The strategic culture of the European Union: A progress report

International Affairs

Volumn 81, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 801-820

  Cornish, Paul ^b   Edwards, Geoffrey ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 22544438723     PISSN: 00205850     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2346.2005.00485.x     Document Type: Review

References (69)

1. J. Solana, 'A secure Europe in a better world, European Security Stategy', http://ue.eu.int/vedocs/cmsUpload/78367.pdf, last accessed 8 June 2005.
2. See e.g. Sten Rynning, 'A fragmented external role: the EU, defence policy and new Atlanticism', in Michèle Knodt and Sebastiaan Princen, eds, Understanding the European Union's external relations (London: Routledge, 2003);
3. Mette Eilstrup Sangiovanni, 'Why a Common Security and Defence Policy is bad for Europe', Survival 45: 3, Autumn 2003, pp. 193-206.
4. See e.g. François Heisbourg, 'The "European Security Strategy" is not a security strategy', in Steven Everts et al., A European way of war (London: Centre for Economic Reform, May 2004), p. 28.
5. See N. Woods, The shifting politics of foreign aid', International Affairs 81: 2, March 2005, pp. 393-409.
6. See P. Cornish and G. Edwards, 'Beyond the EU/NATO dichotomy: the beginnings of a European strategic culture', International Affairs 77: 3, July 2001.
7. J. Solana, 'Target 2003', Armed Forces Journal International, May 2001, p. 14.
8. The Conclusions and Plan of Action of the Extraordinary European Council Meeting on 21 September 2001 declared: 'It is by developing the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) and by making the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) operational at the earliest opportunity that the Union will be most effective. The fight against the scourge of terrorism will be all the more effective if it is based on an in-depth political dialogue with those countries and regions of the world in which terrorism comes into being.' See http://ue.eu.int/ueDocs/cms_Data/docs/pressData/en/ec/140.en.pdf, last accessed 8 June 2005.
9. 'Not rapid enough', Financial Times, 19 Nov. 2001.
10. Military Balance 2001-02 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, October 2001).
11. 'EU rapid reaction force "will not be ready this year"', Independent, 13 Oct. 2001.
12. Council of the European Union, Draft Presidency Report on European Security and Defence Policy, document no. 15193/01, Brussels, 11 Dec. 2001, annex I, section III, para. 9.
13. See also B. Schmitt, 'Defence procurement: new ways ahead', Newsletter 13 (Paris: EU-ISS, 2005).
14. The 19 ECAP panels are listed in B. Schmitt, 'European Capabilities Action Plan (ECAP)', EUISS website, http://www.iss-eu.org/esdp/06-bsecap.pdf, updated Jan. 2005.
15. See e.g. http://www.regeringen.sc/content/1/c6/02/53/4.3/5d8c6c8d.pdf for the Capability Improvement Chart II 2004, Brussels, 17 Nov. 2004.
16. See also EU Military Capability Commitment Conference, 'Declaration on European military capabilities', Brussels, 22 Nov. 2004, 'The evolution of ECAP 2001-04', para. 4, http://ue.eu.int/vedocs/cms_Data/Docs/pressData/eu/misc/ 32761.pdf, last accessed 8 June 2005.
17. Council of the European Union, Capability Improvement Chart 11/2004, Brussels, 17 Nov. 2004.
18. G. Lindstrom, 'The Headline Goal', EUISS online briefings, Dec. 2004, at http://www.iss-eu.org/esdp/05-gl.pdf.
19. 'Declaration on European military capabilities', Brussels, 22 Nov. 2004, para. 11.
20. Presidency Conclusions, Thessaloniki European Council, 19-20 June 2003, para. 65, at http://europa.eu.int/constitution/futurum/documents/other/ oth200603_en.pdf.
21. D. Keohane, Europe's new defence agency, policy brief (London: Centre for European Reform, 28 June 2004).
22. 'Declaration on European military capabilities', Brussels, 22 Nov. 2004, annex, 'The evolution of ECAP 2001-04', para. 10.
23. For background see http://ue.eu.int/uedocs/cmsUpload/050208_EDA_update2. pdf. A chief executive, Nick Witney, was appointed in July 2004.
24. Feira Presidency Conclusions, appendix 3 to annex I.
25. Interim report, 'Building European defence: NATO's ESDI and the European Union's ESDP', Defence and Security Sub-Committee on Transatlantic Defence and Security Co-operation, NATO Parliamentary Assembly, International Secretariat, Nov. 2000, at http://www.nato-pa.int/archivedpub/comrep/2000/at-247-e.asp.
26. Council of the European Union, Draft Presidency Report on European Security and Defence Policy, document no. 15193/01, Brussels, 11 Dec. 2001, annex II, 'Ministerial police Capabilities Commitment Conference'.
27. The EGF was launched in the Netherlands in September 2004. Based in Vicenza, Italy, and available for deployment from 2005, the force will be about 3,000 strong, with a rapid reaction element of about 800-900 ready to move within 30 days.
28. See e.g. 'Declaration on European military capabilities', Brussels, 22 Nov. 2004, 'The evolution of ECAP 2001-04', para. 13.
29. In December 2004 Eurobarometer reported that support for ESDP was higher than it had been for the last ten years, and was particularly strong in the new member states. The UK, with 27% against, was not the most reticent country: Swedes and Finns, at 39% and 36% against respectively, were even less enthusiastic.
30. Ulrich Schneckener, 'Theory and practice of European crisis management', European Yearbook of Minority Issues 1, 2001/2, 2003, p. 151.
31. The four priorities listed in the Presidency Conclusions of the Feira European Council, June 2000.
32. H. Ojanen, 'Operation Althea: healing, testing or testing the healing', CFSP Forum 3: 1, January 2005, p. 11.
33. J. Solana, remarks on termination of the mandate, EU press release SO168/03, 1 Sept. 2003.
34. 'Strengthening European co-operation in security and defence', Declaration, Franco-British summit, London, 24 Nov. 2003.
35. ISIS Europe, European Security Review 23, July 2004.
36. See Alistair Shepherd, 'Irrelevant or indispensable? ESDP, the "war on terror" and the fallout from Iraq', paper delivered at the Standing Group on International Relations conference, The Hague, Sept. 2004.
37. See European Council, 'Declaration on combating terrorism', Brussels, 25 March 2004, at http://www.eu2004.ie/templates/document_file.asp?id=10762.
38. See also Council of the European Union, 'EU plan of action on combating terrorism_update', 16090/04, Brussels, 14 Dec. 2004, at http://www.statewatch. org/news/2004/dec/terr-action-plan-16090.pdf.
39. François Heisbourg, for example, dismissed the initiative, arguing: 'The ESS can capture at any given moment what appears to unite the EU-25 in analytical and policy terms. But the security strategy does not emanate from a fully fledged strategic actor that can wield force on its own account' (Heisbourg, 'The "European Security Strategy" is not a security strategy'). See also Asie Toje, The 2003 European Union Security Strategy - a critical appraisal', European Foreign Affairs Review 9: 1, 2005.
40. Nice Treaty, article 25.
41. Simon Duke, The Linchpin COPS: assessing the workings and institutional relations of the Political and Security Committee, European Institute of Public Administration working paper 2005/W/05, p. 22.
42. The Directorate-General is currently headed by Robert Cooper, a former adviser to Tony Blair. See also Antonio Missiroli, 'ESDP - How it works', in N. Gnesotto, ed., European Security and Defence Policy: the first five years (Paris: EU-ISS, 2005).
43. CIVCOM interacts with the Commission's own Crisis Management Centre within RELEX.
44. 'French seek wider role for EU army', Sunday Times, 4 March 2001.
45. 'Meeting of the Heads of State and Government of Germany, France, Luxembourg and Belgium on European defence', Conclusions, Brussels, 29 April 2003.
46. 'Blair sabotages French plan for EU army', The Times, 25 Aug. 2003.
47. M. Annati, 'Shaping the requirements for the European Rapid Reaction Force', NATO's Nations and Partners for Peace, January 2002, pp. 140-50.
48. 'Germans want British Army to be run by EU', Sunday Times, 26 Oct. 2003.
49. 'US says yes to army planning unit', Financial Times, 13 Dec. 2003.
50. 'US arms talks test "realism" in EU relations', Financial Times, 24 June 2003.
51. William Shapcott, evidence to the House of Lords, 3 Nov. 2004, p. 54.
52. Solana interview, 30 March 2004, at http://europa-eu-un.org/articles/lv/ article_3359_lv.html.
53. Presidency Conclusions, European Council 17-18 June 2004, 10679/2/04 REV 2, p. 4.
54. Global Partnership Update 3, March 2004.
55. Euobserver.com, 25 Feb. 2005.
56. The mandate for Heikki Talvitie, a Finnish diplomat and veteran of the OSCE's Minsk Conference on Nagorno-Karabakh 1995-6, is, for example, to 'contribute to the implementation of the EU's policy objectives, which include assisting the countries of the South Caucasus in carrying out political and economic reforms, preventing and assisting in the resolution of conflicts, promoting the return of refugees and internally displaced persons, engaging constructively with key national actors neighbouring the region, supporting intra-regional co-operation and ensuring co-ordination, consistency and effectiveness of the EU's action in the South Caucasus. The EUSR will support the work of High Representative Solana in the region.' See http://ue.eu.int/ cms3_fo/showPage.asp?id=263&lang=en&mode=g.
57. Terms of reference, Barcelona Security Doctrine for Europe, at http://www.lse.ac.uk/Depts/global/StudyGroup/StudyGroupTOR.html.
58. Chancellor Schröder, speaking at the Munich Security Conference, 12 Feb. 2005, at http://www.securityconference.de/konferenzen/rede.php?menu_2005= &menu_konferenzen=&sprache=en&id=143&.
59. 'NATO-EU: a strategic partnership', NATO website http://www.nato.int/ issues/nato-eu/evolution.html, accessed 30 July 2004.
60. 'NATO-EU: a strategic partnership'.
61. 'EU-NATO declaration on ESDP', NATO press release 142, 16 Dec. 2002. See http://www.nato.int/docu/pr/2002/p02-142e.html.
62. A draft of the NATO-EU agreement, dated 17 Feb. 2003, can be found at http://faculty.maxwell.syr.edu/asroberts/foi/security.html.
63. Statement by the Secretary General, NATO press release 140, 13 Dec. 2002.
64. The scheme was first set out at the 1999 Washington summit. See 'An alliance for the 21st century', Washington summit communiqué (Brussels: NATO, 1999), para. 10.
65. 'EU operational planning: the politics of defence', Strategic Comments 9: 10 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, Dec. 2003).
66. Council of the European Union, 'European defence: NATO/EU consultation, planning and operations', 13990/04 EXT 1, Brussels, 28 Jan. 2004.
67. P. Cornish, 'NATO: the practice and politics of transformation', International Affairs 80: 1, Jan. 2004.
68. Joseph Nye, 'Soft power: the means to success in world politics', Public Affairs, 2004.
69. Kalypso Nicolaidis, 'The power of the superpowerless', in Tod Lindberg, ed., Beyond paradise and power: Europe, America, and the future of a troubled partnership (London: Routledge, 2004).