Causes of mortality in sea ducks (Mergini) Necropsied at the USGS-National Wildlife Health Center

Waterbirds

Volumn 28, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 193-207

  Skerratt, Lee F ^a,b,d   Franson, J Christian ^a   Meteyer, Carol U ^a   Hollmén, Tuula E ^c  

^a NATIONAL WILDLIFE HEALTH CENTER   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF ALASKA FAIRBANKS   (United States)

^d JAMES COOK UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

Clostridium botulinum; Disease; Firearm; Lead toxicity; Mergini; Mortality; Pasteurella multocida; Petroleum; Sea ducks; Starvation

Indexed keywords

CAUSE OF DEATH; DISEASE; HUNTING; POISONING; POPULATION DECLINE; STARVATION; WATERFOWL;

ACANTHOCEPHALA (WORMS); ANAS; ASPERGILLUS FUMIGATUS; AVIAN POX VIRUS; AVIPOXVIRUS; CLOSTRIDIUM BOTULINUM; CLOSTRIDIUM PERFRINGENS; COCCIDIA; EUSTRONGYLIDES; FOWLPOX VIRUS; FUNGI; MYCOBACTERIUM AVIUM; NEMATODA; PASTEURELLA MULTOCIDA; POLYMORPHUS; PROTOZOA; REOVIRUS SP.; RIEMERELLA ANATIPESTIFER; SARCOCYSTIS; SARCOCYSTIS SP.; SCHISTOSOMA; SPHAERIDIOTREMA GLOBULUS; STREPTOCARA; TREMATODA;

EID: 23744435658     PISSN: 15244695     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1675/1524-4695(2005)028[0193:COMISD]2.0.CO;2     Document Type: Review

References (112)

1. Anderson, J. F., T. G. Andreadis, C. R. Vossbrinck, S. Tirrell, E. M. Wakem, R. A. French, A. E. Garmendia and H. J. Van Kruiningen. 1999. Isolation of West Nile virus from mosquitos, crows, and Cooper's Hawk in Connecticut. Science 286: 2331.
2. Augspurger, T., J. R. Fischer, N. J. Thomas, L. Sileo, R. E. Brannian, K. J. G. Miller and T. E. Rocke. 2003. Vacuolar myelinopathy in waterfowl from a North Carolina Impoundment. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 39: 412-417.
3. Ballantyne, B. and T. C. Marrs. 1987. Clinical and Experimental Toxicology of Cyanides, Wright, Bristol.
4. Baptist, H. J. M., R. H. Witte, P. Duiven and P. A. Wolf. 1997. Numbers of eider Somateria mollissima in the Netherlands in winter, 1993-97. Limosa 70: 113-118.
5. Barry, T. W. 1968. Observations on natural mortality and native use of eider ducks along the Beaufort Sea coast. Canadian Field Naturalist 82: 140-144.
6. Bellrose, F. C. 1976. Ducks, geese and swans of North America. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.
7. Berger L., R. Speare, P. Daszak, D. E. Green, A. A. Cunningham, C. L. Goggin, R. Slocombe, M. A. Ragan, A. H. Hyatt, K. R. McDonald, H. B. Hines, K. R. Lips, G. Marantelli and H. Parkes. 1998. Chytridiomycosis causes amphibian mortality associated with population declines in the rain forests of Australia and Central America. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, USA 95: 9031-9036.
8. Bernard, K. A., J. G. Maffei, S. A. Jones, E. B. Kauffman, G. D. Ebel, A. P. Dupuis II, K. A. Ngo, D. C. Nicholas, D. M. Young, P.-Y. Shi, V. L. Kulasekera, M. Eidson, D. J. White, W. B. Stone, NY State West Nile Virus Surveillance Team and L. D. Kramer. 2001. West Nile virus infection in birds and mosquitoes, New York State, 2000. Emerging Infectious Diseases 7: 679-685.
9. Beukema, J. J., G. C. Cadee and R. Dekker. 1998. How two large-scale "experiments" illustrate the importance of enrichment and fishery for the functioning of the Wadden Sea ecosystem. Senckenbergiana-Maritima 29: 37-44.
10. Beyer, W. N., J. C. Franson, L. N. Locke, R. K. Stroud and L. Sileo. 1998. Retrospective study of the diagnostic criteria in a lead-poisoning survey of waterfowl. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 35: 506-512.
11. Bosch, J., I. Martínez-Solano and M. García-París. 2000. Evidence of a chytrid fungus infection involved in the decline of the common midwife toad (Alytes obstetricans) in protected areas of central Spain. Biological Conservation 97: 331-337.
12. Boyer, K.W. 1984. Metals and other elements at trace levels in foods. Pages 444-476 in Official Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 14th ed. (S. Williams, Ed.). Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Inc., Arlington, Virginia.
13. Bradley G. A., P. C. Rosen, M. J. Sredl, T. R. Jones and J. E. Longcore. 2002. Chytridiomycosis in native Arizona frogs. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 38: 206-212.
14. Brand, C. J., R. M. Duncan, S. P. Garrow, D. Olson and L. E. Schumann. 1983. Waterbird mortality from botulism type E in Lake Michigan: an update. Wilson Bulletin 95: 269-275.
15. Brand, C. J., S. M. Schmitt, R. M. Duncan and T. M. Cooley. 1988. An outbreak of type E botulism among Common Loons (Gavia immer) in Michigan's upper peninsula. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 24: 471-476.
16. Brogden, K. A. and K. R. Rhoades. 1983. Prevalence of serological types of Pasteurella multocida from 57 species of birds and mammals in the United States. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 19: 315-320.
17. Canadian Cooperative Wildlife Health Centre. 2002. Wildlife Disease Investigation Manual. University of Saskatchewan, Saskatchewan.
18. Camphuysen, C. J., C. M. Berrevoets, H. J. W. M. Cremers, A. Dekinga, R. Dekker, B. J. Ens, T. M. van der Have, R. K. H. Kats, T. Kuiken, M. F. Leopold, J. van der Meer and T. Piersma. 2002. Mass mortality of Common Eiders (Somateria mollissima) in the Dutch Wadden Sea, winter 1999/ 2000: starvation in a commercially exploited wetland of international importance. Biological Conservation 106: 303-317.
19. Christensen, J. P., H. H. Dietz and M. Bisgaard. 1998. Phenotypic and genotypic characters of isolates of Pasteurella multocida obtained from back-yard poultry and from two outbreaks of avian cholera in avifauna in Denmark. Avian Pathology 27: 373-381.
20. Christensen, T. K., T. Bregnballe, T. H. Andersen and H. H. Dietz. 1997. Outbreak of pasteurellosis among wintering and breeding Common Eiders Somateria mollissima in Denmark. Wildlife Biology 3: 125-128.
21. Clark, G. M., D. O'Meara and J. W. Van Weelden. 1958. An epizootic among eider ducks involving an acanthocephalid worm. Journal of Wildlife Management 22: 204-205.
22. Clausen, B. and C. Wolstrup. 1979. Lead poisoning in game from Denmark. Danish Review of Game Biology 11: 1-22.
23. Cole, R. 1999. Eustrongylidosis. Pages 223-228 in Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases: General Field Procedures and Diseases of Birds (M. Friend and J. C. Franson, Eds). U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Information and Technology Report 1999-001. Washington, D.C.
24. Cooke, F., G. J. Robertson, C. M. Smith, R. I. Goudie and W. S. Boyd. 2000. Survival, emigration, and winter population structure of Harlequin Ducks. Condor 102: 137-144.
25. Davidson, W. R. and V. F. Nettles. 1997. Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases in the Southeastern United States. University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia.
26. Docherty, D. E. and P. G. Slota. 1988. Use of Muscovy Duck embryo fibroblasts for the isolation of viruses from wild birds. Journal of Tissue Culture Methods 11: 165-170.
27. Eidson, M., N. Komar, F. Sorhage, R. Nelson, T. Talbot, F. Mostasjari, R. McLean and the West Nile Virus Avian Mortality Surveillance Group. 1999. Crow deaths as a sentinel surveillance system for the West Nile virus in the northeastern United States. Emerging Infectious Diseases 7: 615-620.
28. Environment Canada. 2003. Species at risk: Harlequin Duck (Histrionicus histrionicus) http://www.species-atrisk.gc.ca/ search/speciesDetails_e.cfm?SpeciesID=22#distribution.
29. Fawcett, D. and J. van Vessem (Eds.). 1995. Lead Poisoning in Waterfowl: International Update Report 1995. International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau, Slimbridge, Gloucester.
30. Feldstein, M. and N. C. Klendshoj. 1957. The determination of volatile substances by microdiffusion analysis. Journal of Forensic Sciences 2: 39-58.
31. Flint, P. L. and J. B. Grand. 1997. Survival of Spectacled Eider adult females and ducklings during brood rearing. Journal of Wildlife Management 61: 217-221.
32. Flint, P. L., M. R. Petersen and J. B. Grand. 1997. Exposure of Spectacled Eiders and other diving ducks to lead in western Alaska. Canadian Journal of Zoology 75: 439-443.
33. Flint, P. L., J. B. Grand, J. A. Morse and T. F. Fondell. 2000. Late summer survival of adult female and juvenile Spectacled Eiders on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska. Waterbirds 23: 292-297.
34. Fowler, A. C. and P. L. Flint. 1997. Persistence rates and detection probabilities of oiled King Eider carcasses on St. Paul Island, Alaska. Marine Pollution Bulletin 1997: 522-526.
35. Fox, A. D., C. Mitchell, G. Henriksen, E. Lund and B. Frantzen. 1997. The conservation of Steller's Eider Polysticta stelleri in Varangerfjord, Finnmark, Norway. Wildfowl 48: 156-165.
36. Franson, J. C., M. R. Petersen, C. U. Meteyer and M. R. Smith. 1995. Lead poisoning of Spectacled Eiders (Somateria fischeri) and of a Common Eider (Somateria mollissima) in Alaska. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 31: 268-271.
37. Franson, J. C. and M. R. Smith. 1999. Poisoning of wild birds from exposure to anticholinesterase compounds and lead: diagnostic methods and selected cases. Seminars in Avian and Exotic Pet Medicine 8: 3-11.
38. Fredrickson, L. H. 2001. Steller's Eider (Polysticta stelleri). No. 571 in The Birds of North America (A. Poole and F. Gill, Eds.). The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
39. Friend, M. 1999a. Avian cholera. Pages 75-92 in Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases: General Field Procedures and Diseases of Birds (M. Friend and J. C. Franson, Eds.), U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Information and Technology Report 1999-001. Washington, D.C.
40. Friend, M. 1999b. Avian tuberculosis. Pages 93-98 in Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases: General Field Procedures and Diseases of Birds (M. Friend and J. C. Franson, Eds.), U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Information and Technology Report 1999-001. Washington, D.C.
41. Friend, M. 1999c. Duck plague. Pages 141-152 in Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases: General Field Procedures and Diseases of Birds (M. Friend and J. C. Franson, Eds.), U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Information and Technology Report 1999-001. Washington, D.C.
42. Friend, M. 2002. Avian disease at the Salton Sea. Hydrobiologia. 473: 293-306.
43. Friend, M. and J. C. Franson. 1999. Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases: General Field Procedures and Diseases of Birds, U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Information and Technology Report 1999-001. Washington, D.C.
44. Friend, M., R. G. McLean and F. J. Dein. 2001. Disease emergence in birds: challenges for the twenty-first century. Auk 118: 290-303.
45. Gershman, M., J. F. Witter, H. E. Spencer and A. Kalvaitis. 1963. Case report: epizootic of fowl cholera in the Common Eider duck. Journal of Wildlife Management 28: 587-589.
46. Giroux, J. F., J. Bédard, J. Huot, A. Nadeau and B. Filion. 2002. Avian cholera in Common Eiders: what do we know and what can we do? Abstract, Page 29 in North American Sea Duck Conference and Workshop, 6-10 November, Victoria, British Columbia.
47. Grand, J. B., P. L. Flint, M. R. Petersen and C. L. Moran. 1998. Effect of lead poisoning on Spectacled Eider survival rates. Journal of Wildlife Management 62: 1103-1109.
48. Green D. E., K. A. Converse and A. K. Schrader. 2002. Epizootiology of sixty-four amphibian morbidity and mortality events in the USA, 1996-2001. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 969: 323-339.
49. Grenquist, P. 1970. Väkäkärsämatojen aiheuttamasta haahkojen kuolleisuudesta (On mortality of the eider duck (Somateria mollissima) caused by acanthocephalan parasites: in Finnish with English summary). Suomen Riista 22: 24-34.
50. Hansen, W. 1999. Avian pox. Pages 163-170 in Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases: General Field Procedures and Diseases of Birds (M. Friend and J. C. Franson, Eds.). U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Information and Technology Report 1999-001. Washington, D.C.
51. Hario, M. 1998. Neljän saaristolintulajin viimeaikainen painonkehitys (Recent trends and research results for four archipelago bird species - Common Eider, Velvet Scoter, Herring Gull and Lesser Black-backed Gull). Pages 12-24 in The Yearbook of the Linnut Magazine (T. Solonen and E. Lammi, Eds.). Birdlife Finland, Kuopio.
52. Hayes, C. G. 1989. West Nile Fever. Pages 59-88 in The arboviruses: epidemiology and ecology, Vol. 5 (T. P. Monath, Ed.). CRC Press. Boca Ratan, Florida.
53. Health Canada. 2002. Dead birds submitted for West Nile Virus diagnosis by health region in Canada as of December 18th, 2002. http:// wildlife.usask.ca/WestNileAlertHTML/WestNileCanadaENG-02.htm
54. Heddleston, K. L., T. Goodson, L. Leibovitz and C. I. Angstrom. 1972. Serological and biochemical characteristics of Pasteurella multocida from free-flying birds and poultry. Avian Diseases 16: 729-734.
55. Hindman, L. J., W. F. Harvey IV, G. R. Costanzo, K. A. Converse and G. Stein, Jr. 1997. Avian cholera in Ospreys: first occurrence and possible mode of transmission. Journal of Field Ornithology 68: 503-508.
56. Hohman, W. L., R. D. Pritchett, R. M. Pace III, D. W. Woolington and R. Helm. 1990. Influence of ingested lead on body mass of wintering Canvasbacks. Journal of Wildlife Management 54: 211-215.
57. Hohman, W. L., J. L. Moore and J. C. Franson. 1995. Winter survival of immature Canvasbacks in inland Louisiana. Journal of Wildlife Management 5: 384-392.
58. Hollmén, T., J. C. Franson, R. H. Poppenga, M. Hario and M. Kilpi. 1998. Lead poisoning and trace elements in Common Eiders Somateria mollissima from Finland. Wildlife Biology 4: 193-203.
59. Hollmén, T., J. C. Franson, M. Hario, S. Sankari, M. Kilpi and K. Lindström. 2001. Use of serum biochemistry to evaluate nutritional status and health of incubating Common Eiders (Somateria mollissima) in Finland. Physiological and Biological Zoology 74: 333-334.
60. Hollmén, T., J. C. Franson, M. Kilpi, D. E. Docherty, W. R. Hansen and M. Hario. 2002. Isolation and characterization of a reovirus from Common Eiders (Somateria mollissima) from Finland. Avian Diseases 46: 478-484.
61. Hollmén, T., J. C. Franson, M. Kilpi, D. E. Docherty and V. Myllys. 2003a. An adenovirus associated with intestinal impaction and mortality of male Common Eiders (Somateria mollissima) in the Baltic Sea. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 39: 114-120.
62. Hollmén, T. E., J. C. Franson, P. L. Flint, J. B. Grand, R. B. Lanctot, D. E. Docherty and H. M. Wilson. 2003b. An adenovirus linked to mortality and disease in long-tailed ducks (Clangula hyemalis) in Alaska. Avian Diseases 47: 1434-1440.
63. Hubálek, Z. and J. Halouzka. 1999. West Nile fever - a reemerging mosquito-bourne viral disease in Europe. Emerging Infectious Diseases 5: 643-650.
64. Itämies, J., E. T. Valtonen, and H. P. Fagerholm. 1980. Polymorphus minutus (Acanthocephala) infestation in eiders and its role as a possible cause of death. Annales Zoologica Fennici 17: 285-289.
65. Kauhala, K. and M. Auniola. 2001. Diet of raccoon dogs in summer in the Finnish archipelago. Ecography 24: 151-156.
66. Korschgen, C. E., H. C. Gibbs and H. L. Mendall. 1978. Avian cholera in eider ducks in Maine. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 14: 254-258.
67. Lanciotti, R. S., J. T. Roehrig, V. Deubel, J. Smith, M. Parker, K. Steele, B. Crise, K. E. Volpe, M. B. Crabtree, J. H. Scherret, R. A. Hall, J. S. MacKenzie, C. B. Cropp, B. Panigraphy, E. Ostlund, B. Schmitt, M. Malkinson, C. Banet, J. Weissman, N. Komar, H. M. Savage, W. Stone, T. McNamara and D. J. Gubler. 1999. Origin of the West Nile virus responsible for an outbreak of encephalitis in the northeastern United States. Science 286: 2333-2337.
68. Leafloor, J. O., J. E. Thompson and C. D. Ankney. 1996. Body mass and carcass composition of fall migrant Oldsquaws. Wilson Bulletin 108: 567-572.
69. Locke, L. N., V. Stotts and G. Wolfhard. 1970. An outbreak of fowl cholera in waterfowl on the Chesapeake Bay. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 6: 404-407.
70. Mallory, M. L., H. G. Gilchrist, S. E. Jamieson, G. J. Robertson and D. G. Campbell. 2001. Unusual migration mortality of King Eiders in central Baffin Island. Waterbirds 24: 453-456.
71. Mawhinney, K. and A. W. Diamond. 1999. Using radio-transmitters to improve estimates of gull predation on Common Eider ducklings. Condor 101: 824-831.
72. Montgomery, R. D., G. Stein, Jr., V. D. Stotts and F. H. Settle. 1979. The 1978 epornitic of avian cholera on the Chesapeake Bay. Avian Diseases 24: 966-978.
73. Mörner, T. 1978. Endoparasites in eider-ducklings (Somateria mollissima) on the Swedish east coast. Pages 132-135 in Proceedings from the Symposium on Sea Ducks, Stockholm, Sweden June 1975 (A. Andersson and S. Fredga, Eds.). IWRB, Slimbridge.
74. National Wildlife Health Center. 2004a. Wildlife Health Diagnostic Database (DIAGDATA). http://www.nwhc.usgs.gov/pub_metadata/ metadata_for_diagdata.html.
75. National Wildlife Health Center. 2004b. Wildlife Health Epizootic Database (EPIZOO). http://www.nwhc.usgs.gov/pub_metadata/ metadata_for_epizoo.html.
76. Pain, D. J. 1989. Haematological parameters as predictors of blood lead and indicators of lead poisoning in the Black Duck (Anas rubripes). Environmental Pollution 60: 67-81.
77. Pain, D. J. 1996. Lead in waterfowl. Pages 251-264 in Environmental Contaminants in Wildlife: Interpreting Tissue Concentrations (W. N. Beyer, G. H. Heinz and A. W. Redmon-Norwood, Eds.). Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, Florida.
78. Pedersen, K., H. H. Dietz, J. C. Jørgensen, T. K. Christensen, T. Bregnballe and T. H. Andersen. Pasteurella multocida from outbreaks of avian cholera in wild and captive birds in Denmark. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 39: 808-816.
79. Persson, L. 1974. Endoparasitism causing heavy mortality in eider ducks in Sweden. Pages 255-258 in XIth International Congress of Game Biologists, Stockholm, September 3-7, 1973. National Swedish Environment Protection Board, Stockholm.
80. Petersen, M. R., J. B. Grand and C. P. Dau. 2000. Spectacled Eider (Somateria fischeri). No. 547 in The Birds of North America (A. Poole and F. Gill, Eds.). The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
81. Peterson, C. H., S. D. Rice, J. W. Short, D. Esler, J. L. Bodkin, B. E. Ballachey and D. B. Irons. 2003. Long-term ecosystem response to the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Science 302: 2082-2086.
82. Piatt, J. F., C. J. Lensink, W. Butler, M. Kendziorek and D. R. Nysewander. 1990. Immediate impact of the 'Exxon Valdez' oil spill on marine birds. Auk 107: 387-397.
83. Piatt, J. F. and R. G. Ford. 1996. How many seabirds were killed by the Exxon Valdez oil spill? American Fisheries Society Symposium 18: 712-719.
84. Quinlan, S. E. and W. A. Lehnhausen. 1982. Arctic fox predation on nesting Common Eiders at Icy Cape, Alaska. Canadian Field Naturalist 96: 462-466.
85. Quortrup, E. R. and R. L. Sudheimer. 1943. Detection of botulinus toxin in the bloodstream of wild ducks. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 102:264-266.
86. Rayski, C. and E. A. Garden. 1961. Life cycle of an acanthocephalan parasite of the eider duck. Nature 192: 185-186.
87. Reed, A. 1975. Migrating, homing and mortality of breeding female eiders Somateria mollissima dresseri of the St. Lawrence estuary, Quebec. Ornis Scandinavia 6: 41-47.
88. Reed, A. and J. G. Cousineau. 1967. Epidemics involving the Common Eider (Somateria mollissima) at Ile Blanche, Quebec. Le Naturaliste Canadien 94: 327-334.
89. Rocke, T. E. and M. Friend. 1999. Avian botulism. Pages 271-286 in Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases: General Field Procedures and Diseases of Birds (M. Friend and J. C. Franson, Eds.), U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Information and Technology Report 1999-001. Washington, D.C.
90. Rocke, T. E. and M. D. Samuel. 1991. Effects of lead shot ingestion on selected cells of the Mallard immune system. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 27: 1-9.
91. Rocke, T. E. and M. D. Samuel. 1999. Water and sediment characteristics associated with avian botulism outbreaks in wetlands. Journal of Wildlife Management 63: 1249-1260.
92. Samuel, M. D., E. F. Bowers and J. C. Franson. 1992. Lead exposure and recovery rates of Black Ducks banded in Tennessee. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 28: 555-561.
93. Sanderson, G. C. and F. C. Bellrose. 1986. A review of the problem of lead poisoning in waterfowl. Illinois Natural History Survey Special Publication 4, Illinois Natural History Survey, Champaign, Illinois.
94. Sato, Y., T. Aoyagi, S. Matsuura, S. Fukui, I. Kitazawa, K. Nishimori and Y. Yokomizo. 1996. An occurrence of avian tuberculosis in Hooded Merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus). Avian Diseases 40: 941-944.
95. Scheuhammer, A. M., S. L. Money, D. A. Kirk and G. Donaldson. 2003. Lead fishing sinkers and jigs in Canada: review of their use patterns and toxic impacts on wildlife. Occasional Paper No. 108, Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa.
96. Sea Duck Joint Venture Management Board. 2001. Sea Duck Joint Venture Strategic Plan: 2001-2006. SDJV Continental Technical Team. Unpubl. Rept. [c/o USFWS, Anchorage, Alaska: CWS, Sackville, New Brunswick]. 14pp. + appendices.
97. Sears, J. 1988. Regional and seasonal variations in lead poisoning in the Mute Swan Cygnus olor in relation to the distribution of lead and lead weights, in the Thames area, England. Biological Conservation 46: 115-134.
98. Senne, D. A. 1998. Virus propagation in embryonating eggs. Pages 235-240 in A Laboratory Manual for the Isolation and Identification of Avian Pathogens (D. E. Swayne, J. R. Glisson, M. W. Jackwood, J. E. Pearson and W. M. Reed, Eds.). American Association of Avian Pathologists, Kennett Square, Pennsylvania.
99. Sileo, L., L. H. Creekmore, D. J. Audet, M. R. Snyder, C. U. Meteyer, J. C. Franson, L. N. Locke and M. R. Smith. 2001. Lead poisoning of waterfowl by contaminated sediment in the Coeur d'Alene River. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 41: 364-368.
100. Smith, M. R., N. J. Thomas and C. Hulse. 1995. Application of brain cholinesterase reactivation to differentiate between organophosphorus and carbamate pesticide exposure in wild birds. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 31: 263-267.
101. Steele, K. E., M. J. Linn, R. J. Schoepp, N. Komar, T. W. Geisbert, R. M. Manduca, P. P. Calle, B. L. Raphael, T. L. Clippinger, T. Larsen, J. Smith, R. S. Lanciotti, N. A. Panella and T. S. McNamara. 2000. Pathology of fatal West Nile virus infections in native and exotic birds during the 1999 outbreak in New York City, New York. Veterinary Pathology 37: 208-224.
102. Stehn, R. A., C. P. Dau, B. Conant and W. I. Butler. 1993. Decline of Spectacled Eiders nesting in western Alaska. Arctic 46: 264-277.
103. Swennen, C. 1983. Reproductive output of eiders Somateria M. mollissima on the southern border of its breeding range. Ardea 71: 245-254.
104. Swennen, C. 1989. Gull predation upon eider Somateria mollissima ducklings: destruction or elimination of the unfit. Ardea 77: 21-46.
105. Swennen, C. 1991. Fledgling production of eiders Somateria mollissima in the Netherlands. Journal fuer Ornithologie 132: 427-438.
106. Swennen, C. and E. Van den Broek. 1960. Polymorphus botulus als parasiet bij de Eidereenden in de Wadden-zee. Ardea 48: 90-97.
107. Swennen, C. and T. Smit. 1991. Pasteurellosis among breeding eiders Somateria mollissima in the Netherlands. Wildfowl 42: 94-97.
108. Thornton, C., M. R. Cranfield, K. M. MacLellan, T. L. Brink, J. D. Strandberg, E. A. Carlin, J. B. Torrelles, J. N. Maslow, J. L. B. Hasson-Jacquelyn, D. M. Heyl, S. J. Sarro, D. Chatterjee and S. Passen. Processing postmortem specimens with C18-carboxypropylbetaine and analysis by PCR to develop an antemortem test for Mycobacterium avium infections in ducks. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 30: 11-24.
109. Vyas, N. B. 1999. Factors influencing estimation of pesticide-related mortality. Toxicology and Industrial Health 15: 186-191.
110. Wobeser, G. A. 1994. Investigation and Management of Disease in Wild Animals. Plenum Press, New York, New York.
111. Wobeser, G. A. 1997. Diseases of Wild Waterfowl, 2nd ed. Plenum Press. New York, New York.
112. Zinkl, J. G., N. Dey, J. M. Hyland, J. J. Hurt and K. L. Heddleston. 1977. An epornitic of avian cholera in waterfowl and Common Crows in Phelps county, Nebraska, in the spring, 1975. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 13: 194-198.