Impact of science and management on the welfare of egg laying strains of hens

Poultry Science

Volumn 84, Issue 5, 2005, Pages 687-696

  Hester, P Y ^a  

^a PURDUE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Behavior; Chicken; Laying hen; Poultry; Welfare

Indexed keywords

ANIMALIA; AVES; GALLUS GALLUS;

EID: 19044379804     PISSN: 00325791     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/ps/84.5.687     Document Type: Review

References (163)

1. Abrahamsson, P., and R. Tauson. 1995. Aviary systems and conventional cages for laying hens. Effects on production, egg quality, health and bird location in three hybrids. Acta Agric. Scand. A Anim. Sci. 45:191-203.
2. Adams, A. W., and J. V. Craig. 1985. Effect of crowding and cage shape on productivity and profitability of caged layers: A survey. Poult. Sci. 64:238-242.
3. Aggrey, S. E., H. Kroetzl, and D. W. Foelsch. 1990. Behaviour of laying hens during induced moulting in three different production systems. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 25:97-105.
4. Agriculture Canada. 1989. Recommended code of practice handling chickens from hatchery to slaughterhouse. Publication 1757. Agriculture Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
5. Alodan, M. A., and M. M. Mashaly. 1999. Effect of induced molting in laying hens on production and immune parameters. Poult. Sci. 78:171-177.
6. Al-Rawi, B., and J. V. Craig. 1975. Agonistic behavior of caged chickens related to group size and area per bird. Appl. Anim. Ethol. 2:69-80.
7. Al-Rawi, B., J. V. Craig, and A. W. Adams. 1976. Agonistic behavior and egg production of caged layers: Genetic strain and group-size effects. Poult. Sci. 55:796-807.
8. Alvey, D. M., S. A. Tucker, N. G. Gregory, and L. J. Wilkins. 1992. The effect of bird handling techniques on the incidence of bird bone breakage when depopulating laying cages. Page 365 in Bone Biology and Skeletal Disorders in Poultry. C. C. Whitehead, ed. Carfax, Abingdon, UK.
9. American Veterinary Medical Association. 2000. Report of the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) Panel on Euthanasia. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 218:669-696.
10. Anderson, K. E., G. S. Davis, P. K. Jenkins, and A. S. Carroll. 2004. Effects of bird age, density, and molt on behavioral profiles of two commercial layer strains in cages. Poult. Sci. 83:15-23.
11. Anderson, K. E., L. R. Minear, and D. Joyce. 2002. Impact of alternative molt programs on weight loss and behavior of laying hens. Poult. Sci. 81(Suppl. 1):34. (Abstr.)
12. Appleby, M. C., G. S. Hogarth, J. A. Anderson, B. O. Hughes, and C. T. Whittemore. 1988. Performance of a deep litter system for egg production. Br. Poult. Sci. 29:735-751.
13. Appleby, M. C., and B. O. Hughes. 1991. Welfare of laying hens in cages and alternative systems: Environmental, physical and behavioural aspects. Worlds Poult. Sci. J. 47:109-128.
14. Appleby, M. C., B. O. Hughes, and H. A. Elson. 1992. Page 207 in Poultry Production Systems: Behaviour, Management and Welfare. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
15. Appleby, M. C., B. O. Hughes, and G. S. Hogarth. 1989. Behaviour of laying hens in a deep litter house. Br. Poult. Sci. 30:545-553.
16. Appleby, M. C., J. A. Mench, and B. O. Hughes. 2004. Poultry Behaviour and Welfare, CABI Publishing, Cambridge, MA.
17. Appleby, M. C., S. F. Smith, and B. O. Hughes. 1993. Nesting, dust bathing and perching by laying hens in cages: Effects of design on behaviour and welfare. Br. Poult. Sci. 34:835-847.
18. Bell, D. D. 2002. Chapter 52: Cage management for layers. Pages 1007-1040 in Commercial Chicken Meat and Egg Production, 5th ed. D. D. Bell and W. D. Weaver, Jr., ed. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Norwell, MA.
19. Bell, D. D. 2003. Historical and current molting practices in the US table egg industry. Poult. Sci. 82:965-970.
20. Berry, W. D., and J. Brake. 1987. Postmolt performance of laying hens molted by high dietary zinc, low dietary sodium, and fasting: Egg production and eggshell quality. Poult. Sci. 66:218-226.
21. Biggs, P. E., M. W. Douglas, K. W. Koelkebeck, and C. M. Parsons. 2003. Evaluation of nonfeed removal methods for molting programs. Poult. Sci. 82:749-753.
22. Biggs, P. E., M. E. Persia, K. W. Koelkebeck, and C. M. Parsons. 2004. Further evaluation of nonfeed removal methods for molting programs. Poult. Sci. 83:745-752.
23. Bishop, S. C., R. H. Fleming, H. A. McCormack, D. K. Flock, and C. C. Whitehead. 2000. Inheritance of bone characteristics affecting osteoporosis in laying hens. Br. Poult. Sci. 41:33-40.
24. Bogner, V. H., W. Peschke, V. Seda, and K. Popp. 1979. Studie zum flächenbedarf von legehennen in käfigen bei bestimmten aktivitäten. Berl. Münch. Tierärztl. Wochenschr. 92:340-343.
25. Boyle, M. L., III, and J. R. Smyth, Jr. 1984. Remelanization of feathers in severely amelanotic adult DAM line chickens. Poult. Sci. 63(Suppl. 1):102. (Abstr.)
26. Brake, J. T., and J. B. Carey. 1983. Induced molting of commercial layers. North Carolina Agricultural Extension Service Poultry Science and Technical Guide No. 10. North Carolina Agricultural Extension Service, Raleigh, NC.
27. Brake, J., G. W. Morgan, and P. Thaxton. 1981. Recrudescence of the thymus and repopulation of lymphocytes during an artificially induced molt in the domestic chicken: Proposed model system. Dev. Comp. Immunol. 5:105-112.
28. Broom, D. M. 1990. Effects of handling and transport on laying hens. Worlds Poult. Sci. J. 46:48-50.
29. Candland, D. K., D. B. Taylor, L. Dresdale, J. M. Leiphart, and S. P. Solow. 1969. Heart rate, aggression, and dominance in the domestic chicken. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 67:70-76.
30. Carlile, F. S. 1984. Ammonia in poultry houses: A literature review. Worlds Poult. Sci. J. 40:99-113.
31. Castanon, F., R. W. Leeper, and C. M. Parsons. 1990. Evaluation of corn gluten feed in the diets of laying hens. Poult. Sci. 69:90-97.
32. Center for Animal Welfare, University of California, Davis. Undated. Euthanasia of poultry: Considerations for producers, transporters, and veterinarians. Available http://animal welfare.ucdavis.edu/publication/ poultryeuth.html. Accessed Nov. 2004.
33. Christmas, R. B., R. H. Harms, and O. M. Junqueira. 1985. Performance of Single Comb White Leghorn hens subjected to 4- or 10-d feed withdrawal force rest procedures. Poult. Sci. 64:2321-2324.
34. Church, J. S. 1992. The effects of environmental enrichment on the behaviour and productivity of caged White Leghorn hens, Gallus gallus domesticus. M.S. Thesis. Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.
35. Compton, M. M., H. P. Van Krey, P. L. Ruszler, and F. C. Gwazdauskas. 1981. The effects of claw removal on growth rate, gonadal steroids, and stress response in cage reared pullets. Poult. Sci. 60:2120-2126.
36. Craig, J. V., D. K. Biswas, and A. M. Guhl. 1969. Agonistic behaviour influenced by strangeness, crowding and heredity in female domestic fowl (Gallus gallus). Anim. Behav. 17:498-506.
37. Craig, J. V., J. A. Craig, and J. V. Vargas. 1986. Corticosteroids and other indicators of hens' well-being in four laying-house environments. Poult. Sci. 65:856-863.
38. Craig, J. V., and G. A. Milliken. 1989. Further studies of density and group size effects in caged hens of stocks differing in fearful behavior: Productivity and behavior. Poult. Sci. 68:9-16.
39. Craig, J. V., and W. M. Muir. 1991. Research note: Genetic adaptation to multiple-bird cage environment is less evident with effective beak trimming. Poult. Sci. 70:2214-2217.
40. Craig, J. V., and W. M. Muir. 1996. Group selection for adaptation to multiple-hen cages: Beak-related mortality, feathering, and body weight responses. Poult. Sci. 75:294-302.
41. Craig, J. V., and J. C. Swanson. 1994. Review: Welfare perspectives on hens kept for egg production. Poult. Sci. 73:921-938.
42. Cunningham, D. L., and A. van Tienhoven. 1983-84. Relationship between production factors and dominance in White Leghorn hens in a study on social rank and cage design. Appl. Anim. Ethol. 11:33-44.
43. Cunningham, D. L., and A. van Tienhoven. 1984. The effects of management program and social rank on behavior and productivity of White Leghorn layers in cages. Poult. Sci. 63:25-30.
44. Darre, M. J. 2003. Disease risks associated with raising free-range poultry, University of Maryland. Poult. Perspect. 5:5-7.
45. Davis, G. S., K. E. Anderson, and A. S. Carroll. 2000. The effects of long-term caging and molt of Single Comb White Leghorn hens on heterophil to lymphocyte ratios, corticosterone, and thyroid hormones. Poult. Sci. 79:514-518.
46. Davis, G. S., K. E. Anderson, and D. R. Jones. 2004. The effects of different beak trimming techniques on plasma corticosterone and performance criteria in Single Comb White Leghorn hens. Poult. Sci. 83:1624-1628.
47. Dawkins, M. S., C. A. Donnelly, and T. A. Jones. 2004. Chicken welfare is influenced more by housing conditions than by stocking density. Nature 427:342-344.
48. Duncan, E. T., M. C. Appleby, and B. O. Hughes. 1992. Effect of perches in laying cages on welfare and production of hens. Br. Poult. Sci. 33:25-35.
49. Duncan, I. J. H., and T. M. Widowski. 1998. Fluorescent light and hen welfare. Poult. Sci. 77:1842. (Abstr.)
50. Duncan, I. J. H., and D. G. M. Wood-Gush. 1971. Frustration and aggression in the domestic fowl. Anim. Behav. 19:500-504.
51. Fleming, R. H., C. C. Whitehead, D. Alvey, N. G. Gregory, and L. J. Wilkins. 1994. Bone structure and breaking strength in laying hens housed in different husbandry systems. Br. Poult. Sci. 35:651-662.
52. Gentle, M. J. 1986. Beak trimming in poultry. Worlds Poult. Sci. J. 42:268-275.
53. Gentle, M. J., and L. H. Hunter. 1988. Neural consequences of partial toe amputation in chickens. Res. Vet. Sci. 45:374-376.
54. Gibson, S. W., P. Dun, and B. O. Hughes. 1988. The performance and behaviour of laying fowls in a covered strawyard system. Res. Dev. Agric. 5:153-163.
55. Glatz, P. C. 2000. Review of beak trimming methods. Publication 00/72. A Report for the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Barton, ACT, Australia. http://www. rirdc.gov.au/reports/CME/00-72.pdf. Accessed Nov. 2004.
56. Gregory, N. G., and L. J. Wilkins. 1989. Broken bones in domestic fowl: Handling and processing damage in end-of-lay battery hens. Br. Poult. Sci. 30:555-562.
57. Gregory, N. G., L. J. Wilkins, D. M. Alvey, and S. A. Tucker. 1993. Effect of catching method and lighting intensity on the prevalence of broken bones and on the ease of handling of end-of-lay hens. Vet. Rec. 132:127-129.
58. Gregory, N. G., L. J. Wilkins, S. D. Austin, C. G. Belyavin, D. M. Alvey, and S. A. Tucker. 1992. Effect of catching method on the prevalence of broken bones in end of lay hens. Avian Pathol. 21:717-722.
59. Gregory, N. G., L. J. Wilkins, S. D. Eleperuma, A. J. Ballantyne, and N. D. Overfield. 1990. Broken bones in domestic fowls: Effect of husbandry system and stunning method in end-of-lay hens. Br. Poult. Sci. 31:59-69.
60. Gunnarsson, S., L. J. Keeling, and J. Svedberg. 1999. Effect of rearing factors on the prevalence of floor eggs, cloacal cannibalism and feather pecking in commercial flocks of loose housed laying hens. Br. Poult. Sci. 40:12-18.
61. Guyomarc'h, C., and J.-C. Guyomarc'h. 1982. Stimulation of sexual development of female quails Coturnix coturnix japonica by male crows: Existence of privileged phases of sensibility during the nycthemer. C. R. Seances Acad. Sci. III 295:37-40.
62. Gyaryahu, G., E. Ararat, E. Asaf, M. Lev, J. I. Weller, B. Robinzon, and N. Snapir. 1994. An enrichment object that reduces aggressiveness and mortality in caged laying hens. Physiol. Behav. 55:313-316.
63. Gyaryahu, G., B. Robinzon, and N. Snapir. 1998. The effect of environmental enrichment on egg-layers: Five years of research. Poult. Sci. 77(Suppl. 1):1842. (Abstr.)
64. Hester, P. Y., M. A. Schreiweis, J. I. Orban, H. Mazzuco, M. N. Kopka, M. C. Ledur, and D. E. Moody. 2004. Assessing bone mineral density in vivo: Dual energy x-ray absorptiometry. Poult. Sci. 83:215-221.
65. Hester, P. Y., and M. Shea-Moore. 2003. Beak trimming egg-laying strains of chickens. Worlds Poult. Sci. J. 59:458-474.
66. Hoen, T., and J. Lankhaar. 1999. Controlled atmosphere stunning of poultry. Poult. Sci. 78:287-289.
67. Holt, P. S. 1992a. Effect of induced molting on B cell and CT4 and CT8 T cell numbers in spleens and peripheral blood of White Leghorn hens. Poult. Sci. 71:2027-2034.
68. Holt, P. S. 1992b. Effects of induced moulting on immune responses of hens. Br. Poult. Sci. 33:165-175.
69. Holt, P. S. 1993. Effect of induced molting on the susceptibility of White Leghorn hens to a Salmonella enteritidis infection. Avian Dis. 37:412-417.
70. Holt, P. S. 1995. Horizontal transmission of Salmonella enteritidis in molted and unmolted laying chickens. Avian Dis. 39:239-249.
71. Holt, P. S., R. J. Buhr, D. L. Cunningham, and R. E. Porter, Jr. 1994. Effect of two different molting procedures on a Salmonella enteritidis infection. Poult. Sci. 73:1267-1275.
72. Holt, P. S., N. P. Macri, and R. E. Porter, Jr. 1995. Microbiological analysis of the early Salmonella enteritidis infection in molted and unmolted hens. Avian Dis. 39:55-63.
73. Holt, P. S., B. W. Mitchell, and R. K. Gast. 1998. Airborne horizontal transmission of Salmonella enteritidis in molted laying chickens. Avian Dis. 42:45-52.
74. Holt, P. S., and R. E. Porter, Jr. 1992a. Effect of induced molting on the course of infection and transmission of Salmonella enteritidis in White Leghorn hens of different ages. Poult. Sci. 71:1842-1848.
75. Holt, P. S., and R. E. Porter, Jr. 1992b. Microbiological and histopathological effects of an induced molt fasting procedure on a Salmonella enteritidis infection in chickens. Avian Dis. 36:610-618.
76. Holt, P. S., and R. E. Porter, Jr. 1993. Effect of induced molting on the recurrence of a previous Salmonella enteritidis infection. Poult. Sci. 72:2069-2078.
77. Honaker, C. F., and P. L. Ruszler. 2004. The effect of claw and beak reduction on growth parameters and fearfulness of two Leghorn strains. Poult. Sci. 83:873-881.
78. Huber-Eicher, B., and B. Wechsler. 1997. Feather pecking in domestic chicks: Its relation to dustbathing and foraging. Anim. Behav. 54:757-768.
79. Hughes, B. O. 1971. Allelomimetic feeding in the domestic fowl. Br. Poult. Sci. 12:359-366.
80. Hughes, B. O., and M. C. Appleby. 1989. Increase in bone strength of spent laying hens housed in modified cages with perches. Vet. Rec. 124:483-484.
81. Hughes, B. O., and A. J. Black. 1974. The effect of environmental factors on activity, selected behaviour patterns and "fear" of fowls in cages and pens. Br. Poult. Sci. 15:375-380.
82. Hughes, B. O., and P. Dun. 1986. A comparison of hens housed intensively in cages or outside on range. Zootech. Int. (Feb.):44-46.
83. Hughes, B. O., and M. J. Gentle. 1995. Beak trimming of poultry: Its implications for welfare. Worlds Poult. Sci. J. 51:51-61.
84. Ingram, D. R., and F. B. Mather. 1988. White Leghorn production parameters as affected by body weight loss and length of rest period during a force molt. Nutr. Rep. Int. 37:901-908.
85. Jones, R. B. 2001. Does occasional movement make pecking devices more attractive to domestic chicks? Br. Poult. Sci. 42:43-50.
86. Jones, R. B., and J. M. Faure. 1981. Tonic immobility (righting time) in laying hens housed in cages and pens. Appl. Anim. Ethol. 7:369-372.
87. Jones, R. B., and M. J. Gentle. 1985. Olfaction and behavioral modification in domestic chicks (Gallus domesticus). Physiol. Behav. 34:917-924.
88. Jones, R. B., T. M. McAdie, C. McCorquodale, and L. J. Keeling. 2002. Pecking at other birds and at string enrichment devices by adult laying hens. Br. Poult. Sci. 43:337-343.
89. Jones, R. B., and T. J. Roper. 1997. Olfaction in the domestic fowl: A critical review. Physiol. Behav. 62:1009-1018.
90. Kangro, A. 1993. Air contaminations in buildings for laying hens. Comparisons and analysis of results from nine countries. Report 88. Department of Farm Buildings, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Lund, Sweden.
91. Keshavarz, K., and F. W. Quimby. 2002. An investigation of different molting techniques with an emphasis on animal welfare. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 11:54-67.
92. Kjaer, J. B., and P. Sørensen. 1997. Feather pecking behaviour in White Leghorns, a genetic study. Br. Poult. Sci. 38:333-341.
93. Koelkebeck, K. W., and J. R. Cain. 1984. Performance, behavior, plasma corticosterone, and economic returns of laying hens in several management alternatives. Poult. Sci. 63:2123-2131.
94. Koelkebeck, K. W., C. M. Parsons, M. W. Douglas, R. W. Leeper, S. Jin, X. Wang, Y. Zhang, and S. Fernandez. 2001. Early postmolt performance of laying hens fed a low-protein corn molt diet supplemented with spent hen meal. Poult. Sci. 80:353-357.
95. Koelkebeck, K. W., C. M. Parsons, and R. W. Leeper. 1993b. Effect of early feed withdrawal on subsequent laying hen performance. Poult. Sci. 72:2229-2235.
96. Koelkebeck, K. W., C. M. Parsons, R. W. Leeper, S. Jin, and M. W. Douglas. 1999. Early postmolt performance of laying hens fed a low-protein corn molt diet supplemented with corn gluten meal, feather meal, methionine, and lysine. Poult. Sci. 78:1132-1137.
97. Koelkebeck, K. W., C. M. Parsons, R. W. Leeper, and J. Moshtaghian. 1991. Effect of protein and methionine levels in molt diets on postmolt performance of laying hens. Poult. Sci. 70:2063-2073.
98. Koelkebeck, K. W., C. M. Parsons, R. W. Leeper, and J. Moshtaghian. 1992. Effect of duration of fasting on postmolt laying hen performance. Poult. Sci. 71:434-439.
99. Koelkebeck, K. W., C. M. Parsons, R. W. Leeper, and X. Wang. 1993a. Effect of supplementation of a low-protein corn molt diet with amino acids on early postmolt laying hen performance. Poult. Sci. 72:1528-1536.
100. Kogut, M. H., K. J. Genovese, and L. H. Stanker. 1999. Effect of induced molting on heterophil function in White Leghorn hens. Avian Dis. 43:538-548.
101. Kopka, M. N., H. W. Cheng, and P. Y. Hester. 2003. Bone mineral density of laying hens housed in enriched versus conventional cages. Poult. Sci. 82(Suppl. 1):29. (Abstr.)
102. Kristensen, H. H., L. R. Burgess, T. G. H. Demmers, and C. M. Wathes. 2000. The preferences of laying hens for different concentrations of atmospheric ammonia. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 68:307-318.
103. Kuenzel, W. J. 2003. Neurobiology of molt in avian species. Poult. Sci. 82:981-991.
104. Kujiyat, S. K., J. V. Craig, and A. D. Dayton. 1983. Duration of tonic immobility affected by housing environment in White Leghorn hens. Poult. Sci. 62:2280-2282.
105. Kuo, F.-L., J. V. Craig, and W. M. Muir. 1991. Selection and beak-trimming effects on behavior, cannibalism, and short-term production traits in White Leghorn pullets. Poult. Sci. 70:1057-1068.
106. LaBrash, L. F., and S. E. Scheideler. 2003. Comparison of traditional fasting molt versus non-fasting low density, low sodium molt diets and the requirement for cystine during molt and post-molt. Poult. Sci. 82(Suppl. 1):50. (Abstr.)
107. Lagadic, H., and J. M. Faure. 1987. Preferences of domestic hens for cage size and floor types as measured by operant conditioning. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 19:147-155.
108. Lei, K. Y., M. P. Stefanovic, and S. J. Slinger. 1972. Effects of population density on energy utilization, intestinal disaccharidases, and adrenal function in hens. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 52:103-112.
109. Li, Z. Z., and W. H. Burke. 1987. Influence of 12 hours of sound stimuli on gonad development and plasma luteinizing hormone in Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) exposed to 6 hours of daily light. Poult. Sci. 66:1045-1052.
110. Lintern-Moore, S. 1972. The relationship between water intake and the production of "wet" droppings in the domestic fowl. Br. Poult. Sci. 13:237-242.
111. Macri, N. P., R. E. Porter, and P. S. Holt. 1997. The effects of induced molting on the severity of acute intestinal inflammation caused by Salmonella enteritidis. Avian Dis. 41:117-124.
112. Mashaly, M. M., M. L. Webb, S. L. Youtz, W. B. Roush, and H. B. Graves. 1984. Changes in serum corticosterone concentration of laying hens as a response to increased population density. Poult. Sci. 63:2271-2274.
113. Mazzuco, H., I. Grader, and P. Y. Hester. 2003. The effect of a feed removal molting program on the skeletal integrity of White Leghorns. Poult. Sci. 82(Suppl. 1):82. (Abstr.)
114. Mazzuco, H., and P. Y. Hester. 2004. Bone mineral density and content of live White Leghorns induced to molt using a non-fasting program. Poult. Sci. 83(Suppl. 1):1764. (Abstr.)
115. McCormick, C. C., and D. L. Cunningham. 1984. High dietary zinc and fasting as methods of forced resting: A performance comparison. Poult. Sci. 63:1201-1206.
116. McCormick, C. C., and D. L. Cunningham. 1987. Performance and physiological profiles of high dietary zinc and fasting as methods of inducing a forced rest: A direct comparison. Poult. Sci. 66:1007-1013.
117. McLean, K. A., M. R. Baxter, and W. Michie. 1986. A comparison of the welfare of laying hens in battery cages and in a perchery. Res. Dev. Agric. 3:93-98.
118. Meyer, W. A., and M. L. Sunde. 1974. Bone breakage as affected by type housing or an exercise machine for layers. Poult. Sci. 53:878-885.
119. Millam, J. R., M. E. El Halawani, and W. H. Burke. 1985. Effect of cyclic sound clues on sexual development in nonphotostimulated Japanese quail. Poult. Sci. 64:169-175.
120. Muir, W. M. 1996. Group selection for adaptation to multiple-hen cages: Selection program and direct responses. Poult. Sci. 75:447-458.
121. Murase, T., S. Miyahara, T. Sato, K. Otsuki, and P. Holt. 2004. Feeding of wheat middlings to commercial layers as an alternative method to feed withdrawal that can be used to molt birds. Poult. Sci. 83:1782. (Abstr.)
122. Murase, T., K. Senjyu, T. Maeda, M. Tanaka, H. Sakae, Y. Matsumoto, Y. Kaneda, T. Ito, and K. Otsuki. 2001. Monitoring of chicken houses and an attached egg-processing facility in a laying farm for Salmonella contamination between 1994 and 1998. J. Food Prot. 64:1912-1916.
123. Naber, E. C., J. D. Latshaw, and G. A. Marsh. 1984. Effectiveness of low sodium diets for recycling of egg production type hens. Poult. Sci. 63:2419-2429.
124. National Animal Health Monitoring System. 2000. Page 17 in Salmonella enterica serotype Enteritidis in table egg layers in the U.S. United States Department of Agriculture, National Animal Health Monitoring System, Fort Collins, CO.
125. Nesbeth, W. G., C. R. Douglas, and R. H. Harms. 1976. Response of laying hens to a low salt diet. Poult. Sci. 55:2128-2133.
126. Newberry, R. C. 1995. Environmental enrichment: Increasing the biological relevance of captive environments. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 44:229-243.
127. Newberry, R. C., and D. M. Shackleton. 1997. Use of visual cover by domestic fowl: A Venetian blind effect? Anim. Behav. 54:387-395.
128. Newberry, R. C., A. B. Webster, N. J. Lewis, and C. van Arnam. 1999. Management of spent hens. J. Appl. Anim. Welf. Sci. 2:13-29.
129. Okpokho, N. A., J. V. Craig, and G. A. Milliken. 1987. Density and group size effects on caged hens of two genetic stocks differing in escape and avoidance behavior. Poult. Sci. 66:1905-1910.
130. Park, S. Y., W. K. Kim, S. G. Birkhold, L. F. Kubena, D. J. Nisbet, and S. C. Ricke. 2004. Induced moulting issues and alternative dietary strategies for the egg industry in the United States. Worlds Poult. Sci. J. 60:196-209.
131. Pohle, K., and H. Cheng. 2003. Housing effect on behavior and production performance of laying hens: Furnished cages vs. conventional cages. Poult. Sci. 82(Suppl. 1):59. (Abstr.)
132. Porter, R. E., Jr., and P. S. Holt. 1993. Effect of induced molting on the severity of intestinal lesions caused by Salmonella enteritidis infection in chickens. Avian Dis. 37:1009-1016.
133. Raj, A. B. M., and P. E. Whittington. 1995. Euthanasia of day-old chicks with carbon dioxide and argon. Vet. Rec. 136:292-294.
134. Reed, H. J., L. J. Wilkins, S. D. Austin, and N. G. Gregory. 1993. The effect of environmental enrichment during rearing on fear reactions and depopulation trauma in adult caged hens. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 36:39-46.
135. Ross, E., and R. B. Herrick. 1981. Forced rest induced by molt or low-salt diet and subsequent hen performance. Poult. Sci. 60:63-67.
136. Roush, W. B., R. G. Bock, and M. A. Marszalek. 1989. Evaluation of crowding of caged laying hens (Gallus domesticus) using fuzzy set decision analysis. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 23:155-163.
137. Rowland, L. O., Jr., and R. H. Harms. 1972. Time required to develop bone fragility in laying hens. Poult. Sci. 51:1339-1341.
138. Ruszler, P. L. 1996. The keys to successful force molting. Publication 408-026. Virginia Cooperative Extension Service, Blacksburg, VA.
139. Savage, S. 1991. Addressing bone breakage. Egg Ind. (Jan:Feb.):40-43.
140. Schreiweis, M. A., J. I. Orban, M. C. Ledur, D. E. Moody, and P. Y. Hester. 2003. A comparison of bone mineral density in live broilers and White Leghorns. Poult. Sci. 82(Suppl. 1):99. (Abstr.)
141. Seo, K.-H., P. S. Holt, and R. K. Gast. 2001. Comparison of Salmonella enteritidis infection in hens molted via long-term feed withdrawal versus full-fed wheat middling. J. Food Prot. 64:1917-1921.
142. Seuss. 1975. Oh, The Thinks You Can Think! Random House, Inc., New York.
143. Siegel, H. S., and P. B. Siegel. 1961. The relationship of social competition with endocrine weights and activity in male chickens. Anim. Behav. 9:151-158.
144. Simonsen, H. B. 1979. Effect of feed withdrawal on behaviour and egg production in White Leghorns on litter and wire. Br. Vet. J. 135:364-369.
145. Stiles, P. G., and L. E. Dawson. 1961. The effect of physical disturbance, sound and light on the incidence of blood spots and other egg quality factors. Poult. Sci. 40:189-195.
146. Tanaka, T., and J. F. Hurnik. 1992. Comparison of behavior and performance of laying hens housed in battery cages and an aviary. Poult. Sci. 71:235-243.
147. Tauson, R. 1984. Plumage condition in SCWL laying hens kept in conventional cages of different designs. Acta Agric. Scand. 34:221-230.
148. Tauson, R. 1986. Avoiding excessive growth of claws in caged laying hens. Acta Agric. Scand. 36:95-106.
149. Tauson, R. 1998. Health and production in improved cage designs. Poult. Sci. 77:1820-1827.
150. Tauson, R. 2000. Producción, salud y manejo en jaulas equipadas. Pages 32-46 in Congreso Internacional de Produccion y Sanidad Animal. XXXVI Symposium of the World's Poultry Science Association, Barcelona, Spain.
151. Tauson, R., and P. Abrahamsson. 1994a. Effects on production, health and behaviour in three SCWL strains in an EMC model in comparison with other modified and conventional cages, Pages 41-53 in Modified Cages for Laying Hens. C. M. Sherwin, ed. Universities Federation for Animal Welfare, Potters Bar, UK.
152. Tauson, R., and P. Abrahamsson. 1994b. Foot and skeletal disorders in laying hens. Effects of perch design, hybrid, housing system and stocking density. Acta Agric. Scand. A Anim. Sci. 44:110-119.
153. Tolman, C. W. 1967a. The effects of tapping sounds on feeding behavior of domestic chicks. Anim. Behav. 15:145-148.
154. Tolman, C. W. 1967b. The feeding behaviour of domestic chicks as a function of rate of pecking by a surrogate companion. Behaviour 29:57-62.
155. United Egg Producers. 2000. Animal husbandry guidelines for U. S. egg laying flocks. United Egg Producers, Atlanta, GA.
156. van Horne, P. L. M. 2003. The impact of laying hen welfare on the competitiveness of the EU egg industry. World Poult. 19:18-21.
157. Wathes, C. M. 1998. Aerial emissions from poultry production. Worlds Poult. Sci. J. 54:241-251.
158. Webster, A. B. 2000. Behavior of White Leghorn laying hens after withdrawal of feed. Poult. Sci. 79:192-200.
159. Webster, A. B. 2003. Physiology and behavior of the hen during induced molt. Poult. Sci. 82:992-1002.
160. Webster, A. B., D. L. Fletcher, and S. I. Salvage. 1996. Humane on-farm killing of spent hens. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 5:191-200.
161. Whitehead, C. C., and D. W. F. Shannon. 1974. The control of egg production using a low-sodium diet. Br. Poult. Sci. 15:429-434.
162. Yasutomi, M., and N. Adachi. 1987. Effects of playthings on prevention of cannibalism in rearing chickens. Jpn. Poult. Sci. 24:372-373.
163. Zimmerman, N. G., D. K. Andrews, and J. McGinnis. 1987. Comparison of several induced molting methods on subsequent performance of Single Comb White Leghorn hens. Poult. Sci. 66:408-417.