The politics of popular religion: Sufis, Salafis, and Muslim Brothers in 20th-century Hamah

International Journal of Middle East Studies

Volumn 37, Issue 1, 2005, Pages 39-58

  Weismann, Itzchak ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HAIFA   (Israel)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ETHNOPOLITICS; ISLAMISM; POLITICAL HISTORY; RELIGION;

ASIA; EASTERN HEMISPHERE; EURASIA; HAMAH; MIDDLE EAST; SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC; WORLD;

EID: 18944378981     PISSN: 00207438     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S002074380505004X     Document Type: Review

References (194)

1. On the role of Sufism in the 18th and 19th centuries, see J. Spencer Trimingham, The Sufi Orders of Islam (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), 105-31;
2. Fazlur Rahman, Islam, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), 193-211;
3. John O. Voll, Islam: Continuity and Change in the Modern World (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1982), 33-86.
4. For a general introduction to the controversies surrounding it, see Elizabeth Sirriyeh, Sufis and Anti-Sufis: The Defence, Rethinking and Rejection of Sufism in the Modern World (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press, 1999), 1-53.
5. On the origins and teachings of the Salafiyya, see Henri Laoust, "Le Réformisme orthodoxe des 'Salafiya' et les caractères généraux de son orientation actuelle," Revue des Études Islamiques 6 (1932): 175-224;
6. Antonino Pellitteri, Il Riformismo Musulmano in Siria (1870-1920) (Naples: Instituto Universitario Orientale, 1987);
7. David Dean Commins, Islamic Reform: Politics and Social Change in Late Ottoman Syria (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).
8. Richard Mitchell, The Society of the Muslim Brothers (London: Oxford University Press, 1969);
9. Johannes Reissner, Ideologie und Politik der Muslimbrüder Syriens von den Wahlen 1947 bis zum Verbot unter Adǐb aš-Šišaklǐ 1952 (Freiburg: Klaus Schwarz Verlag, 1980), 86-96;
10. Philip S. Khoury, Syria and the French Mandate: The Politics of Arab Nationalism (Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1987), 607-12;
11. Elizabeth Thompson, Colonial Citizens: Republican Rights, Paternal Privilege, and Gender in French Syria and Lebanon (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), 103-10.
12. See my Taste of Modernity: Sufism, Salafiyya, and Arabism in Late Ottoman Damascus (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2001).
13. For Hamah in the pre-modern period, see the following recently published studies: Dick Douwes, The Ottomans in Syria: A History of Justice and Oppression (London: I. B. Tauris, 2000);
14. James A. Reilly, A Small Town in Syria: Ottoman Hama in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries (Bern: Peter Lang, 2002).
15. Philip S. Khoury, Urban Notables and Arab Nationalism: The Politics of Damascus 1860-1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), esp. chap. 2.
16. On the origins of the four leading families of Hamah, see Douwes, Ottomans in Syria, 66-84;
17. Reilly, Small Town in Syria, 26-45, 112-15, 126-30.
18. On their domination after 1860, see Khoury, Mandate, 65;
19. Ministere des Affaires Étrangeres (MAE) (Nantes), Beyrouth 544, "Renseignement sur les villes de Homs et Hama et les régions qui en dépendent," 10 July 1920.
20. On the extension of the first two families into Damascus, see also Linda Schatkowski Schilcher, Families in Politics: Damascene Factions and Estates of the 18th and 19th Centuries (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1985), 136-44, 194-96.
21. Khoury, Mandate, 409-14;
22. Thompson, Colonial Citizens, 212-17.
23. Hanna Batatu, Syria's Peasantry, the Descendants of Its Lesser Rural Notables, and Their Politics (Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1999), 124-30;
24. Raymond A. Hinnebusch, Authoritarian Power and State Formation in Ba'thist Syria: Army, Party, and Peasant (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1990), 57-71.
25. Zaim Khenchelaoui and Thierry Zarcone, "La Famille Jilānn̄i de Hama - Syrie (Bayt al-Jilānī)," Journal of the History of Sufism 1-2 (2000): 61-66;
26. Reilly, Small Town in Syria, 27-28.
27. For entries on leading members of the Kaylani family during the last decades of Ottoman rule, see also Adham al-Jundi, A'lam al-adab wal-fann, 2 vols. (Damascus: Matba'at Majallat Sawt Suriya, 1954-58), 2:38-39;
28. Muhammad Adib Taqi al-Din al-Hisni, Muntakhabat al-tawarikh li-Dimashq, 2nd ed. (Beirut: Dar al-Afaq al-Jadida, 1979), 923-24.
29. For the various Kaylani zāwiyas in Hamah, see also Muhammad Kurd 'Ali, Khitat al-sham, 6 vols. (Damascus: n.p., 1925-28), 6:156.
30. On the Dabbaghs, see Ahmad al-Sabuni, Ta'rikh Hamah (Hamah: al-Matba'a al-Ahliyya, 1332/1914), 157-58;
31. Khalil Mardam, A'yan al-qarn al-thalith 'ashar fi al-fikr wa-l-siyasa wa-l-ijtima' (Beirut: Lajnat al-Turath al-Arabi, 1971), 169-70;
32. Hisni, Muntakhabat al-Tawarikh, 923.
33. See Ruth Roded, "Tradition and Change in Syria During the Last Decades of Ottoman Rule: The Urban Elite of Damascus, Aleppo, Homs and Hama, 1876-1918" (Ph.D. diss., University of Denver, 1984), 268-69.
34. Butrus Abu-Manneh, "Sultan Abdulhamid II and Shaikh Abulhuda al-Sayyadi," Middle Eastern Studies, 15 (1979): 131-53.
35. L. Massignon, "La Dernière querelle entre Rifā'yīn et Qādiryīn," Revue du Monde Musulman 6 (1908): 454-61.
36. Rashid Rida, "al-Insaf min mazaya al-ashraf," al-Manar 1 (1898): 641-42.
37. Abd al-Razzaq al-Bitar, Hilyat al-bashar fi ta'rikh al-qarn al-thalith 'ashar, 3 vols. (Damascus: Matba'at al-Majma'al-'Ilmi al-Arabi, 1380-83/1961-63), 1142-43, 1189-90;
38. Jundi, A'lam al-adab wa-l-fann, 2:44-45;
39. Kurd 'Ali, Khitat al-sham, 6:157.
40. Al-Jundi, A'lam al-adab wa-l-fann, 2:38.
41. See Butrus Abu-Manneh, "The Naqshbandiyya-Mujaddidiyya in the Ottoman Lands in the Early 19th Century," Die Welt des Islams 22 (1982): 1-36.
42. On Muhammad al-Khani, see 'Abd al-Majid al-Khani, al-Hada'iq al-wardiyya fi haqa'iq ajilla' al-Naqshbandiyya (Cairo: Dar al-Tiba'a al-Amira, 1308/1890), 262-72, 275.
43. Abd al-Hamid Tahmaz, al-'Allama al-mujahid al-Shaykh Muhammad al-Hamid (Damascus: Dar al-Qalam, 1391/1971), 10-11, 20;
44. Muhammad Muti'al-Hafiz and Nizar Abaza, Tarikh'ulama Dimashq fi al-qarn al-rabi' 'ashar al-hijri, 3 vols. (Damascus: Dar al-Fiqr, 1986-91), 3:364.
45. Itzchak Weismann, "Between Sofi Reformism and Modernist Rationalism - A Reappraisal of the Origins of the Salafiyya from the Damascene Angle," Die Welt des Islams 41 (2001): 206-37.
46. Al-Sabuni, Ta'rikh Hamah, 160-61;
47. Tahmaz, al-'Allama al-mujahid, 25.
48. Ibrahim al-Sayyid 'Isa al-Misri, al-Jawahir al-lu'lu'iyya, 2 vols. (Damascus: Matba'at Ibn Zaydun, 1352/1933), 2:119-20;
49. Mu'ayyad al-Kaylani, Muhafazat Hamah (Damascus: Wizarat al-Thaqafa wa-l-Irshad al-Qawmi, 1964), 214.
50. Khayr al-Din al-Zirikli, Al-A'lam - qamus tarajim li-ashhar al-rijal wa-l-nisa' min al-'Arab wa-l-musta'ribin wa-l-mustashriqin, 10 vols., 2nd ed. (Cairo: n.p., 1954-59), 2:204.
51. Al-Sabuni, Ta'rikh Hamah, 13-14 (introduction to 2nd ed. by 'Abd al-Rahman Khalil);
52. al-Jundi, A'lam al-adab wa-l-fann, 2:46.
53. Al-Sabuni, Ta'rikh Hamah.
54. For Tawfiq al-Shishakli and Salih Qunbaz, see al-Jundi, A'lam al-adab wa-l-fann, 1:342-43, 1:345-46;
55. Kaylani, Muhafazat Hamah, 63-64.
56. For the Shishaklis (Jijaklis), who were second in Hamah only to the four leading families, see also Douwes, Ottomans in Syria, 68-69;
57. MAE (Nantes), Bey 544, "Renseignement sur les villes de Homs et Hama et les régions qui en dépendent," 10 July 1920.
58. On Maktab 'Anbar, its curriculum, and student life, see Randi Deguilhem-Schoem, "Idées françaises et enseignement ottoman: L'école secondaire Maktab 'Anbar à Damas," Revue du Monde Musulman et de la Méditerranée 52/53 (1989): 199-206.
59. For the deplorable state of the awqaf in Hamah in al-Sabuni's eyes, see his article reproduced in Ta'rikh Hamah, 25-27.
60. Ibid., 8, 12-15;
61. al-Jundi, A'lam al-adab wa-l-fann, 2:46-48;
62. Zirikh, al-A'lam, ibid.
63. Compare particularly with the discussion of the ideas of Jamal al-Din al-Qasimi, the mouthpiece of the Damascene Salafis, in Commins, Islamic Reform, chaps. 5 and 6;
64. Weismarm, Taste of Modernity, 291-98.
65. For a review of his various writings, see al-Sabuni, Ta'rikh Hamah , 16-20.
66. Ahmad al-Sabuni, al-Durus al-jaliyya li-l-shubuhat al-khafiyya (Hamah: Matba'at al-Ikhlas, 1343/1925).
67. Sirriyeh, Sufis and Anti-Sufis, 102-105.
68. Al-Sabuni, Al-Durus al-jaliyya, 18, 21-22.
69. Ibid., 42-48.
70. Ibid., 38-39; emphasis added.
71. Thompson, Colonial Citizens, 103.
72. On the life and works of Sa'id al-Jabi during the Mandate period, see al-Kaylani, Muhafazat Hamah, 214;
73. al-Misri, al-Jawahir al-lu'lu'iyya, 120;
74. 'Abd al-Qadir 'Ayyash, Mu'jam al-mu' allifiyin al-Suriyin fi al-qarn al-'ishrin (Damascus: Dar al-Fiqr, 1985), 90.
75. For his exile during War World I, see MAE (Nantes), Bey 960, Information no. 3277, 22 September 1934.
76. Al-Jundi, A'lam al-adab wa-l-fann, 1:346;
77. MAE (Nantes), Bey 872, "Note sur l'école Dar el Ulm," 9 November 1934.
78. Al-Kaylani, Muhafazat Hamah, 214.
79. For the role of men of religion in the Hamah uprising of 1925, see Ihsan al-Hindi, Kifah al-sha'b al'Arabi al-Suri 1908-1948 (Damascus: Idarat al-Shu'un al-'Amma wa-l-Tawjih al-Ma'nawi, 1962), 91-92;
80. Khoury, Mandate, 172;
81. N. E. Bou-Nacklie, "Tumult in Syria's Hama in 1925: The Failure of a Revolt," Journal of Contemporary History 33 (1998): 285.
82. For an assessment of al-Qawuqji and his activities during the early Mandate, see Khayriyya al-Qasimiyya, ed., Mudhakkirat Fawzi al-Qawuqji, 1914-1932 (Beirut, 1975), 1:11-74.
83. MAE (Nantes), Bey 619, "Bulletin de Renseignments no. 570," 22 March 1924, esp. 14. Bou-Nacklie, "Tumult," 277-78.
84. Muhammad Sa'id al-Jabi, Al-Naqd wa-l-tazyif, 2nd ed. (Beirut: al-Maktab al-Islami, 1402/1982). The first edition appeared in Hamah in 1928.
85. Tahmaz, al-'Allama al-mujahid, 194-201;
86. Hisni, Muntanhabat al-tawarikh, 926;
87. Muhammad ibn 'Abdallah Al Rashid, Imdad al-fattah bi-asanid wa-muruyyat al-Shaykh 'Abd al-Fattah (Riyadh, 1999), 297-301.
88. 'Isa al-Bayanuni, al-Arab fi al-adab mukhtasar kitab abwab al-rahiq fi adab al-tariq (Aleppo: al-Matba'a al-Ilmiyya, 1344/1926).
89. Husayn al-Khatib, Al-Durr al-latif (Tripoli: n.p., 1342/1924).
90. For biographical details on the author, see Muhammad Ahmad Durayniqa, al-Tariqa al-Naqshbandiyya wa-a'lamuha (n.p., 1987), 78.
91. Al-Sabuni, Al-Durus al-jaliyya, 55-57.
92. Al-Jabi, al-Naqd wa-l-tazyif, 12.
93. See also ibid., 70, 82, where the rb̄ita is defined as idolatrous innovation (bid'a wathaniyya).
94. See especially ibid., 14, 17-18, 20, 23-24, 30-31, 48-49, 59-60.
95. For Zahrawi and his book, see Commins, Islamic Reform, 55-59.
96. Al-Jabi, al-Naqd wa-l-tazyif, 34-45.
97. Ibid., 74.
98. Ibid., 3-5.
99. Ibid., 92.
100. Al-Misri, al-Jawahir al-lu'lu'iyya, 120.
101. For an analysis of the book and its repercussions, see Thompson, Colonial Citizens, 94-100, 127-40.
102. Muhammad Sa'id al-Jabi, Kashf al-niqab 'an asrar kitab "al-sufur wa-l-hijab" (Hamah: Matba'at al-Ikhlas, 1347/1929).
103. MAE (Nantes), Bey 954, 13 April 1931.
104. Al-Kaylani, Muhafazat Hamah, 214.
105. Khoury, Mandate, 608-9.
106. For the institution of the jam'iyya, see Reissner, Ideologie , 80-85.
107. Commins, Islamic Reform, 104-107, 118-22.
108. James L. Gelvin, Divided Loyalties: Nationalism and Mass Politics in Syria at the Close of Empire (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), chap. 2.
109. Reissner, Ideologie, 86-88;
110. Itzchak Weismann, "The Invention of a Populist Islamic Leader: Badr al-Din al-Hasani, the Religious Educational Movement and the Great Syrian Revolt," Arabica, 50 (2004).
111. Al-Kaylani, Muhafazat Hamah, 154.
112. On Sa'id al-Na'san, see MAE (Nantes), Bey 587, "Personnalités religieuses Musulmanes," March and December 1929.
113. Al Rashid, Imdad al-fattah, 368-69.
114. His only printed work is a short standard epistle on the rites of pilgrimage that was published in preparation for his permanent appointment: see idem, Risala mukhtasara fi manasik al-hajj (Hamah: Matba'at al-Ikhlas, 1341/1922).
115. The association continued its work in collaboration with the al-Kaylanis to the 1930s': see Ahmad Qadri al-Kaylani, Hamah madinat al-nawa'ir (Hamah: Jam'iyyat A'mal al-Birr al-Islamiyya, 1356/1937), front page.
116. Reissner, Ideologie, 88-89.
117. J. Gaulmier, "Note sur une épisode poétique de la rivalité séulaire entre Homs et Hama," Bulletin d'Études Orientales 2 (1932): 85.
118. On 'Abd al-Qadir al-Kaylani, see Khoury, Mandate, 261, 329.
119. On the importance of craft corporations in Ottoman Hamah and their affinity with the Sufi orders, see Reilly, Small Town in Syria, 61-62, 75-79.
120. On the Shaykh Ibrahim mosque, see Khenchelaoui and Zarcone, "La Famille," 66.
121. Tahmaz, al-'Allama al-mujahid, 18-19.
122. J. Gaulmier, "Notes sur le movement syndicaliste a Hama," Revue des Études Islamiques 6 (1932): 114.
123. Ibid., 99-100.
124. Khoury, Mandate, 367-71.
125. Stephen Hernsley Longrigg, Syria and Lebanon Under French Mandate (Beirut: Librairie du Liban, 1958), 190.
126. MAE (Nantes), Bey 1560, 27 April 1931, "Information no. 1624," and 4 May 1931, "Information no. 1721";
127. Bey 1983, "Bulletin d'information hebdomadaire no. 20," 16 May 1931.
128. MAE (Nantes), Bey 607, "Information no. 3076," 12 December 1932.
129. MAE (Nantes), Bey 607, "Requête des habitants de Hama," 25 September 1932;
130. Bey 1989, 17 March 1933;
131. Bey 728, 31 August 1933;
132. MAE (Paris), Syrie-Liban 509, 249-250, 13 December 1932.
133. Thompson, Colonial Citizens, 206-207.
134. MAE (Nantes), Bey 587, "Personnalités religieuses Musulmanes," December 1930.
135. For an analysis by education, occupation, and class of the National Bloc leadership and the pro-French party, see Khoury, Mandate, 252;
136. For the 1931-32 elections, see ibid., 365-74.
137. Longrigg, Syria and Lebanon, 195-97.
138. MAE (Nantes), Bey 960, "Information no. 1346," 13 April 1934;
139. al-Kaylani, Hamah madinat al-nawa'ir, 3.
140. For the connection of the festival with the mawlids of the saints in the area, see J. Gaulmier, "Pèlerinages populaires à Hama," Bulletin d'Études Orientales 1 (1931): 137-38.
141. A vivid description of the festival in Homs at the beginning of the century is given in Frederick Jones Bliss, The Religions of Modern Syria and Palestine (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912), 269-72.
142. On Mahmud al-Shuqfa, see George Faris, Man huwa fi Suriya (Damascus: al-Matba'a al-Ahliyya, 1949), 233;
143. Fred de Jong, "Les confréries mystiques musulmanes au Machreq arabe," in Les Ordres mystiques dans l'Islam, ed. A. Popovic and G. Veinstein (Paris: Éditions de EHESS, 1985), 215.
144. MAE (Nantes), Bey 960, "Information no. 1507," 27 April 1934.
145. Khoury, Mandate, 450.
146. MAE (Nantes), Bey 1989, "Bulletin d'information hebdomadaire no. 24," 2 June 1933.
147. MAE (Nantes), Bey 607, "Information no. 2494," 11 July 1934, and "Controverses religieuses à Hama," 17 July 1934;
148. Bey 960, "Information no. 3277," 22 September 1934;
149. MAE (Paris), Syrie-Liban 512, 33-34, 23 July 1934.
150. MAE (Nantes), Bey 926, 1 and 17 July 1934;
151. Bey 607, 17 July 1934.
152. MAE (Nantes), Bey 872, "Information no. 2844," 13 August 1934, "Information no. 2865," 17 August 1934, and "Pétition à la société des nations," 9 November 1934.
153. MAE (Nantes), Bey 872, "Information no. 3314," 27 September 1934.
154. Khoury, Mandate, 426, 474.
155. MAE (Nantes), Bey 960, "Information no. 3277," 22 September 1934.
156. Tahmaz, al-'Allama al-mujahid, 18;
157. Faris, Man huwa fi Suriya, 233.
158. Sa'id al-Jabi, Hidayat al-'asriyin ila mahasin al-din (Hamah: Matabi' Abi al-Fida', n.d.).
159. Ishaq Musa Husaini, The Moslem Brethren: The Greatest of Modern Islamic Movements (Beirut: Khayat's, 1956), 75-76;
160. Reissner, Ideologie, 97-101;
161. Thompson, Colonial Citizens, 277.
162. Siba'i's Salafism was displayed for the first time in his struggle against the Sufi Spring Festival of Homs: see Mustafa al-Siba'i, "Rajul faqadnahu: Husm al-Siba'i," Hadarat al-Islam 2, 5-6 (1961), 106.
163. Mitchell, Society of the Muslim Brothers, 14.
164. Ibid., 2-8, 214-16, 322-23.
165. Umar F. Abd-Allah, The Islamic Struggle in Syria (Berkeley: Mizan Press, 1983), 95.
166. Jabir Rizq, al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun wa-l-mua'mara 'ala Suriya (Cairo: Dar al-I'tisam, 1980), 116-17;
167. Sa'id Hawwa, al-Ijabat (Cairo: Dar al-Salam, 1984), 97-99.
168. The principal sources for the life and work of Muhammad al-Hamid are Tahmaz, al-'Allama al-mujahid, 9-49;
169. and Hadarat al-Islam 10, 3 (1969), an issue dedicated to his memory.
170. See also Itzchak Weismann, "Sa'id Hawwa: The Making of a Radical Muslim Thinker in Modern Syria," Middle Eastern Studies 29 (1993), 607-11.
171. On Badr al-Din al-Hamid, see Sami al-Kayyali, al-Adab al-'Arabi al-mu'asir fi Suriya, 1850-1950, 6th ed. (Cairo: Dar al-Ma'arif, 1968), 316 25;
172. al-Jundi, A'lam al-Adab wa-l-fann 2:54-56.
173. See particularly Muhammad al-Hamid, Rudud 'ala abatil wa-tamhisat li-haqa'iq diniyya (Damascus: Matba'at al-'Ilm, 1385/1965);
174. idem, Majmu'at rasa'il (Hamah: al-Maktaba al-'Arabiyya, 1390 /1970).
175. Abd-Allah, Islamic Struggle, 104.
176. Sa'id Hawwa, Hadhihi tajribati ... wa-hadhihi shahadati (Cairo: Maktabat Wahba, 1987), 23, 30, 39;
177. idem, al-Ijabat, 86, 97-98; emphasis added.
178. Hinnebusch, Authoritarian Power, 49-57.
179. See esp. Jonathan P. Owen, "Akram al-Hourani: A Study of Syrian Politics, 1943-1954" (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, 1992).
180. Rizq, al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun, 127;
181. Hawwa, Hadhihi tajribati, 27-28, 31.
182. For al-Siba'i's inveighing toward the Salafi stand in his later years, see his anti-Sufi strictures in Mustafa al-Siba'i, "Hawla al-tasawwuf wa-l-Sufiyya," Hadarat al-Islam 1 (1961):72-73.
183. This tendency was intensified under his successor, 'Isam al-'Attar: see Abd-Allab, Islamic Struggle, 102-103.
184. Reissner, Ideologie, 301-302;
185. J. Salt, "An Islamic Scholar-Activist: Mustafa al-Siba'i and the Islamic Movement in Syria 1945-1954," Journal of Arabic, Islamic and Near Eastern Studies 3 (1996): 103-15.
186. Faris, Man huwa fi-Suriya, 233.
187. See Muhammad Dib Salih, "Rajul faqadnahu: 'Abd al-Karim 'Uthman," Hadarat al-Islam 13, 5-6 (1972): 117-19.
188. See Muhammad al-Hamid, Nazarat fi kitab ishtirakiyyat al-Islam (Damascus: Matba'at al-'Ilm, 1382/1963).
189. For an analysis of al-Siba'i's book and its importance, see especially Hamid Enayat, Modern Islamic Political Thought (London: Macmillan, 1982), 144-49.
190. For a recent summary of the various challenges that Sufism has to face in the contemporary world, see Carl W. Ernst, Sufism: An Essential Introduction to the Philosophy and Practice of the Mystical Tradition of Islam (Boston: Shambhala Publications, 1997), chap. 8.
191. See, for example, Michael Gilsenan, Saint and Sufi in Modern Egypt: An Essay in the Sociology of Religion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973);
192. Serif Mardin, Religion and Social Change in Modern Turkey: The Case of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989);
193. Arthur Buehler, Sufi Heirs of the Prophet: The Indian Naqshbandiyya and the Rise of the Mediating Sufi Shaykh (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1998);
194. Donald B. Cruise O'Brien, The Mourides of Senegal: The Political and Economic Organization of an Islamic Brotherhood (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971).