A review: Mycobacteriophage and their application to disease control

Journal of Applied Microbiology

Volumn 99, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 223-233

  McNerney, R ^a   Traore H ^a  

^a LONDON SCHOOL OF HYGIENE AND TROPICAL MEDICINE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DIAGNOSIS; DISEASE CONTROL; DRUG THERAPY; PLANTS (BOTANY);

'CURRENT; ANTITUBERCULOSIS; DIAGNOSTICS TOOLS; EVALUATION STUDY; HIGH SENSITIVITY; INTRACELLULAR BACTERIA; MYCOBACTERIOPHAGE; PULMONARY TUBERCULOSIS; SIMPLE++; TRADITIONAL CULTURES;

BACTERIA;

CIPROFLOXACIN; CLOFAZIMINE; COLISTIN; DAPSONE; ETHAMBUTOL; ISONIAZID; LUCIFERASE; PYRAZINAMIDE; RIFAMPICIN; STREPTOMYCIN; ALKANAL MONOOXYGENASE (FMN LINKED); TUBERCULOSTATIC AGENT;

BACTERIOPHAGE; DISEASE CONTROL;

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; BACTERIAL GENOME; BACTERIOPHAGE; BACTERIUM DETECTION; BACTERIUM IDENTIFICATION; BACTERIUM ISOLATE; BURULI ULCER; DISEASE CONTROL; DRUG SCREENING; DRUG SENSITIVITY; EQUIPMENT; GUINEA PIG; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS; LUNG TUBERCULOSIS; MICROBIAL SENSITIVITY TEST; MYCOBACTERIUM AVIUM; MYCOBACTERIUM BOVIS; MYCOBACTERIUM ULCERANS; NONHUMAN; PLAQUE FORMING CELL; REVIEW; TREATMENT FAILURE; TUBERCULOSIS CONTROL; ZAMBIA; GENETICS; MYCOBACTERIOPHAGE; PHYSIOLOGY; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; TUBERCULOSIS;

ANIMALIA; CORYNEBACTERINEAE;

ANTIBIOTICS, ANTITUBERCULAR; DRUG RESISTANCE, MICROBIAL; GENOME, BACTERIAL; HUMANS; LUCIFERASES, BACTERIAL; MYCOBACTERIOPHAGES; RIFAMPIN; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; TUBERCULOSIS;

EID: 23044481084     PISSN: 13645072     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2005.02596.x     Document Type: Review

References (103)

1. Ackermann, H.W. (2001) Frequency of morphological phage descriptions. Arch Virol 146, 843-857.
2. Albay, A., Kisa, O., Baylan, O. and Doganci, L. (2003) The evaluation of FASTPlaqueTB test for the rapid diagnosis of tuberculosis. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 46, 211-215.
3. Albert, H., Heydenrych, A., Mole, R., Trollip, A. and Blumberg, L. (2001) Evaluation of FASTPlaqueTB-RIF, a rapid, manual test for the determination of rifampicin resistance from Mycobacterium tuberculosis cultures. Int J Tuber Lung Dis 5, 906-911.
4. Albert, H., Heydenrych, A., Brookes, R., Mole, R.J., Harley, B., Subotsky, E. and Azevedo, V. (2002a) Performance of a rapid phage-based test, FASTPlaqueTB™, to diagnose pulmonary tuberculosis from sputum specimens in South Africa. Int J Tuber Lung Dis 6, 529-537.
5. Albert, H., Trollip, A.P., Mole, R.J., Hatch, S.J. and Blumberg, L. (2002b) Rapid indication of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis from liquid cultures using FASTPlaqueTB-RIF, a manual phage-based test. Int J Tuber Lung Dis 6, 523-528.
6. Albert, H., Muzaffar, R., Mole, R.J. and Trollip, A.P. (2002c) Use of FASTPlaqueTB tests for TB diagnosis in low-income countries. Int J Tuber Lung Dis 6, 1130-1131.
7. Albert, H., Trollip, A., Seaman, T. and Mole, R.J. (2004) Simple, phage-based (FASTPlaque) technology to determine rifampicin resistance of Mycobacterium tuberculosis directly from sputum. Int J Tuber Lung Dis 8, 1114-1119.
8. Alcaide, F., Gali, N., Dominguez, J., Berlanga, P., Blanco, S., Orus, P. and Martin, R. (2003) Usefulness of a new mycobacteriophage-based technique for rapid diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis. J Clin Microbiol 41, 2867-2871.
9. Alisky, J., Iczkowski, K., Rapoport, A. and Troitsky, N. (1998) Bacteriophages show promise as antimicrobial agents. J Infect 36, 5-15.
10. American Thoracic Society (2003) American Thoracic Society/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/Infectious Diseases Society of America: treatment of tuberculosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 167, 603-662.
11. Banaiee, N., Bobadilla del Valle, M., Bardarov, S., Riska, P.P., Small, P.M., Ponce de Leon, A., Jacobs, W.R. Jr, Hatfull, G.F. et al. (2001) Luciferase reporter mycobacteriophages for detection, identification, and antibiotic susceptibility testing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Mexico. J Clin Microbiol 39, 3883-3888.
12. Banaiee, N., Bobadilla del Valle, M., Riska, P.P., Bardarov, S., Small, P.M., Ponce de Leon, A., Jacobs, W.R. Jr, Hatfull, G.F. et al. (2003) Rapid identification and susceptibility testing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from MGIT cultures with luciferase reporter mycobacteriophages. J Med Microbiol 52, 557-561.
13. Barnes, P.P. and Cave, D. (2003) Molecular epidemiology of tuberculosis. N Engl J Med 349, 1149-1156.
14. Barrow, P.A. and Soothill, J.S. (1997) Bacteriophage therapy and prophylaxis: rediscovery and renewed assessment of potential. Trends Microbiol 5, 268-271.
15. Barsom, E.K. and Hatfull, G.F. (1996) Characterization of a Mycobacterium smegmatis gene that confers resistance to phages L5 and D29 when overexpressed. Mol Microbiol 21, 159-170.
16. Bowman, B.U., Amos, W.T. and Geer, J.C. (1972). Failure to produce experimental sarcoidosis in guinea pigs with Mycobacterium tuberculosis and mycobacteriophage DS6A. Am Rev Respir Dis 105, 85-94.
17. Broxmeyer, L., Sosnowska, D., Miltner, E., Chacon, O., Wagner, D., McGarvey, J., Barletta, R.G. and Bermuddez, L.E. (2002) Killing of Mycobacterium avium and Mycobacterium tuberculosis by a mycobacteriophage delivered by a nonvirulent mycobacterium: a model for phage therapy of intracellular bacterial pathogens. J Infect Dis 186, 1155-1160.
18. Butt, T., Ahmad, R.N., Afzal, R.K., Mahmood, A. and Anwar, M. (2004) Rapid detection of rifampicin susceptibility of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in sputum samples by mycobacteriophage assay. J Pak Med Assoc 54, 379-382.
19. Caffrey, J.P. (1994) Status of bovine tuberculosis eradication programmes in Europe. Vet Microbiol 40, 1-4
20. Chatterjee, S., Mahasweta, M. and Das Gupta, S.K. (2000) A high yielding mutant of mycobacteriophage L1 and its application as a diagnostic tool. FEMS Microbiol Lett 188, 47-53.
21. Cocito, C., Gilot, P., Coene, M. de Kesel, M., Poupart, P. and Vannuffel, P. (1994) Paratuberculosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 7, 328-345.
22. Corbett, E.L., Watt, C.J., Walker, N., Maher, D., Williams, B.G., Raviglione, M.C. and Dye, C. (2003) The growing burden of tuberculosis. Arch Intern Med 163, 1009-1021.
23. Darie, H. (2003) Mycobacterium ulcerans infection: epidemiological, clinical and therapeutical aspects. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 96, 368-371.
24. David, H.L., Clavel, S., Clement, F., Meyer, L., Draper, P. and Burdett, I.D. (1978) Interaction of Mycobacterium leprae and mycobacteriophage D29. Ann Microbiol 129, 561-570.
25. David, H.L., Clavel S. and Clement, F. (1980a) Adsorption and growth of the bacteriophage D29 in selected mycobacteria. Ann Inst Pasteur Virol 131, 167-184.
26. David, H.L., Clavel, S., Clement, F. and Moniz Pereira, J. (1980b) Effects of antituberculosis and antileprosy drugs on mycobacteriophage D29 growth. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 18, 357-359.
27. David, H.L., Clement, F., Clavel Seres, S. and Rastogi, N. (1984) Abortive infection of Mycobacterium leprae by the mycobacteriophage D 29. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 52, 515-523.
28. David, H.L., Rastogi, N., Clavel Seres, S. and Clement, F. (1986) Action of colistin (polymyxin E) on the lytic cycle of the mycobacteriophage D29 in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Zentralblfur Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg[A] 262, 321-334.
29. Delbruck, M. (1945) Effects of specific antisera on the growth of bacterial viruses. J Bacteriol 50, 137-150.
30. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, DEFRA Science and Research (2004) Assessment of the economic impacts of TB and alternative control policies (SE3112). http://www.defra. gov.uk/animalh/tb/index.htm.
31. Doke, S. (1960) Studies on mycobacteriophages and lysogenic mycobacteria. Kumamoto Med J 43, 1360-1373.
32. Dye, C., Espinal, M.A., Watt, C.J., Mbiaga, C. and Williams, B. (2002) Worldwide incidence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. J Infect Dis 185, 1197-1202.
33. Eidus, L., Diena, B.B. and Greenberg, L. (1960) The use of p-nitro-α-acetlyamino-beta-hydroxy-propiophenone (NAP) in the differentiation of mycobacteria. Am Rev Respir Dis 81, 759-760.
34. Eltringham, I.J., Wilson, S.M. and Drobniewski, F.A. (1999) Evaluation of a bacteriophage-based assay (phage amplified biologically assay) as a rapid screen for resistance to isoniazid, ethambutol, streptomycin, pyazinamide and ciprofloxacin among clinical isolates of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. J Clin Microbiol 37, 3528-3532.
35. Fox, W., Ellard, G.A. and Mitchison, D.A. (1999) Studies on the treatment of tuberculosis undertaken by the British Medical Research Council tuberculosis units, 1946-1986, with relevant subsequent publications. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 3, S231-S279.
36. Froman, S., Will, D.W. and Bogen, E. (1954) Bacteriophage active against virulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis. 1. Isolation and activity. Am J Public Health 44, 1326-1333.
37. Gali, N., Dominguez, J., Blanco, S., Prat, C., Quesada, M.D., Matas, L. and Ausina, V. (2003) Utility of an in-house mycobacteriophage-based assay for rapid detection of rifampin resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis clinical isolates. J Clin Microbiol 41, 2647-2649.
38. Gardner, G.M. and Weiser, R.S. (1947) A bacteriophage for Mycobacterium smegmatis. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 66, 205-206.
39. van der Graaf, W.T., Scherpbier, R.W. and van der Werf, T.S. (1999) Buruli ulcer (Mycobacterium ulcerans infection). Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 143, 312-316.
40. Grange, J.M. (1982). The genetics of mycobacteria and mycobacteriophages. In The Biology of the Mycobacteria ed. Ratledge, C. and Stanford, J. pp. 309-351. London: Academic Press.
41. Grant, I.R., Hitchings, E.I., McCartney, A., Ferguson, F. and Rowe, M.T. (2002) Effect of commercial-scale high-temperature, short-time pasteurization on the viability of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in naturally infected cows' milk. App Environ Microbiol 68, 602-607.
42. Hagihara, Y., Sakata, M., Shikada, K. and Sasaki, M. (1977) Infection of mycobacteria with mycobacteriophage. 2. Adsorption-invasion time of mycobacteriophage B-1 strain to 7 strains of mycobacteria. Kekkaku 52, 185-188.
43. Hatfull, G.F. (2000) Molecular genetics of mycobacteriophages. In Molecular Genetics of Mycobacteria ed. Hatfull, G.F. and Jacobs, W.R. Jr. pp. 37-54. Washington: ASM Press.
44. Hauduroy, P and Rosset, W. (1963) Tentative de traitement des hamsters inocules avec le BCG par un bacteriophage. Ann Inst Pasteur 104, 419-420.
45. Jacobs, W.R. Jr, Barletta, R.G., Udani, R., Chan, J., Kalkut, G., Sosne, G., Kieser, T., Sarkis, G.J. et al. (1993) Rapid assessment of drug susceptibilities of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by means of luciferase reporter phages. Science 260, 819-822.
46. Jones, W.D. Jr and David, H.L. (1971) Inhibition by rifampin of mycobacteriophage D29 replication in its drug-resistant host, Mycobacterium smegmatis ATCC 607. Am Rev Respir Dis 103, 618-624.
47. Kisa, O., Albay, A., Bedir, O., Baylan, O. and Doganci, L. (2003) Evaluation of FASTPlaqueTB-RIF for determination of rifampicin resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex isolates. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 7, 284-288.
48. Kolbel, H. (1970) Phage multiplication in mycobacterium as a function of time and multiplicity of infection: an electron microscopic study. In Host-virus Relationships in Mycobacterium, Nocardia and Actinomyces ed. Juhasz, S.E. and Plummer, G. pp. 29-38 Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
49. Kozloff, L.M., Sundar Raj, C.V., Rao, R.N., Chapman, V.A. and DeLong, S. (1972) Structure of a transducing mycobacteriophage. J Virol 9, 390-393.
50. Krishnamurthy, A., Rodrigues, C. and Mehta, A.P. (2002) Rapid detection of rifampicin resistance in M. tuberculosis. Indian J Med Microbiol 20, http://www.ijmm.org/archives.
51. Mani, C., Selvakumar, N., Kumar, V., Narayanan, S. and Narayanan, P.R. (2003) Comparison of DNA sequencing, PCR-SSCP and PhaB assays with indirect sensitivity testing for detection of rifampicin resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 7, 652-659.
52. Mankiewicz, E. and Beland, J. (1964) The role of mycobacteriophages and of cortisone in experimental tuberculosis and sarcoidosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 89, 707-720.
53. Marei, A.M., El Behedy, E.M., Mohtady, H.A. and Afify, A.F. (2003) Evaluation of a rapid bacteriophage-based method for the detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in clinical samples. J Med Microbiol 52, 331-335
54. McNerney, R. (1999) TB: the return of the phage. A review of fifty years of mycobacteriophage research. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 3, 179-184.
55. McNerney, R. (2001a) Micro-well phage replication assay for screening mycobacteria for resistance to rifampicin and streptomycin. In Methods in Molecular Medicine 48, Antibiotic Resistance Methods and Protocols ed. Gillespie, S.H. pp. 21-30. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press Inc.
56. McNerney, R. (2001b) Phage replication technology for diagnosis and susceptibility testing. In Methods in Molecular Medicine 54, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, ed. Parish, T. and Stoker, N.G. pp. 145-154. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press.
57. McNerney, R., Wilson, S.M., Sidhu, A.M., Harley, V.S., al Suwaidi, Z., Nye, P.M., Parish, T. & Stoker, N.G. (1998) Inactivation of mycobacteriophage D29 using ferrous ammonium sulphate as a tool for the detection of viable Mycobacterium smegmatis and M. tuberculosis. Res Microbiol 149, 487-495.
58. McNerney, R., Kiepiela, P., Bishop, K.S., Nye, P.M. & Stoker, N.G. (2000) Rapid screening of Mycobacterium tuberculosis for susceptibility to rifampicin and streptomycin. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 4, 69-75.
59. McNerney, R., Kambashi, B.S., Kinkese, J., Tembwe, R. and Godfrey-Faussett, P. (2004) Development of a bacteriophage phage replication assay for diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis. J Clin Microbiol 42, 2115-2120.
60. Mediavilla, J., Jain, S., Kriakov, J., Ford, M.E., Duda, R.L., Jacobs, W.R. Jr, Hendrix, R.W. and Hatfull, G.R. (2000) Genome organization and characterization of mycobacteriophage Bxb1. Mol Microbiol 38, 955-970.
61. Ministry of Health, Central Board of Health. (1999) HIV/AIDS in Zambia. Background, Projections, Impacts and Interventions. Lusaka, Zambia: Ministry of Health.
62. Mukamolova, G.V., Kaprelyants, A.S., Young, D.I., Young, M. and Kell, D.B. (1998) A bacterial cytokine. Proc Natl Acad Sci 95, 8916-8921.
63. Mukamolova, G.V., Turapov, O.A., Young, D.I., Kaprelyants, A.S., Kell, D.B. and Young, M. (2002) A family of autocrine growth factors in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Mol Microbiol 46, 623-635.
64. Muzaffar, R., Batool, S., Aziz, A. and Rizvi, A. (2002) Evaluation of the FASTPlaqueTB assay for direct detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in sputum specimens. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 6, 635-640.
65. Mwaba, P., Maboshe, M., Chintu, C., Squire, B., Nyirenda, S. Sunkutu, R. and Zumla, A. (2003) The relentless spread of tuberculosis in Zambia-trends over the past 37 years (1964-2000). S Afr J Med Res 93, 149-152.
66. Nachega, J.B. and Chaisson, R.E. (2003) Tuberculosis drug resistance: a global threat. Clin Infect Dis 36, S24-S30.
67. Nakamura, R.M., Tokunaga, T. and Murohashi, T. (1967) Premature lysis of bacteriophage-infected mycobacteria induced by kanamycin. Am Rev Respir Dis 96, 542-544.
68. Nightingale, S.D., Byrd, L.T., Southern, P.M., Jockusch, J.D., Cal, S.X. and Wynne, B.A. (1992) Incidence of Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare complex bacteremia in human immunodeficiency virus-positive patients. J Infect Dis 165, 1082-1085.
69. O'Brien, R.J. and Nunn, P.P. (2001) The need for new drugs against tuberculosis. Am J Respir Care Med 162, 1055-1058.
70. Oftung, F., Mustafa, A.S. and Wiker, H.G. (2000) Extensive sequence homology between the Mycobacterium leprae LSR (12 kDa) antigen and its Mycobacterium tuberculosis counterpart. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 27, 87-89.
71. Olsen, I., Siguroardottir, O.G. and Djonne, B. (2002) Paratuberculosis with special reference to cattle. Vet Q 24, 12-28.
72. Park, D.J., Drobniewski, F.A., Meyer, A. and Wilson, S.M. (2003) Use of a phage-based assay for phenotypic detection of mycobacteria directly from sputum. J Clin Microbiol 41, 680-688.
73. Pearson, R.E., Jurgensen, S., Sarkis, G.J., Hatfull, G.F. and Jacobs, W.R. Jr (1996) Construction of D29 shuttle phasmids and luciferase reporter phages for detection of mycobacteria. Gene 183, 129-136.
74. Pedulla, M.L., Ford, M.E., Houtz, J.M., Karthikeyan, T., Wadsworth, C., Lewis, J.A., Jacobs-Sera, D., Falbo, J. et al. (2003) Origins of highly mosaic mycobacteriophage genomes. Cell 113, 117-182.
75. Pfyffer, G. (1999) Nucleic acid amplification for mycobacterial diagnosis. J Infect 39, 21-26.
76. Phillips, L.M. and Sellers, M.I. (1970) Effects of ethambutol, actinomycin D and mitomycin C on the biosynthesis of D29-infected Mycobacterium smegmatis. In Host-virus Relationships in Mycobacterium, Nocardia and Actinomyces ed. Juhasz, S.E. and Plummer, G. pp. 80-102. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
77. Redmond, W.B. and Cater, J.C. (1960) A bacteriophage specific for Mycobacterium tuberculosis, varieties hominis and bovis. Am Rev Respir Dis 82, 781-786.
78. Rieder, H.L. (2002) Interventions for Tuberculosis Control and Elimination. Paris, France: International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease.
79. Riska, P.F. and Jacobs, W.R. Jr (1998) The use of luciferase-reporter phage for antibiotic-susceptibility testing of mycobacteria. In Methods in Molecular Biology ed. Parish, T and Stoker, N.G. pp. 431-455. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press.
80. Riska, P.F., Jacobs, W.R., Jr, Bloom, B.R., McKitrick, J. and Chan, J. (1997) Specific identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis with the luciferase reporter mycobacteriophage: use of p-nitro-alpha-acetylamino-beta-hydroxy propiophenone. J Clin Microbiol 35, 3225-3231.
81. Riska, P.F., Su, Y., Bardarov, S., Freundlich, L., Sarkis, G., Hatfull, G.F., Carriere, C., Kumar, V. et al., (1999) Rapid film-based determination of antibiotic susceptibilities of Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains by using a luciferase reporter phage and the bronx box. J Clin Microbiol 37, 1144-1149.
82. Rubin, E.J., Akerley, B.J., Novik, V.N., Lampe, D.J., Husson, R.N. and Mekalanos, J.J. (1999) In vivo transcription of mariner-based elements in enteric bacteria and mycobacteria. Proc Natl Acad Sci 96, 1645-1650.
83. Sarkis, G.J. and Hatfull, G.F. (1998). Mycobacteriophages. In Mycobacteria Protocols ed. Parish, T. and Stoker, N.G. pp. 145-173. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press.
84. Sarkis, G.J., Jacobs, W.R. Jr and Hatfull, G.F. (1995) L5 luciferase reporter mycobacteriophages: a sensitive tool for the detection and assay of live mycobacteria. Mol Microbiol 15, 1055-1067.
85. Sela, S., Thole, J.E., Ottenhoff, T.H. and Clark Curtiss, J.E. (1991) Identification of Mycobacterium leprae antigens from a cosmid library: characterization of a 15-kilodalton antigen that is recognized by both the humoral and cellular immune systems in leprosy patients. Infect Immun 59, 4117-4124.
86. Sellers, M.I., Baxter, W.L. and Runnals, H.R. (1962) Growth characteristics of mycobacteriophages D28 and D29. Can J Microbiol 8, 389-399.
87. Stinear, T.P., Mve Obiang, A., Small, P.L., Frigui, W., Pryor, M.J., Brosch, R., Jenkin, G.A., Johnson, P.D. et al. (2004) Giant plasmid-encoded polyketide synthases produce the macrolide toxin of Mycobacterium ulcerans. Proc Natl Acad Sci 101, 1345-1349.
88. Sula, L., Sulova, J. and Stolcpartova, M. (1981) Therapy of experimental tuberculosis in guinea pigs with mycobacterial phages DS-6A, GR-21T, My-327. Czech Med 4, 209-214.
89. Sulakvelidze, A., Alavidze, Z. and Morris, G.J. (2001) Bacteriophage therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 45, 649-659.
90. Timme, T.L. and Brennan, P.J. (1984) Induction of bacteriophages from members of the Mycobacterium avium, mycobacterium intracellulare, Mycobacterium scrofulaceum serocomplex. J Gen Microbiol 130, 2059-2066.
91. Tokunaga, T. and Sellers, M.I. (1965) Streptomycin induction of premature lysis of bacteriophage-infected mycobacteria. J Bacteriol 89, 537-538.
92. Tokunaga, T., Mizuguchi, Y. and Murohashi, T. (1964) Abortive infection and host killing of mycobacteriophage. Am Rev Respir Dis 89, 929-932.
93. Tokunaga, T., Sellers, M.I. and Furuchi, A. (1970). Phage receptor of Mycobacterium smegmatis. In Host-virus Relationships in Mycobacteria, Nocardia and Actinomyces ed. Juhasz, S.E. and Plummer, G. pp. 119-133. Springfield, IL: C.C. Thomas.
94. Waldor, M. (1998) Bacteriophage biology and bacterial virulence. Trends Microbiol 6, 295-296.
95. Walker, D., McNerney, R., Kimankinda Mwembo, M., Foster, S., Tihon, V. and Godfrey-Fausett, P. (2000) An incremental cost-effectiveness analysis of the first, second and third sputum examination in the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 4, 246-251.
96. Watterson, S., Wilson, S.M., Yates, M.D. and Drobniewski, F.A. (1998) Comparison of three molecular assays for rapid detection of rifampin resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. J Clin Microbiol 36, 1969-1973.
97. Werner, E.R., Werner-Felmayer, G. & Mayer, B. (1999) Minireview: Tetrahydrobiopterin, cytokines and nitric oxide synthesis. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 219, 171-182.
98. Williams, S.L., Harris, N.B. and Barletta, R.G. (1999) Development of a firefly luciferase-based assay for determining antimicrobial susceptibility of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. J Clin Microbiol 37, 304-309.
99. Wilson, S.M., al Suwaidi, Z., McNerney, R., Porter, J. & Drobniewski, F. (1997) Evaluation of a new rapid bacteriophage-based method for the drug susceptibility testing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Nat Med 3, 465-468.
100. Wolinsky, E. (1979) Non-tuberculous mycobacteria and associated diseases. Am Rev Respir Dis 119, 107-159.
101. World Health Organisation (WHO) (2001) Fact sheet no. 199. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
102. World Health Organisation (WHO) (2003) Fact sheet no. 101. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
103. Zemskova, Z.S. and Dorozhkova, I.R. (1991) Pathomorphological evaluation of therapeutic effect of mycobacteriophages in tuberculosis. Probl Tuberk 11, 63-66.