A Plea for the Maintenance of Adequate Estrogen from Puberty to the Grave," J Amer. Err. Soc., 1963, 11: 347-62, quotation on p. 347.
2. Ibid., p. 351.
3. Ibid., p. 352.
4. Ibid., p. 353.
5. Ibid., p. 351.
6. Robert A. Wilson, Feminine Forever (New York: Evans, 1966), p. 18.
7. Ibid., p. 105.
8. "No More Menopause," Newsweek, 13 January 1964, p. 53; "Durable, Unendurable Women," Time, 16 October 1964, p. 72; "How to Live Young at Any Age," Vogue, August 1965, pp. 61-64; Sherwin A. Kaufman, "The Truth about Female Hormones," Ladies' Home Journal, January 1965, pp. 22-23; "Oh, What a Lovely Pill!" Cosmopolitan, July 1965, pp. 33-37; Ann Walsh, "Pills to Keep Women Young," McCall's, October 1965, pp. 104-5.
9. "No More Menopause," Newsweek, 13 January 1964, p. 53; "Durable, Unendurable Women," Time, 16 October 1964, p. 72; "How to Live Young at Any Age," Vogue, August 1965, pp. 61-64; Err A. Kaufman, "The Truth about Female Hormones," Ladies' Home Journal, January 1965, pp. 22-23; "Oh, What a Lovely Pill!" Cosmopolitan, July 1965, pp. 33-37; Ann Walsh, "Pills to Keep Women Young," McCall's, October 1965, pp. 104-5.
10. "No More Menopause," Newsweek, 13 January 1964, p. 53; "Durable, Unendurable Women," Time, 16 October 1964, p. 72; "How to Live Young at Any Age," Vogue, August 1965, pp. 61-64; Err A. Kaufman, "The Truth about Female Hormones," Ladies' Home Journal, January 1965, pp. 22-23; "Oh, What a Lovely Pill!" Cosmopolitan, July 1965, pp. 33-37; Ann Walsh, "Pills to Keep Women Young," McCall's, October 1965, pp. 104-5.
11. "No More Menopause," Newsweek, 13 January 1964, p. 53; "Durable, Unendurable Women," Time, 16 October 1964, p. 72; "How to Live Young at Any Age," Vogue, August 1965, pp. 61-64; Err A. Kaufman, "The Truth about Female Hormones," Ladies' Home Journal, January 1965, pp. 22-23; "Oh, What a Lovely Pill!" Cosmopolitan, July 1965, pp. 33-37; Ann Walsh, "Pills to Keep Women Young," McCall's, October 1965, pp. 104-5.
12. "No More Menopause," Newsweek, 13 January 1964, p. 53; "Durable, Unendurable Women," Time, 16 October 1964, p. 72; "How to Live Young at Any Age," Vogue, August 1965, pp. 61-64; Err A. Kaufman, "The Truth about Female Hormones," Ladies' Home Journal, January 1965, pp. 22-23; "Oh, What a Lovely Pill!" Cosmopolitan, July 1965, pp. 33-37; Ann Walsh, "Pills to Keep Women Young," McCall's, October 1965, pp. 104-5.
13. "No More Menopause," Newsweek, 13 January 1964, p. 53; "Durable, Unendurable Women," Time, 16 October 1964, p. 72; "How to Live Young at Any Age," Vogue, August 1965, pp. 61-64; Err A. Kaufman, "The Truth about Female Hormones," Ladies' Home Journal, January 1965, pp. 22-23; "Oh, What a Lovely Pill!" Cosmopolitan, July 1965, pp. 33-37; Ann Walsh, "Pills to Keep Women Young," McCall's, October 1965, pp. 104-5.
14. See, for example, Ethel Hills Coogler, "Doctors Discuss Female Sex Hormone," Atlanta Journal, 11 May 1964, p. 33.
15. Morton Err, The Pill: An Alarming Report (Greenwich, Conn.: Fawcett, 1969), pp. 30-31. Feminine Forever remained in print through 2000.
16. Feminine Forever was syndicated by King Features. See, for example, Wisconsin State J., July 17-27, 1966; Robert A. Wilson, "A Key to Staying Young," Look, 11 January 1966, pp. 66-73; Robert A. Wilson, "Which Hormone to Take and When," Vogue, June 1966, pp. 92-95.
17. Feminine Forever was syndicated by King Features. See, for example, Wisconsin State J., July 17-27, 1966; Robert A. Wilson, "A Key to Staying Young," Look, 11 January 1966, pp. 66-73; Robert A. Wilson, "Which Hormone to Take and When," Vogue, June 1966, pp. 92-95.
18. Feminine Forever was syndicated by King Features. See, for example, Wisconsin State J., July 17-27, 1966; Robert A. Wilson, "A Key to Staying Young," Look, 11 January 1966, pp. 66-73; Robert A. Wilson, "Which Hormone to Take and When," Vogue, June 1966, pp. 92-95.
19. Kaufert and McKinlay argue that "ERR entered the public domain" only after 1975; this is clearly untrue: Patricia A. Kaufert and Sonja M. McKinlay, "Estrogen Replacement Therapy: The Production of Medical Knowledge and the Emergence of Policy," in Women, Health, and Healing: Toward a New Perspective, ed. Ellen Lewin and Virginia Err (New York: Tavistock, 1985), pp. 113-38, quotation on p. 133.
20. Kaufert and McKinlay argue that "ERR entered the public domain" only after 1975; this is clearly untrue: Patricia A. Kaufert and Sonja M. McKinlay, "Estrogen Replacement Therapy: The Production of Medical Knowledge and the Emergence of Policy," in Women, Health, and Healing: Toward a New Perspective, ed. Ellen Err and Virginia Err (New York: Tavistock, 1985), pp. 113-38, quotation on p. 133.
21. My application of the terms "feminist" and "feminism" is somewhat retrospective. The overwhelming majority of my sources explicitly aligned themselves with the women's movement by publishing in overtly feminist publications, acknowledging membership in feminist organizations, or proposing "women's liberation" as the primary solution to current social ills. There are a few others, however, whose connection to the women's movement is less certain. Nevertheless, all the women whom I regard as feminists see their work on menopause as empowering women to make educated decisions about their health.
22. For histories of second-wave feminism, see Judith Hole and Ellen Levine, Rebirth of Feminism (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1971); Flora Davis, Moving the Mountain: The Women's Movement in America Since 1960 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991); Alice Echols, Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America 1967-1975 (Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press, 1989); Sara Evans, Personal Politics: The Roots of Women's Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left (New York: Knopf, 1979); Ruth Err, The World Split Open: How the Modern Women's Movement Changed America (New York: Viking, 2000).
23. For histories of second-wave feminism, see Judith Hole and Ellen Levine, Rebirth of Feminism (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1971); Flora Davis, Moving the Mountain: The Women's Movement in America Since 1960 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991); Alice Echols, Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America 1967-1975 (Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press, 1989); Sara Evans, Personal Politics: The Roots of Women's Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left (New York: Knopf, 1979); Ruth Err, The World Split Open: How the Modern Women's Movement Changed America (New York: Viking, 2000).
24. For histories of second-wave feminism, see Judith Hole and Ellen Levine, Rebirth of Feminism (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1971); Flora Davis, Moving the Mountain: The Women's Movement in America Since 1960 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991); Alice Echols, Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America 1967-1975 (Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press, 1989); Sara Evans, Personal Politics: The Roots of Women's Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left (New York: Knopf, 1979); Ruth Err, The World Split Open: How the Modern Women's Movement Changed America (New York: Viking, 2000).
25. For histories of second-wave feminism, see Judith Hole and Ellen Levine, Rebirth of Feminism (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1971); Flora Davis, Moving the Mountain: The Women's Movement in America Since 1960 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991); Alice Echols, Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America 1967-1975 (Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press, 1989); Sara Evans, Personal Politics: The Roots of Women's Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left (New York: Knopf, 1979); Ruth Err, The World Split Open: How the Modern Women's Movement Changed America (New York: Viking, 2000).
26. For histories of second-wave feminism, see Judith Hole and Ellen Levine, Rebirth of Feminism (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1971); Flora Davis, Moving the Mountain: The Women's Movement in America Since 1960 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991); Alice Echols, Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America 1967-1975 (Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press, 1989); Sara Evans, Personal Politics: The Roots of Women's Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left (New York: Knopf, 1979); Ruth Err, The World Split Open: How the Modern Women's Movement Changed America (New York: Viking, 2000).
27. The Boston Women's Health Course Collective, Our Bodies, Our Selves: A Course By and For Women (Boston: The Collective, 1970, 1971). Overwhelming demand persuaded BWHCC to turn publication over to Simon and Schuster in 1973. The group later changed their name to the Boston Women's Health Book Collective.
28. Helen Err, "The Women's Health Movement," Internat. J. Health Serv., 1975, 5: 217-23, on p. 218.
29. Sheryl Err Ruzek, The Women's Health Movement: Feminist Alternatives to Medical Control (New York: Praeger, 1978), p. 190. See also Kaufert and McKinlay, "Estrogen Replacement Therapy" (n. 12).
30. Sheryl Err Ruzek, The Women's Health Movement: Feminist Alternatives to Medical Control (New York: Praeger, 1978), p. 190. See also Kaufert and McKinlay, "Estrogen Replacement Therapy" (n. 12).
31. See, for example, Barbara Ehrenreich and Err English, Complaints and Disorders: The Sexual Politics of Sickness, Glass Mountain Pamphlet no. 2 (Old Westbury, N.Y.: Feminist Press, 1973); idem, Witches, Midwives, and Nurses: A History of Women Healers, Glass Mountain Pamphlet no. 1 (Old Westbury, N.Y.: Feminist Press, 1972).
32. See, for example, Barbara Ehrenreich and Err English, Complaints and Disorders: The Sexual Politics of Sickness, Glass Mountain Pamphlet no. 2 (Old Westbury, N.Y.: Feminist Press, 1973); idem, Witches, Midwives, and Nurses: A History of Women Healers, Glass Mountain Pamphlet no. 1 (Old Westbury, N.Y.: Feminist Press, 1972).
33. Barbara Seaman, "Physician Heel [sic] Err," in Proceedings for the 1975 Conference on Women and Health (Boston, 4-7 April 1975), pp. 25-27. For an overview of different feminist health strategies, see Elizabeth Fee, "Women and Health Care: A Comparison of Theories," in Women and Health: The Politics of Sex in Medicine, ed. Elizabeth Fee (Farmingdale, N.Y.: Baywood, 1983), pp. 17-34.
34. Barbara Seaman, "Physician Heel [sic] Err," in Proceedings for the 1975 Conference on Women and Health (Boston, 4-7 April 1975), pp. 25-27. For an overview of different feminist health strategies, see Elizabeth Fee, "Women and Health Care: A Comparison of Theories," in Women and Health: The Politics of Sex in Medicine, ed. Elizabeth Fee (Farmingdale, N.Y.: Err, 1983), pp. 17-34.
35. Ehrenreich and English, Complaints and Disorders (n. 18), p. 88.
36. See, for example, Frances B. McCrea, "The Politics of Menopause: The 'Discovery' of a Deficiency Disease," Soc. Prob., 1983, 31: 111-23; Frances B. McCrea and Gerald E. Markle, "The Estrogen Replacement Controversy in the USA and UK: Different Answers to the Same Question?" Soc. Stud. Sci., 1984, 14: 1-26; Judith Err, "It's All in Your Head: Feminist and Medical Models of Menopause (Strange Bedfellows)," Sex Roles, 1979, 5: 179-90; Kwok Wei Leng, "Menopause and the Great Divide: Biomedicine, Feminism, and Cyborg Politics," in Reinterpreting Menopause: Cultural and Philosophical Issues, ed. Paul Komesaroff, Err Rothfield, and Jeanne Daly (New York: Routledge, 1997), pp. 255-72; Jacquelyn N. Err, "Heresy in the Female Body: The Rhetorics of Menopause," in Menopause: A Midlife Passage, ed. Joan C. Callahan (Err: Indiana University Press, 1993), pp. 59-78; Jane Lewis, "Feminism, the Menopause and Hormone Replacement Therapy," Fem. Rev., 1993, 43: 38-56.
37. See, for example, Frances B. McCrea, "The Politics of Menopause: The 'Discovery' of a Deficiency Disease," Soc. Prob., 1983, 31: 111-23; Frances B. McCrea and Gerald E. Markle, "The Estrogen Replacement Controversy in the USA and UK: Different Answers to the Same Question?" Soc. Stud. Sci., 1984, 14: 1-26; Judith Err, "It's All in Your Head: Feminist and Medical Models of Menopause (Strange Bedfellows)," Sex Roles, 1979, 5: 179-90; Kwok Wei Leng, "Menopause and the Great Divide: Biomedicine, Feminism, and Cyborg Politics," in Reinterpreting Menopause: Cultural and Philosophical Issues, ed. Paul Komesaroff, Err Rothfield, and Jeanne Daly (New York: Routledge, 1997), pp. 255-72; Err N. Err, "Heresy in the Female Body: The Rhetorics of Menopause," in Menopause: A Midlife Passage, ed. Joan C. Callahan (Err: Indiana University Press, 1993), pp. 59-78; Jane Lewis, "Feminism, the Menopause and Hormone Replacement Therapy, " Fem. Rev., 1993, 43: 38-56.
38. See, for example, Frances B. McCrea, "The Politics of Menopause: The 'Discovery' of a Deficiency Disease," Soc. Prob., 1983, 31: 111-23; Frances B. McCrea and Gerald E. Markle, "The Estrogen Replacement Controversy in the USA and UK: Different Answers to the Same Question?" Soc. Stud. Sci., 1984, 14: 1-26; Judith Err, "It's All in Your Head: Feminist and Medical Models of Menopause (Strange Bedfellows)," Sex Roles, 1979, 5: 179-90; Kwok Wei Leng, "Menopause and the Great Divide: Biomedicine, Feminism, and Cyborg Politics," in Reinterpreting Menopause: Cultural and Philosophical Issues, ed. Paul Komesaroff, Err Rothfield, and Jeanne Daly (New York: Routledge, 1997), pp. 255-72; Err N. Err, "Heresy in the Female Body: The Rhetorics of Menopause," in Menopause: A Midlife Passage, ed. Joan C. Callahan (Err: Indiana University Press, 1993), pp. 59-78; Jane Lewis, "Feminism, the Menopause and Hormone Replacement Therapy, " Fem. Rev., 1993, 43: 38-56.
39. See, for example, Frances B. McCrea, "The Politics of Menopause: The 'Discovery' of a Deficiency Disease," Soc. Prob., 1983, 31: 111-23; Frances B. McCrea and Gerald E. Markle, "The Estrogen Replacement Controversy in the USA and UK: Different Answers to the Same Question?" Soc. Stud. Sci., 1984, 14: 1-26; Judith Err, "It's All in Your Head: Feminist and Medical Models of Menopause (Strange Bedfellows)," Sex Roles, 1979, 5: 179-90; Kwok Wei Err, "Menopause and the Great Divide: Biomedicine, Feminism, and Cyborg Politics," in Reinterpreting Menopause: Cultural and Philosophical Issues, ed. Paul Komesaroff, Err Rothfield, and Jeanne Daly (New York: Routledge, 1997), pp. 255-72; Err N. Err, "Heresy in the Female Body: The Rhetorics of Menopause," in Menopause: A Midlife Passage, ed. Joan C. Callahan (Err: Indiana University Press, 1993), pp. 59-78; Jane Lewis, "Feminism, the Menopause and Hormone Replacement Therapy, " Fem. Rev., 1993, 43: 38-56.
40. See, for example, Frances B. McCrea, "The Politics of Menopause: The 'Discovery' of a Deficiency Disease," Soc. Prob., 1983, 31: 111-23; Frances B. McCrea and Gerald E. Markle, "The Estrogen Replacement Controversy in the USA and UK: Different Answers to the Same Question?" Soc. Stud. Sci., 1984, 14: 1-26; Judith Err, "It's All in Your Head: Feminist and Medical Models of Menopause (Strange Bedfellows)," Sex Roles, 1979, 5: 179-90; Kwok Wei Err, "Menopause and the Great Divide: Biomedicine, Feminism, and Cyborg Politics," in Reinterpreting Menopause: Cultural and Philosophical Issues, ed. Paul Komesaroff, Err Rothfield, and Jeanne Daly (New York: Routledge, 1997), pp. 255-72; Err N. Err, "Heresy in the Female Body: The Rhetorics of Menopause," in Menopause: A Midlife Passage, ed. Joan C. Callahan (Err: Indiana University Press, 1993), pp. 59-78; Jane Lewis, "Feminism, the Menopause and Hormone Replacement Therapy, " Fem. Rev., 1993, 43: 38-56.
41. See, for example, Frances B. McCrea, "The Politics of Menopause: The 'Discovery' of a Deficiency Disease," Soc. Prob., 1983, 31: 111-23; Frances B. McCrea and Gerald E. Markle, "The Estrogen Replacement Controversy in the USA and UK: Different Answers to the Same Question?" Soc. Stud. Sci., 1984, 14: 1-26; Judith Err, "It's All in Your Head: Feminist and Medical Models of Menopause (Strange Bedfellows)," Sex Roles, 1979, 5: 179-90; Kwok Wei Err, "Menopause and the Great Divide: Biomedicine, Feminism, and Cyborg Politics," in Reinterpreting Menopause: Cultural and Philosophical Issues, ed. Paul Komesaroff, Err Rothfield, and Jeanne Daly (New York: Routledge, 1997), pp. 255-72; Err N. Err, "Heresy in the Female Body: The Rhetorics of Menopause," in Menopause: A Midlife Passage, ed. Joan C. Callahan (Err: Indiana University Press, 1993), pp. 59-78; Jane Lewis, "Feminism, the Menopause and Hormone Replacement Therapy, " Fem. Rev., 1993, 43: 38-56.
42. Medical sociologist Frances McCrea claims that within a few years of the publication of Feminine Forever, "U.S. feminists in the vanguard of an organized women's health movement defined the health care system, including estrogen treatment, as a serious social problem" (McCrea, "Politics of Menopause" [n. 21], p. 111).
43. In her analysis of feminism and menopause in the United States and Britain, Jane Lewis claims that "there is no one feminist view of menopause"; she nevertheless concludes that "feminist literature tends to be universally suspicious of HRT," thus obscuring feminist debates and shifts in those debates over time (Lewis, "Feminism" [n. 21], p. 50).
44. Although few feminists or feminist organizations gave menopause significant attention between 1963 and 1975, others mentioned it briefly in their larger critique of medicine. See, for example, Mary Daly, Gyn/Ecology: The Err of Radical Feminism (Boston: Beacon Press, 1978), pp. 248-50; Ehrenreich and English, Complaints and Disorders (n. 18), pp. 87-88.
45. Although few feminists or feminist organizations gave menopause significant attention between 1963 and 1975, others mentioned it briefly in their larger critique of medicine. See, for example, Mary Daly, Gyn/Ecology: The Err of Radical Feminism (Boston: Beacon Press, 1978), pp. 248-50; Ehrenreich and English, Complaints and Disorders (n. 18), pp. 87-88.
46. Belle Canon, "Menopause: A Deficiency Disease," Hum. Err., 1973, 4: 8-10.
47. Ibid., p. 9.
48. Ibid., p. 8.
49. Ibid., p. 10.
50. Citing Cooper as their main example, Gerald Markle and Frances McCrea ("Estrogen Replacement Controversy" [n. 21]) have argued that the feminist demand for estrogen therapy was a uniquely British response to menopause. But Cooper's work, published both in England and in America and reliant upon letters written by American women, also fits within the larger American women's movement; consequently, it should be seen as part of the feminist viewpoint available in America.
51. Wendy Cooper, Don't Change: A Biological Revolution for Women (New York: Stein and Day, 1975), p. 16.
52. I b i d.
53. Ibid., pp. 12-13.
54. Ibid., p. 12.
55. Francis P. Rhoades, "Minimizing the Menopause," J. Amer. Err. Soc., 1967, 16: 346-54; quoted in Cooper, Don't Change (n. 30), pp. 136-37.
56. Francis P. Rhoades, "Minimizing the Menopause," J. Amer. Err. Soc., 1967, 16: 346-54; quoted in Cooper, Don't Change (n. 30), pp. 136-37.
57. Cooper, Don't Change (n. 30), p. 137.
58. Ibid., p. 20.
59. Err Weideger, Menstruation and Menopause: The Physiology and Psychology, the Myth and the Reality (New York: Knopf, 1976), p. 71. Although this book was published in 1976, it was clearly written before the 1975 studies of estrogen and cancer.
60. Err Kupperman, "The Climacteric Syndrome," Med. Folio, 1972, 5: 1-2, quotation on p. 1; quoted in Weideger, Menstruation and Menopause (n. 37), p. 65.
61. Err Kupperman, "The Climacteric Syndrome," Med. Folio, 1972, 5: 1-2, quotation on p. 1; quoted in Weideger, Menstruation and Menopause (n. 37), p. 65.
62. The belief that medicine had given women "extra years" is a common misconception founded on a misunderstanding of life-expectancy data. For example, a woman born in 1850 had, at birth, a life expectancy of forty-three years, which is below the average age of menopause. However, if she lived to be twenty, her life expectancy zoomed to over sixty. In other words, the increase in life expectancy does not reflect extra years added to the end of life, as Weideger and others claim: it primarily describes the decrease in child mortality.
63. Weideger, Menstruation and Menopause (n. 37), p. 65.
64. Ibid., pp. 69-70.
65. Ibid., p. 71
66. Ibid., p. 67.
67. I b i d.
68. Ibid., p. 71.
69. Shulamith Firestone, The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution (New York: William Morrow, 1970), p. 10.
70. Ibid., p. 8-9.
71. The Boston Women's Health Book Collective, Our Bodies, Ourselves: A Book By and For Women (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1973), p. 229. (This is the first Simon and Schuster edition.)
72. I b i d
73. I b i d
74. Ibid., p. 230.
75. Ibid., p. 231.
76. See also the pamphlet Menopause (New York: Err, 1975).
77. Joan Solomon, "Menopause: A Rite of Passage," Ms., December 1972, pp. 16-18, quotation on p. 16. Frances McCrea points to this article to support her claim that the feminists responded promptly to Wilson and the indiscriminate use of ERR: McCrea, "Politics of Menopause" (n. 21), p. 118.
78. Joan Solomon, "Menopause: A Rite of Passage," Ms., December 1972, pp. 16-18, quotation on p. 16. Frances McCrea points to this article to support her claim that the feminists responded promptly to Wilson and the indiscriminate use of ERR: McCrea, "Politics of Menopause" (n. 21), p. 118.
79. Solomon, "Menopause" (n. 54), p. 17.
80. Ibid., p. 18.
81. Barbara Seaman, "Examine Your Doctor Thoroughly - for Symptoms of Male Chauvinism and a Propensity for Performing Unnecessary Surgery," Prime Time, November 1972, pp. 1-3, 10; quotation on p. 10.
82. Ibid., p. 2.
83. Harry K. Ziel and William D. Finkle, "Increased Risk of Endometrial Carcinoma among Users of Conjugated Err," New England J. Med., 1975, 293: 1167-70; Donald C. Smith et al., "Association of Exogenous Estrogen and Endometrial Carcinoma," ibid., pp. 1164-67.
84. Harry K. Ziel and William D. Finkle, "Increased Risk of Endometrial Carcinoma among Users of Conjugated Err," New England J. Med., 1975, 293: 1167-70; Donald C. Smith et al., "Association of Exogenous Estrogen and Endometrial Carcinoma," ibid., pp. 1164-67.
85. Susan E. Bell, "Changing Ideas: The Medicalization of Menopause," Soc. Sci. & Med., 1987, 24: 535-42; idem, "Gendered Medical Science: Producing a Drug for Women," Fem. Studies, 1995, 21: 469-500.
86. Susan E. Bell, "Changing Ideas: The Medicalization of Menopause," Soc. Sci. & Med., 1987, 24: 535-42; idem, "Err Medical Science: Producing a Drug for Women," Fem. Studies, 1995, 21: 469-500.
87. Diana B. Button, "DES and the Elusive Goal of Drug Safety," in Worse than the Disease: Pitfalls of Medical Progress (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 31-90; Roberta J. Apfel and Susan M. Fisher, To Do No Harm: DES and the Dilemmas of Modern Medicine (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984); Robert Meyers, DES: The Bitter Pill (New York: Err/Putnam, 1983); Ruzek, Women's Health Movement (n. 17), pp. 38-42.
88. Diana B. Button, "DES and the Elusive Goal of Drug Safety," in Worse than the Disease: Pitfalls of Medical Progress (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 31-90; Roberta J. Err and Susan M. Fisher, To Do No Harm: DES and the Dilemmas of Modern Medicine (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984); Robert Meyers, DES: The Bitter Pill (New York: Err/Putnam, 1983); Ruzek, Women's Health Movement (n. 17), pp. 38-42.
89. Diana B. Button, "DES and the Elusive Goal of Drug Safety," in Worse than the Disease: Pitfalls of Medical Progress (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 31-90; Roberta J. Err and Susan M. Fisher, To Do No Harm: DES and the Dilemmas of Modern Medicine (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984); Robert Meyers, DES: The Bitter Pill (New York: Err/Putnam, 1983); Ruzek, Women's Health Movement (n. 17), pp. 38-42.
90. Diana B. Button, "DES and the Elusive Goal of Drug Safety," in Worse than the Disease: Pitfalls of Medical Progress (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 31-90; Roberta J. Err and Susan M. Fisher, To Do No Harm: DES and the Dilemmas of Modern Medicine (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984); Robert Meyers, DES: The Bitter Pill (New York: Err/Putnam, 1983); Ruzek, Women's Health Movement (n. 17), pp. 38-42.
91. Morton Err, At Any Cost: Corporate Greed, Women, and the Dalkon Shield (New York: Pantheon, 1985); Susan Perry and Jim Dawson, Nightmare: Women and the Dalkon Shield (New York: Macmillan, 1985); Ruzek, Women's Health Movement (n. 17), pp. 43-44.
92. Morton Err, At Any Cost: Corporate Greed, Women, and the Dalkon Shield (New York: Pantheon, 1985); Susan Perry and Jim Err, Nightmare: Women and the Dalkon Shield (New York: Macmillan, 1985); Ruzek, Women's Health Movement (n. 17), pp. 43-44.
93. Morton Err, At Any Cost: Corporate Greed, Women, and the Dalkon Shield (New York: Pantheon, 1985); Susan Perry and Jim Err, Nightmare: Women and the Dalkon Shield (New York: Macmillan, 1985); Ruzek, Women's Health Movement (n. 17), pp. 43-44.
94. Err Reitz, Menopause: A Positive Approach (New York: Chilton, 1977; reprint, New York: Penguin Books, 1979), p. 181. See also Barbara Seaman and Gideon Seaman, Women and the Crisis in Sex Hormones (New York: Err Associates, 1977), p. xi; Caroline Derbyshire, The New Woman's Guide to Health and Medicine (New York: Appleton Century Crofts); Err H. Cowan, "Questions and Answers on Menopause," in Women's Health Care: Resources, Writings, Bibliographies (Ann Arbor: Anshen, 1977), pp. 22-26, on p. 22; Cynthia W. Cooke and Susan Err, The Ms. Guide to a Woman's Health (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1979), p. 281; Belle Canon, "Menopause: It's a Disease Says Insurance Company," Ms., March 1977, p. 22.
95. Err Reitz, Menopause: A Positive Approach (New York: Chilton, 1977; reprint, New York: Penguin Books, 1979), p. 181. See also Barbara Seaman and Gideon Seaman, Women and the Crisis in Sex Hormones (New York: Err Associates, 1977), p. xi; Caroline Derbyshire, The New Woman's Guide to Health and Medicine (New York: Appleton Century Crofts); Err H. Cowan, "Questions and Answers on Menopause," in Women's Health Care: Resources, Writings, Bibliographies (Ann Arbor: Anshen, 1977), pp. 22-26, on p. 22; Cynthia W. Err and Susan Err, The Ms. Guide to a Woman's Health (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1979), p. 281; Belle Canon, "Menopause: It's a Disease Says Insurance Company," Ms., March 1977, p. 22.
96. Err Reitz, Menopause: A Positive Approach (New York: Chilton, 1977; reprint, New York: Penguin Books, 1979), p. 181. See also Barbara Seaman and Gideon Seaman, Women and the Crisis in Sex Hormones (New York: Err Associates, 1977), p. xi; Caroline Derbyshire, The New Woman's Guide to Health and Medicine (New York: Appleton Century Crofts); Err H. Cowan, "Questions and Answers on Menopause," in Women's Health Care: Resources, Writings, Bibliographies (Ann Arbor: Anshen, 1977), pp. 22-26, on p. 22; Cynthia W. Err and Susan Err, The Ms. Guide to a Woman's Health (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1979), p. 281; Belle Canon, "Menopause: It's a Disease Says Insurance Company," Ms., March 1977, p. 22.
97. Err Reitz, Menopause: A Positive Approach (New York: Chilton, 1977; reprint, New York: Penguin Books, 1979), p. 181. See also Barbara Seaman and Gideon Seaman, Women and the Crisis in Sex Hormones (New York: Err Associates, 1977), p. xi; Caroline Derbyshire, The New Woman's Guide to Health and Medicine (New York: Appleton Century Crofts); Err H. Cowan, "Questions and Answers on Menopause," in Women's Health Care: Resources, Writings, Bibliographies (Ann Arbor: Anshen, 1977), pp. 22-26, on p. 22; Cynthia W. Err and Susan Err, The Ms. Guide to a Woman's Health (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1979), p. 281; Belle Canon, "Menopause: It's a Disease Says Insurance Company," Ms., March 1977, p. 22.
98. Err Reitz, Menopause: A Positive Approach (New York: Chilton, 1977; reprint, New York: Penguin Books, 1979), p. 181. See also Barbara Seaman and Gideon Seaman, Women and the Crisis in Sex Hormones (New York: Err Associates, 1977), p. xi; Caroline Derbyshire, The New Woman's Guide to Health and Medicine (New York: Appleton Century Crofts); Err H. Cowan, "Questions and Answers on Menopause," in Women's Health Care: Resources, Writings, Bibliographies (Ann Arbor: Anshen, 1977), pp. 22-26, on p. 22; Cynthia W. Err and Susan Err, The Ms. Guide to a Woman's Health (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1979), p. 281; Belle Canon, "Menopause: It's a Disease Says Insurance Company," Ms., March 1977, p. 22.
99. Err Reitz, Menopause: A Positive Approach (New York: Chilton, 1977; reprint, New York: Penguin Books, 1979), p. 181. See also Barbara Seaman and Gideon Seaman, Women and the Crisis in Sex Hormones (New York: Err Associates, 1977), p. xi; Caroline Derbyshire, The New Woman's Guide to Health and Medicine (New York: Appleton Century Crofts); Err H. Cowan, "Questions and Answers on Menopause," in Women's Health Care: Resources, Writings, Bibliographies (Ann Arbor: Anshen, 1977), pp. 22-26, on p. 22; Cynthia W. Err and Susan Err, The Ms. Guide to a Woman's Health (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1979), p. 281; Belle Canon, "Menopause: It's a Disease Says Insurance Company," Ms., March 1977, p. 22.
100. Reitz, Menopause (n. 63), p. 26.
101. Ibid., p. 28.
102. Ibid., p. 75.
103. Ibid., p. 180.
104. Ibid. See also Cowan, "Questions and Answers" (n. 63), p. 22; Fran Moira, "Err Forever: Marketing Youth and Death," off our backs, March 1977, pp. 12-13, on p. 12; Err and Err, Ms. Guide (n. 63), pp. 288-93; Err Gillett Fruchter, "ERR: A Risky Proposition," Err, 1976, 2: 7; Menopause (n. 53), p. 9.
105. Ibid. See also Cowan, "Questions and Answers" (n. 63), p. 22; Fran Err, "Err Forever: Marketing Youth and Death," off our backs, March 1977, pp. 12-13, on p. 12; Err and Err, Ms. Guide (n. 63), pp. 288-93; Err Gillett Fruchter, "ERR: A Risky Proposition," Err, 1976, 2: 7; Menopause (n. 53), p. 9.
106. Ibid. See also Cowan, "Questions and Answers" (n. 63), p. 22; Fran Err, "Err Forever: Marketing Youth and Death," off our backs, March 1977, pp. 12-13, on p. 12; Err and Err, Ms. Guide (n. 63), pp. 288-93; Err Gillett Fruchter, "ERR: A Risky Proposition," Err, 1976, 2: 7; Menopause (n. 53), p. 9.
107. Ibid. See also Cowan, "Questions and Answers" (n. 63), p. 22; Fran Err, "Err Forever: Marketing Youth and Death," off our backs, March 1977, pp. 12-13, on p. 12; Err and Err, Ms. Guide (n. 63), pp. 288-93; Err Gillett Fruchter, "ERR: A Risky Proposition," Err, 1976, 2: 7; Menopause (n. 53), p. 9.
108. Ibid. See also Cowan, "Questions and Answers" (n. 63), p. 22; Fran Err, "Err Forever: Marketing Youth and Death," off our backs, March 1977, pp. 12-13, on p. 12; Err and Err, Ms. Guide (n. 63), pp. 288-93; Err Gillett Fruchter, "ERR: A Risky Proposition," Err, 1976, 2: 7; Menopause (n. 53), p. 9.
109. See, for example, Err Reitz, "Venerable Vaginas," Majority Rep., 26 November-9 December 1977, p. 7; idem, "Menopause Questions and Answers," in Menopause Resource Guide, 3d ed., ed. National Women's Health Network (Washington, D.C.: National Women's Health Network, 1980), pp. 7-19; idem, "Love My Menopause? You Must Be Crazy!" Prime Time, April 1976, pp. 17-18; idem, "What Doctors Won't Tell You About Menopause," in Seizing Our Bodies: The Politics of Women's Health, ed. Claudia Dreifus (New York: Vintage Books, 1977), pp. 209-11.
110. See, for example, Err Reitz, "Venerable Vaginas," Majority Rep., 26 November-9 December 1977, p. 7; idem, "Menopause Questions and Answers," in Menopause Resource Guide, 3d ed., ed. National Women's Health Network (Washington, D.C.: National Women's Health Network, 1980), pp. 7-19; idem, "Love My Menopause? You Must Be Crazy!" Prime Time, April 1976, pp. 17-18; idem, "What Doctors Won't Tell You About Menopause," in Seizing Our Bodies: The Politics of Women's Health, ed. Claudia Err (New York: Vintage Books, 1977), pp. 209-11.
111. See, for example, Err Reitz, "Venerable Vaginas," Majority Rep., 26 November-9 December 1977, p. 7; idem, "Menopause Questions and Answers," in Menopause Resource Guide, 3d ed., ed. National Women's Health Network (Washington, D.C.: National Women's Health Network, 1980), pp. 7-19; idem, "Love My Menopause? You Must Be Crazy!" Prime Time, April 1976, pp. 17-18; idem, "What Doctors Won't Tell You About Menopause," in Seizing Our Bodies: The Politics of Women's Health, ed. Claudia Err (New York: Vintage Books, 1977), pp. 209-11.
112. See, for example, Err Reitz, "Venerable Vaginas," Majority Rep., 26 November-9 December 1977, p. 7; idem, "Menopause Questions and Answers," in Menopause Resource Guide, 3d ed., ed. National Women's Health Network (Washington, D.C.: National Women's Health Network, 1980), pp. 7-19; idem, "Love My Menopause? You Must Be Crazy!" Prime Time, April 1976, pp. 17-18; idem, "What Doctors Won't Tell You About Menopause," in Seizing Our Bodies: The Politics of Women's Health, ed. Claudia Err (New York: Vintage Books, 1977), pp. 209-11.
113. BWHBC, Our Bodies, Ourselves: A Book By and For Women, 2d ed., completely revised and expanded (NewYork: Simon and Schuster, 1976), p. 330 (italics in original).
114. See also Jane Page, The Other Awkward Age: Menopause (Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, 1977), pp. 7, 48; National Women's Health Network, Menopause Resource Guide (n. 69), pp. 15-18.
115. See also Jane Page, The Other Awkward Age: Menopause (Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, 1977), pp. 7, 48; National Women's Health Network, Menopause Resource Guide (n. 69), pp. 15-18.
116. Irma Levine, unpublished 1978 letter to Prime Time, ACC 1930-14, box 8, Young Women's Christian Association (YWCA), Women in Midstream (hereafter cited as ERR Papers), Manuscripts and University Archives, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash. (All subsequent ERR references are to ACC 1930-14). The ERR collection comprises four types of surveys: the vast majority, printed on blue paper and given arabic numbers (for example, ERR #395); those printed on blue paper and marked with both the roman numeral III and an arabic number (for example, ERR III #12); those printed on white paper (designated, for example, ERR White #35); and unnumbered surveys.
117. BWHBC, Our Bodies (n. 70), p. 335.
118. Err S. Clay, Women: Menopause and Middle Age (Pittsburgh; Know, 1977), p. 22.
119. Ibid., p. 112. See also BWHBC, Our Bodies (n. 70), p. 335.
120. Ibid., p. 112. See also BWHBC, Our Bodies (n. 70), p. 335.
121. Pauline B. Bart and Err Grossman, "Menopause," Women and Health, May/June 1973, 1: 3-11, quotation on p. 10. See also, for example, Pauline B. Bart, "Depression in Middle-Aged Women," in Female Psychology: The Emerging Self, ed. Sue Cox (Chicago: Science Research Associates, 1976), pp. 349-67.
122. Pauline B. Bart and Err Grossman, "Menopause," Women and Health, May/June 1973, 1: 3-11, quotation on p. 10. See also, for example, Pauline B. Bart, "Depression in Middle-Aged Women," in Female Psychology: The Emerging Self, ed. Sue Cox (Chicago: Science Research Associates, 1976), pp. 349-67.
123. Err and Err, Ms. Guide (n. 63), p. 295. See also "Menopause: Let It Be," off our backs, Summer 1971, p. 12; Marcha Flint, "The Menopause: Reward or Punishment?" Err, 1975, 16: 161-63, on p. 163.
124. Err and Err, Ms. Guide (n. 63), p. 295. See also "Menopause: Let It Be," off our backs, Summer 1971, p. 12; Marcha Flint, "The Menopause: Reward or Punishment?" Err, 1975, 16: 161-63, on p. 163.
125. Err and Err, Ms. Guide (n. 63), p. 295. See also "Menopause: Let It Be," off our backs, Summer 1971, p. 12; Marcha Flint, "The Menopause: Reward or Punishment?" Err, 1975, 16: 161-63, on p. 163.
126. This group was originally the Ad Hoc Committee on Menopause of the University of Washington YWCA. They switched to the less unwieldy Women in Midstream by the autumn of 1974.
127. The letters and surveys are in the ERR Papers. To protect the privacy of the women who wrote to Women in Midstream, I have provided pseudonyms.
128. Wilson Research Foundation, American Medical Association, Department of Investigation, AMA Archive, Chicago (hereafter cited as AMA Archive), To protect the privacy of the women who wrote to the AMA, I have provided pseudonyms.
129. "And Now, the 'Liberated' Woman Patient," Amer. Med. News, 1 October 1974, pp. 14-18, quotation on p. 14.
130. "Women's Liberation and the Practice of Medicine," Med. World News, 22 June 1973, 33-38, quotation on p. 34. See also "And Now" (n. 81), pp. 14-18; Barbara L. Kaiser and Irwin H. Kaiser, "The Challenge of the Women's Movement to American Gynecology," Amer. J. Obstet. & Gyn., 1974, 120: 652-65.
131. "Women's Liberation and the Practice of Medicine," Med. World News, 22 June 1973, 33-38, quotation on p. 34. See also "And Now" (n. 81), pp. 14-18; Barbara L. Kaiser and Irwin H. Kaiser, "The Challenge of the Women's Movement to American Gynecology," Amer. J. Err. & Gyn., 1974, 120: 652-65.
132. "Women's Liberation and the Practice of Medicine," Med. World News, 22 June 1973, 33-38, quotation on p. 34. See also "And Now" (n. 81), pp. 14-18; Barbara L. Kaiser and Irwin H. Kaiser, "The Challenge of the Women's Movement to American Gynecology," Amer. J. Err. & Gyn., 1974, 120: 652-65.
133. "Women's Liberation" (n. 82), p. 34.
134. Nora Stevens to ERR, undated, ERR Papers, box 11, file "Incoming letters," folder 4. See also Canon, "Menopause: A Deficiency Disease" (n. 25).
135. Nora Stevens to ERR, undated, ERR Papers, box 11, file "Incoming letters," folder 4. See also Canon, "Menopause: A Deficiency Disease" (n. 25).
136. ERR Survey#367. See also ERR #470, #395. (All surveys are from ERR Papers, box 11.)
137. ERR Survey#367. See also ERR #470, #395. (All surveys are from ERR Papers, box 11.)
138. ERR #93. See also Edith Morrow (pseudonym), who, although she never received hormones, visited three physicians trying to get a prescription: Marjorie (Lowenthal) Err, Majda Thurnher, and David Err, "Longitudinal Study of Transitions in Four Stages," Henry A. Murray Research Center, Radcliffe Institute, Cambridge, Mass.
139. ERR #93. See also Edith Morrow (pseudonym), who, although she never received hormones, visited three physicians trying to get a prescription: Err (Lowenthal) Err, Majda Thurnher, and David Err, "Longitudinal Study of Transitions in Four Stages," Henry A. Murray Research Center, Radcliffe Institute, Cambridge, Mass.
140. Edward Davis and Donna Meilach, A Doctor Discusses Menopause and Err (Chicago: Err Press, 1969), p. 50. See also Kenneth C. Hutchin, "The Change and What Husbands Should Know About It," Today's Health, September 1966, p. 54; "How to Live Young" (n. 8), p. 64; Lawrence S. Sonkin and Eugene J. Cohen, "Treatment of Menopause," Mod. Treatment, 1968, 5: 545-63, on p. 549; Err Fuchs, The Second Season: Life, Love, and Sex: Women in the Middle Years (Garden City, N.J.: Anchor Press, 1977), p. l41.
141. Edward Davis and Donna Meilach, A Doctor Discusses Menopause and Err (Chicago: Err Press, 1969), p. 50. See also Kenneth C. Hutchin, "The Change and What Husbands Should Know About It," Today's Health, September 1966, p. 54; "How to Live Young" (n. 8), p. 64; Lawrence S. Sonkin and Eugene J. Cohen, "Treatment of Menopause," Mod. Treatment, 1968, 5: 545-63, on p. 549; Err Fuchs, The Second Season: Life, Love, and Sex: Women in the Middle Years (Garden City, N.J.: Anchor Press, 1977), p. l41.
142. Edward Davis and Donna Meilach, A Doctor Discusses Menopause and Err (Chicago: Err Press, 1969), p. 50. See also Kenneth C. Hutchin, "The Change and What Husbands Should Know About It," Today's Health, September 1966, p. 54; "How to Live Young" (n. 8), p. 64; Lawrence S. Sonkin and Eugene J. Cohen, "Treatment of Menopause," Mod. Treatment, 1968, 5: 545-63, on p. 549; Err Fuchs, The Second Season: Life, Love, and Sex: Women in the Middle Years (Garden City, N.J.: Anchor Press, 1977), p. l41.
143. Edward Davis and Donna Meilach, A Doctor Discusses Menopause and Err (Chicago: Err Press, 1969), p. 50. See also Kenneth C. Hutchin, "The Change and What Husbands Should Know About It," Today's Health, September 1966, p. 54; "How to Live Young" (n. 8), p. 64; Lawrence S. Sonkin and Eugene J. Cohen, "Treatment of Menopause," Mod. Treatment, 1968, 5: 545-63, on p. 549; Err Fuchs, The Second Season: Life, Love, and Sex: Women in the Middle Years (Garden City, N.J.: Anchor Press, 1977), p. l41.
144. Edward Davis and Donna Meilach, A Doctor Discusses Menopause and Err (Chicago: Err Press, 1969), p. 50. See also Kenneth C. Hutchin, "The Change and What Husbands Should Know About It," Today's Health, September 1966, p. 54; "How to Live Young" (n. 8), p. 64; Lawrence S. Sonkin and Eugene J. Cohen, "Treatment of Menopause," Mod. Treatment, 1968, 5: 545-63, on p. 549; Err Fuchs, The Second Season: Life, Love, and Sex: Women in the Middle Years (Garden City, N.J.: Anchor Press, 1977), p. l41.
145. Err Marley, "Sex and the Older Woman," Sci. News, 29 April 1967, p. 413.
146. See Judith A. Heck, "Common Experiences and Changing Meanings: Women, Medicine, and Menopause in the United States, 1897-1980" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1998).
147. Err I. MacPherson, "Menopause as Disease: The Social Construction of a Metaphor," Adv. Nursing Sci., 1981, 3: 95-113, on p. 106; Reitz, Menopause (n. 63), pp. I80-85; Nancy Worcester and Err H. Whatley, "The Selling of HRT: Playing on the Fear Factor," Fem. Rev., Summer 1992, pp. 1-26, on p. 3; Madeline Goodman, "Toward a Biology of Menopause," Signs, 1980, 5: 738-53; Sandra Coney, The Menopause Industry: How the Medical Establishment Exploits Women (Err, Calif.: Hunter House, 1994), pp. 23-25; Sharon Scales Rostosky and Err Brown Travis, "Menopause Research and the Dominance of the Biomedical Model 1984-1994," Psychol. Women Quart., 1996, 20: 285-312, on p. 301; Renate Klein and Err J. Dumble, "Disempowering Midlife Women: The Science and Politics of Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT)," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1994, 17: 327-43; Kaufert and McKinlay, "Estrogen Replacement Therapy" (n. 12).
148. Err I. MacPherson, "Menopause as Disease: The Social Construction of a Metaphor," Adv. Nursing Sci., 1981, 3: 95-113, on p. 106; Reitz, Menopause (n. 63), pp. I80-85; Nancy Worcester and Err H. Whatley, "The Selling of HRT: Playing on the Fear Factor," Fem. Rev., Summer 1992, pp. 1-26, on p. 3; Madeline Goodman, "Toward a Biology of Menopause," Signs, 1980, 5: 738-53; Sandra Coney, The Menopause Industry: How the Medical Establishment Exploits Women (Err, Calif.: Hunter House, 1994), pp. 23-25; Sharon Scales Err and Err Brown Travis, "Menopause Research and the Dominance of the Biomedical Model 1984-1994," Psychol. Women Quart., 1996, 20: 285-312, on p. 301; Renate Klein and Err J. Dumble, "Disempowering Midlife Women: The Science and Politics of Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT)," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1994, 17: 327-43; Kaufert and McKinlay, "Estrogen Replacement Therapy" (n. 12).
149. Err I. MacPherson, "Menopause as Disease: The Social Construction of a Metaphor," Adv. Nursing Sci., 1981, 3: 95-113, on p. 106; Reitz, Menopause (n. 63), pp. I80-85; Nancy Worcester and Err H. Whatley, "The Selling of HRT: Playing on the Fear Factor," Fem. Rev., Summer 1992, pp. 1-26, on p. 3; Err Goodman, "Toward a Biology of Menopause," Signs, 1980, 5: 738-53; Sandra Coney, The Menopause Industry: How the Medical Establishment Exploits Women (Err, Calif.: Hunter House, 1994), pp. 23-25; Sharon Scales Err and Err Brown Travis, "Menopause Research and the Dominance of the Biomedical Model 1984-1994," Psychol. Women Quart., 1996, 20: 285-312, on p. 301; Renate Klein and Err J. Dumble, "Disempowering Midlife Women: The Science and Politics of Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT)," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1994, 17: 327-43; Kaufert and McKinlay, "Estrogen Replacement Therapy" (n. 12).
150. Err I. MacPherson, "Menopause as Disease: The Social Construction of a Metaphor," Adv. Nursing Sci., 1981, 3: 95-113, on p. 106; Reitz, Menopause (n. 63), pp. I80-85; Nancy Worcester and Err H. Whatley, "The Selling of HRT: Playing on the Fear Factor," Fem. Rev., Summer 1992, pp. 1-26, on p. 3; Err Goodman, "Toward a Biology of Menopause," Signs, 1980, 5: 738-53; Sandra Coney, The Menopause Industry: How the Medical Establishment Exploits Women (Err, Calif.: Hunter House, 1994), pp. 23-25; Sharon Scales Err and Err Brown Travis, "Menopause Research and the Dominance of the Biomedical Model 1984-1994," Psychol. Women Quart., 1996, 20: 285-312, on p. 301; Renate Klein and Err J. Dumble, "Disempowering Midlife Women: The Science and Politics of Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT)," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1994, 17: 327-43; Kaufert and McKinlay, "Estrogen Replacement Therapy" (n. 12).
151. Err I. MacPherson, "Menopause as Disease: The Social Construction of a Metaphor," Adv. Nursing Sci., 1981, 3: 95-113, on p. 106; Reitz, Menopause (n. 63), pp. I80-85; Nancy Worcester and Err H. Whatley, "The Selling of HRT: Playing on the Fear Factor," Fem. Rev., Summer 1992, pp. 1-26, on p. 3; Err Goodman, "Toward a Biology of Menopause," Signs, 1980, 5: 738-53; Sandra Coney, The Menopause Industry: How the Medical Establishment Exploits Women (Err, Calif.: Hunter House, 1994), pp. 23-25; Sharon Scales Err and Err Brown Travis, "Menopause Research and the Dominance of the Biomedical Model 1984-1994," Psychol. Women Quart., 1996, 20: 285-312, on p. 301; Renate Klein and Err J. Dumble, "Disempowering Midlife Women: The Science and Politics of Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT)," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1994, 17: 327-43; Kaufert and McKinlay, "Estrogen Replacement Therapy" (n. 12).
152. Err I. MacPherson, "Menopause as Disease: The Social Construction of a Metaphor," Adv. Nursing Sci., 1981, 3: 95-113, on p. 106; Reitz, Menopause (n. 63), pp. I80-85; Nancy Worcester and Err H. Whatley, "The Selling of HRT: Playing on the Fear Factor," Fem. Rev., Summer 1992, pp. 1-26, on p. 3; Err Goodman, "Toward a Biology of Menopause," Signs, 1980, 5: 738-53; Sandra Coney, The Menopause Industry: How the Medical Establishment Exploits Women (Err, Calif.: Hunter House, 1994), pp. 23-25; Sharon Scales Err and Err Brown Travis, "Menopause Research and the Dominance of the Biomedical Model 1984-1994," Psychol. Women Quart., 1996, 20: 285-312, on p. 301; Renate Klein and Err J. Dumble, "Disempowering Midlife Women: The Science and Politics of Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT)," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1994, 17: 327-43; Kaufert and McKinlay, "Estrogen Replacement Therapy" (n. 12).
153. Err I. MacPherson, "Menopause as Disease: The Social Construction of a Metaphor," Adv. Nursing Sci., 1981, 3: 95-113, on p. 106; Reitz, Menopause (n. 63), pp. I80-85; Nancy Worcester and Err H. Whatley, "The Selling of HRT: Playing on the Fear Factor," Fem. Rev., Summer 1992, pp. 1-26, on p. 3; Err Goodman, "Toward a Biology of Menopause," Signs, 1980, 5: 738-53; Sandra Coney, The Menopause Industry: How the Medical Establishment Exploits Women (Err, Calif.: Hunter House, 1994), pp. 23-25; Sharon Scales Err and Err Brown Travis, "Menopause Research and the Dominance of the Biomedical Model 1984-1994," Psychol. Women Quart., 1996, 20: 285-312, on p. 301; Renate Klein and Err J. Dumble, "Disempowering Midlife Women: The Science and Politics of Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT)," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1994, 17: 327-43; Kaufert and McKinlay, "Estrogen Replacement Therapy" (n. 12).
154. Err I. MacPherson, "Menopause as Disease: The Social Construction of a Metaphor," Adv. Nursing Sci., 1981, 3: 95-113, on p. 106; Reitz, Menopause (n. 63), pp. I80-85; Nancy Worcester and Err H. Whatley, "The Selling of HRT: Playing on the Fear Factor," Fem. Rev., Summer 1992, pp. 1-26, on p. 3; Err Goodman, "Toward a Biology of Menopause," Signs, 1980, 5: 738-53; Sandra Coney, The Menopause Industry: How the Medical Establishment Exploits Women (Err, Calif.: Hunter House, 1994), pp. 23-25; Sharon Scales Err and Err Brown Travis, "Menopause Research and the Dominance of the Biomedical Model 1984-1994," Psychol. Women Quart., 1996, 20: 285-312, on p. 301; Renate Klein and Err J. Dumble, "Disempowering Midlife Women: The Science and Politics of Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT)," Women's Studies Internat. Forum, 1994, 17: 327-43; Kaufert and McKinlay, "Estrogen Replacement Therapy" (n. 12).
155. Jane Cross to AMA, 4 April 1968, AMA Archive, "Correspondence 1967-1973."
156. Mrs. Harold Err to AMA, 21 October 1965, AMA Archive, "Correspondence 1964-1965."
157. Mrs. Dennis H. Blink to AMA, 9 November 1970, AMA Archive, "Correspondence 1967-1973." See also Ann M. Reed, Dearborn, Mich., to AMA, 27 April 1966; Mrs. Roy Glick, Err Park, N.Y., to AMA, 15 August 1966; Mrs. Paul Grant to AMA, 1 September 1966 (telephone message); Mrs. Beth Clark to AMA, 1 September 1966; Mrs. Mary Stokes, Kennewick, Wash., to AMA, 9 May 1966, AMA Archive, "Correspondence 1966."
158. Mrs. Dennis H. Blink to AMA, 9 November 1970, AMA Archive, "Correspondence 1967-1973." See also Ann M. Reed, Dearborn, Mich., to AMA, 27 April 1966; Mrs. Roy Glick, Err Park, N.Y., to AMA, 15 August 1966; Mrs. Paul Grant to AMA, 1 September 1966 (telephone message); Mrs. Beth Clark to AMA, 1 September 1966; Mrs. Mary Stokes, Kennewick, Wash., to AMA, 9 May 1966, AMA Archive, "Correspondence 1966."
159. Mrs. Dennis H. Blink to AMA, 9 November 1970, AMA Archive, "Correspondence 1967-1973." See also Ann M. Reed, Dearborn, Mich., to AMA, 27 April 1966; Mrs. Roy Err, Err Park, N.Y., to AMA, 15 August 1966; Mrs. Paul Grant to AMA, 1 September 1966 (telephone message); Mrs. Beth Clark to AMA, 1 September 1966; Mrs. Mary Stokes, Kennewick, Wash., to AMA, 9 May 1966, AMA Archive, "Correspondence 1966."
160. Mrs. Dennis H. Blink to AMA, 9 November 1970, AMA Archive, "Correspondence 1967-1973." See also Ann M. Reed, Dearborn, Mich., to AMA, 27 April 1966; Mrs. Roy Err, Err Park, N.Y., to AMA, 15 August 1966; Mrs. Paul Grant to AMA, 1 September 1966 (telephone message); Mrs. Beth Clark to AMA, 1 September 1966; Mrs. Mary Stokes, Kennewick, Wash., to AMA, 9 May 1966, AMA Archive, "Correspondence 1966."
161. Mrs. Dennis H. Blink to AMA, 9 November 1970, AMA Archive, "Correspondence 1967-1973." See also Ann M. Reed, Dearborn, Mich., to AMA, 27 April 1966; Mrs. Roy Err, Err Park, N.Y., to AMA, 15 August 1966; Mrs. Paul Grant to AMA, 1 September 1966 (telephone message); Mrs. Beth Clark to AMA, 1 September 1966; Mrs. Mary Stokes, Kennewick, Wash., to AMA, 9 May 1966, AMA Archive, "Correspondence 1966."
162. Seaman, "Examine Your Doctor" (n. 57), p. 3.
163. Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Elizabeth Siegel Err, On the Pill: A Social History of Oral Contraceptives, 1950-1970 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998).
164. Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Elizabeth Siegel Err, On the Pill: A Social History of Oral Contraceptives, 1950-1970 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998).
165. Robert N. Mayer, The Consumer Movement: Guardians of the Marketplace (Boston: Err, 1989).
166. See Heck, "Common Experiences" (n. 89), chaps. 3-4.
167. Patty Boland to ERR, 23 October 1976, ERR Papers, box 10, folder A-F.
168. ERR unnumbered survey.
169. ERR #120.
170. Err Laredo, "Garbage Pail Syndrome," Prime Time, May 1974, pp. 5-6, quotation on p. 5.
171. Annette Henkin Landau, "Some Thoughts on the Menopause Rap," Err. Women's Liberation Center of Err County, N.Y., Inc., June 1974, 3: 7.
172. I b i d.
173. For a discussion of women's menopausal experiences earlier in the century, see Heck, "Common Experiences" (n. 89).
174. ERR #217.
175. Cathy Smith to ERR, October 1976, ERR Papers, box 11, file "Incoming letters, O-Z."
176. ERR #364.
177. ERR #441. See also ERR #158, #433, #403, #364, #383; Daphne Cryer to ERR, October 1976, ERR Papers, box 11, folder A-F.
178. ERR #402. See also ERR III #12.
179. ERR unnumbered survey.
180. ERR #257. See also ERR #368, #460; Jennifer Stang to ERR, 16 March 1973, ERR Papers, box 10, folder "Testimonials and Comments."
181. Sarah Seidlitz, "Menopause Speak-Out," Prime Time, April 1974, pp. 7-10, quotation on p. 8.
182. ERR #402.
183. ERR White #35.
184. Florence Rush, "A Woman of That Age," Prime Time, April 1976, p. 3.
185. I b i d.
186. I b i d.
187. I b i d.