Beyond the EU/NATO dichotomy: The beginnings of a European strategic culture

International Affairs

Volumn 77, Issue 3, 2001, Pages 587-603

  Cornish, Paul ^a   Edwards, Geoffrey ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

^b PEMBROKE COLLEGE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0039149686     PISSN: 00205850     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1468-2346.00208     Document Type: Article

References (57)

1. F. Heisbourg, 'Europe's strategic ambitions: the limits of ambiguity', Survival 42: 2, summer 2000
2. N. Gnesetto, Newsletter (Paris: WEU Institute for Security Studies, July 2000). See also A. Deighton, 'The military security pool: towards a new security regime for Europe?', The International Spectator 35: 4, October-December 2000; G. Andréani, C. Bertram and C. Grant, Europe's military revolution (London: Centre for European Reform, 2001)
3. N. Gnesetto, Newsletter (Paris: WEU Institute for Security Studies, July 2000). See also A. Deighton, 'The military security pool: towards a new security regime for Europe?', The International Spectator 35: 4, October-December 2000; G. Andréani, C. Bertram and C. Grant, Europe's military revolution (London: Centre for European Reform, 2001)
4. N. Gnesetto, Newsletter (Paris: WEU Institute for Security Studies, July 2000). See also A. Deighton, 'The military security pool: towards a new security regime for Europe?', The International Spectator 35: 4, October-December 2000; G. Andréani, C. Bertram and C. Grant, Europe's military revolution (London: Centre for European Reform, 2001)
5. J. Howorth, 'Britain, France and the European Defence Initiative', Survival 42: 2, 2000; A. Shearer, 'Britain, France and the St Malo Declaration: tactical rapprochement or strategic entente?', Cambridge Review of International Affairs 13: 2, 2000
6. J. Howorth, 'Britain, France and the European Defence Initiative', Survival 42: 2, 2000; A. Shearer, 'Britain, France and the St Malo Declaration: tactical rapprochement or strategic entente?', Cambridge Review of International Affairs 13: 2, 2000
7. Heisbourg, 'Europe's strategic ambitions', p. 7
8. See P. Cornish, Partnership in crisis: the US, Europe and the fall and rise of NATO (London: Pinter/RIIA, 1997), ch. 3
9. Washington Summit Communiqué, NAC-S(99)64, 24 April 1999, para. 10
10. The Turkish Defence Minister was reported as saying: 'We are a member of NATO. In NATO decisions are adopted unanimously. The sentence incorporates everything.' Quoted by W. Park in his Memorandum to the House of Lords. House of Lords Select Committee on the European Union, 15th Report, The Common European Policy on Security and Defence, Evidence HL Paper 101-1, 25 July 2000, p. 125
11. Appendix 2 of the Portuguese Presidency Conclusions, European Council, Santa Maria da Feira, 19-20 June 2000
12. 2 October 2000 at a Press Conference after meeting Madeleine Albright (together with other members of the EU Troika, i.e. Javier Solana and Chris Patten). (French Embassy, Statements SAC/00/837.)
13. 'French trigger NATO furore', The Times, 8 December 2000. The French Embassy statements, on the other hand, report that what the President had actually said in the press conference was that 'Defence Europe must, of course, be coordinated with the Alliance, but it must, as regards its development and implementation, be independent of SHAPE, coordinated but independent' (French Embassy, Statements SAC/00/933)
14. NAC Final Communiqué (M-NAC-2(2000)124), 15 December 2000; 'So that's all agreed, then', The Economist, 16 December 2000; 'Turkey: not yet slotted in', The Economist, 23 December 2000
15. NAC Final Communiqué (M-NAC-2(2000)124), 15 December 2000; 'So that's all agreed, then', The Economist, 16 December 2000; 'Turkey: not yet slotted in', The Economist, 23 December 2000
16. European Voice, 5 October 2000
17. With the two men providing an invaluable informal link through weekly breakfasts, European Voice, 27 April 2000
18. See F. Heisbourg, 'European defence takes a leap forward', NATO Review 48, spring/summer 2000
19. William Drozdiak, 'US tepid on European defense plan', Washington Post Foreign Service (washingtonpost.com), 7 March 2000
20. 'Tory tirade falls flat as US backs European force', The Times, 11 October 2000
21. 'The Nice ambush' (leader), The Times, 7 December 2000
22. Drozdiak, 'US tepid on European defense plan
23. For example, 'Euro army threat to Nato, says Kissinger', Daily Telegraph, 26 January 2001; 'Powell backs plans for EU defence force', Guardian, 7 February 2001; 'US move gives boost to plans for rapid reaction force', Financial Times, 7 February 2001; 'Blair wants to forge "special" bond with Bush', Independent on Sunday, 18 February 2001; 'US launches attack on Euro army', Sunday Telegraph, 18 March 2001; 'Doubts on both sides of the Atlantic', The Economist, 31 March 2001
24. For example, 'Euro army threat to Nato, says Kissinger', Daily Telegraph, 26 January 2001; 'Powell backs plans for EU defence force', Guardian, 7 February 2001; 'US move gives boost to plans for rapid reaction force', Financial Times, 7 February 2001; 'Blair wants to forge "special" bond with Bush', Independent on Sunday, 18 February 2001; 'US launches attack on Euro army', Sunday Telegraph, 18 March 2001; 'Doubts on both sides of the Atlantic', The Economist, 31 March 2001
25. For example, 'Euro army threat to Nato, says Kissinger', Daily Telegraph, 26 January 2001; 'Powell backs plans for EU defence force', Guardian, 7 February 2001; 'US move gives boost to plans for rapid reaction force', Financial Times, 7 February 2001; 'Blair wants to forge "special" bond with Bush', Independent on Sunday, 18 February 2001; 'US launches attack on Euro army', Sunday Telegraph, 18 March 2001; 'Doubts on both sides of the Atlantic', The Economist, 31 March 2001
26. For example, 'Euro army threat to Nato, says Kissinger', Daily Telegraph, 26 January 2001; 'Powell backs plans for EU defence force', Guardian, 7 February 2001; 'US move gives boost to plans for rapid reaction force', Financial Times, 7 February 2001; 'Blair wants to forge "special" bond with Bush', Independent on Sunday, 18 February 2001; 'US launches attack on Euro army', Sunday Telegraph, 18 March 2001; 'Doubts on both sides of the Atlantic', The Economist, 31 March 2001
27. For example, 'Euro army threat to Nato, says Kissinger', Daily Telegraph, 26 January 2001; 'Powell backs plans for EU defence force', Guardian, 7 February 2001; 'US move gives boost to plans for rapid reaction force', Financial Times, 7 February 2001; 'Blair wants to forge "special" bond with Bush', Independent on Sunday, 18 February 2001; 'US launches attack on Euro army', Sunday Telegraph, 18 March 2001; 'Doubts on both sides of the Atlantic', The Economist, 31 March 2001
28. For example, 'Euro army threat to Nato, says Kissinger', Daily Telegraph, 26 January 2001; 'Powell backs plans for EU defence force', Guardian, 7 February 2001; 'US move gives boost to plans for rapid reaction force', Financial Times, 7 February 2001; 'Blair wants to forge "special" bond with Bush', Independent on Sunday, 18 February 2001; 'US launches attack on Euro army', Sunday Telegraph, 18 March 2001; 'Doubts on both sides of the Atlantic', The Economist, 31 March 2001
29. See, for example, the joint statement by President George W. Bush and Prime Minister Tony Blair, 23 February 2001 (http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/02/text/20010226)
30. Gnesetto, Newsletter
31. 'EU military capabilities commitment declaration' (http://ue.eu.int/pesc/en/CCC.htm), 20 November 2000
32. Secretary General's Opening Statement, NAC Defence Ministers, 5 December 2000 (www.nato.int/docu/speech/2000/s001205a.htm). See also 'Europe's defence and the US', Financial Times, 28 December 2000
33. A number of options were considered, such as placing WEU in a newly created Fourth Pillar, or placing WEU under the aegis of the EU Council, coordinated with CFSP. The outcome was the decision to insert WEU into EU (not integrate) by joining it with CFSP. Hence Javier Solana's appointments: High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy; Secretary General of the EU Council; and Secretary General of the WEU (in its last hours). See L. M. de Puig, The myth of Europa: a paradigm for European defence (Paris: WEU Assembly, 2000), pp. 17-18
34. European Military Staff Organization (http://ue.eu.int/pesc/military/en/EUMS.htm)
35. Emyr Jones Parry to the House of Lords Select Committee op. cit. p. 3
36. As quoted in Council Decision, 22 January 2001 (2001/80/CFSP) OJ L27/7
37. G. Andréani, 'Why institutions matter', Survival 42: 2, summer 2000, p. 83
38. H. Wallace, 'Making multilateral negotiations work', in W. Wallace, ed., The dynamics of European integration (London: RIIA/Pinter 1991)
39. C. Hill, 'The capability-expectations gap, or conceptualizing Europe's international role', Journal of Common Market Studies 31: 3, 1993; and 'Closing the capabilities-expectations gap?', in J. Peterson and Helene Sjursen, A common foreign policy for Europe? (London: Routledge, 1998)
40. C. Hill, 'The capability-expectations gap, or conceptualizing Europe's international role', Journal of Common Market Studies 31: 3, 1993; and 'Closing the capabilities-expectations gap?', in J. Peterson and Helene Sjursen, A common foreign policy for Europe? (London: Routledge, 1998)
41. Deighton, 'The military security pool', p. 25
42. Andréani et al., p. 50
43. Karl Deutsch distinguished between a 'pluralistic security community', where the governments and societies of two or more states discount the possibility of mutual warfare, and each ceases to make financial and military preparations for aggression or defence in respect of the others but their institutions and authority are not integrated, or an 'amalgamated security community' where a merger of some sort takes place. K. Deutsch et al., Political community and the North Atlantic area (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957), p. 6. The EU increasingly offers elements of both
44. G. Edwards, 'Europe's security and defence policy and enlargement: the ghost at the feast?', EUI working papers (Florence: RSC no. 2000/69, December 2000), p. 13
45. See M. Ortega, Military intervention and the European Union (Paris: Institute for Security Studies, Chaillot Paper no. 45, March 2001), ch. 6
46. O. P. Richmond, 'Emerging concepts of security in the European order: implications for "zones of conflict" at the fringes of the EU', European Security 19: 1, spring 2000, p. 42
47. P. Nielson, 'Building credibility: the role of European development policy in preventing conflicts', speech to Foreign Policy Centre, London, 8 February 2001 (http://europa.eu.int)
48. The European Community's Development Policy - Statement by the Council and the Commission (http://europa.eu.int/comm/development/lex/en/council20001110_en.htm)
49. See C. Smith, 'Security-sector reform: development breakthrough or institutional engineering?', Conflict, Security and Development 1: 1, 2001
50. D. Hendrickson, 'A review of secunty-sector reform', in The conflict, security and development group working papers (London: Centre for Defence Studies, King's College London, 1999, Working Paper no. 1), p. 18
51. 'Security sector reform and the elimination of poverty'. Speech by the Rt Hon. Clare Short MP, Secretary of State for International Development, at the Centre for Defence Studies, King's College London, Tuesday 9 March 1999 (http://www.dfid.gov.uk/public/search/search_frame.html)
52. Treaty on European Union, Title I, Common Provisions, Article C (http://europa.eu.int/en/record/mt/titleI.html)
53. J. Pinheiro, 'Can EU development assistance contribute to peace and security?', speech to CESD/ISIS conference, Brussels, 24 September 1998 (European Commission Development website, http://europa.eu.int/comm/development/speeches/en/980924.htm)
54. 'Preventive diplomacy, conflict resolution and peacekeeping in Africa'. Conclusions of the Council and the representatives of the member states on the role of development cooperation in strengthening peace-building, conflict prevention and resolution, 4 December 1995 (http://europa.eu.int/comm/development/prevention/conclusions-1995.htm)
55. 'The EU and the issue of conflicts in Africa: peace-building, conflict prevention and beyond', communication from the Commission to the Council (SEC(96) 332, 6 March 1996 (http://europa.eu.int/comm/development/prevention/communication-1996.htm)
56. Joint action on the European Union's contribution to combating the destabilizing accumulation and spread of small arms and light weapons, adopted by council on 17 December 1998, Official Journal of the European Communities (1999/34/CFSP, 15 January 1999)
57. P. Nielson, 'Building credibility: the role of European development policy in preventing conflicts', speech to Foreign Policy Centre, London, 8 February 2001 (http://europa.eu.int/rapid/start/cgi/guesten.ksh?p_action.gettxt=gt&doc=SPEECH/01/58|0|RAPID&lg=EN)