Emerging drugs for bacterial urinary tract infections

Expert Opinion on Emerging Drugs

Volumn 10, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 275-298

  Wagenlehner, Florian M E ^a,b   Weidner, Wolfgang ^b   Naber, Kurt G ^a  

^a Urologische Klinik   (Germany)

^b JUSTUS LIEBIG UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

Author keywords

Antibiotic resistance; Antibiotic treatment; New anti infectives; Uncomplicated and complicated infections; Urinary tract infections; Uropathogens; UTIs

Indexed keywords

AMIKACIN; AMINOGLYCOSIDE ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; AMINOPENICILLIN; AMPICILLIN; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; BACTERIAL VACCINE; BALOFLOXACIN; BETA LACTAMASE INHIBITOR; CEFALEXIN; CEFIXIME; CEFOTAXIME; CEFOTIAM; CEFOZOPRAN; CEFPODOXIME PROXETIL; CEFTAZIDIME; CEFTIBUTEN; CEFTRIAXONE; CEFUROXIME; CEFUROXIME AXETIL; CIPROFLOXACIN; COTRIMOXAZOLE; DA 7101; DAPTOMYCIN; DORIPENEM; ERTAPENEM; FOSFOMYCIN; FOSFOMYCIN TROMETAMOL; FROPENEM; GARENOXACIN; GATIFLOXACIN; GEMIFLOXACIN; GENTAMICIN; GLYCOPEPTIDE; HKI 9924129; LEVOFLOXACIN; LINEZOLID; LOMEFLOXACIN; MECILLINAM; NB 3040; NB 3178; NB 3322; NITROFURANTOIN; NORFLOXACIN; ORITAVANCIN; PHENYLALANYLARGININE 2 NAPHTHYLAMIDE; PIPERACILLIN PLUS TAZOBACTAM; PIVMECILLINAM; QUINOLINE DERIVED ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; RWJ 140998; RWJ 3981; STROVAC; SULBACTAM; SULCOUROVAC; SULFONAMIDE; SULTAMICILLIN; TEBIPENEM; TEICOPLANIN; TIGECYCLINE; TOBRAMYCIN; TRIMETHOPRIM; TROMETAMOL; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; URO VAXOM; VANCOMYCIN;

ACUTE PYELONEPHRITIS; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY; BACTERIAL INFECTION; CLINICAL TRIAL; CYSTITIS; DIARRHEA; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG BIOAVAILABILITY; DRUG CLEARANCE; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG MECHANISM; EOSINOPHILIA; ESCHERICHIA COLI; GRAM NEGATIVE BACTERIUM; GRAM POSITIVE BACTERIUM; HOSPITAL INFECTION; HUMAN; IMMUNIZATION; INFECTION PREVENTION; MYOPATHY; NEPHROTOXICITY; OTOTOXICITY; PERIPHERAL NEUROPATHY; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; URINARY TRACT INFECTION;

ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; BACTERIAL INFECTIONS; CLINICAL TRIALS; DRUG INDUSTRY; DRUG RESISTANCE, BACTERIAL; DRUGS, INVESTIGATIONAL; HUMANS; URINARY TRACT INFECTIONS;

EID: 18844384668     PISSN: 14728214     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1517/14728214.10.2.275     Document Type: Review

References (97)

1. WARREN JW, ABRUTYN E, HEBEL JR, JOHNSON JR, SCHAEFFER AJ, STAMM WE: Guidelines for antimicrobial treatment of uncomplicated acute bacterial cystitis and acute pyelonephritis in women. Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA). Clin. Infect. Dis. (1999) 29:745-758. Important meta-analysis about the antibiotic treatment of uncomplicated cystitis and uncomplicated pyelonephritis.
2. FOXMAN B: Epidemiology of urinary tract infections: incidence, morbidity, and economic costs. Am. J. Med. (2002) 113(Suppl. 1A):S5-S13.
3. MAZZULLI T: Resistance trends in urinary tract pathogens and impact on management. J. Urol. (2002) 168:1720-1722.
4. GALES AC, JONES RN, GORDON KA et al.: Activity and spectrum of 22 antimicrobial agents tested against urinary tract infection pathogens in hospitalized patients in Latin America: report from the second year of the SENTRY antimicrobial surveillance program (1998). J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (2000) 45:295-303.
5. RÜDEN H, GASTMEIER P, DASCHNER FD, SCHUMACHER M: Nosocomial and community-acquired infections in Germany. Summary of the results of the first national prevalence study (NIDEP). Infection (1997) 25:199-202. National prevalence study in Germany about nosocomial infections in different departments throughout the hospital.
6. MAKI DG, TAMBYAH PA: Engineering out the risk of infection with urinary catheters. Emerg. Infect. Dis. (2001) 7:1-6. Concise overview on catheter-associated UTI. Substantial data on epidemiology and treatment strategies.
7. PATTON JP, NASH DB, ABRUTYN E: Urinary tract infection: economic considerations. Med. Clin. North Am. (1991) 75:495-513.
8. GUPTA K, HOOTON TM, STAMM WE: Increasing antimicrobial resistance and the management of uncomplicated community-acquired urinary trace infections. Ann. Intern. Med. (2001) 135:41-50.
9. BARNETT BJ, STEPHENS DS: Urinary tract infection: an overview. Am. J. Med. Sci. (1997) 314:245-249.
10. HOOTON TM: The current management strategies for community-acquired urinary tract infection. Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am. (2003) 17:303-332.
11. FIHN SD: Clinical practice. Acute uncomplicated urinary tract infection in women. N. Engl. J. Med. (2003) 49:259-266.
12. KAHLMETER G: An international survey of the antimicrobial susceptibility of pathogens from uncompicated urinary tract infections: the ECO-SENS project. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (2003) 51:69-76.
13. TALAN DA, STAMM WE, HOOTON TM et al.: Comparison of ciprofloxacin (7 days) and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (14 days) for acute uncomplicated pyelonephritis pyelonephritis in women: a randomized trial. JAMA (2000) 283:1583-1590.
14. JONES RN, KUGLER KC, PFALLER MA, WINOKUR PL: Characteristics of pathogens causing urinary tract infections in hospitals in North America: results from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program, 1997. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. (1999) 35:55-63.
15. GORDON KA, JONES RN: Susceptibility patterns of orally administered antimicrobials among urinary tract infection pathogens from hospitalized patients in North America: comparison report to Europe and Latin America. Results from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (2000). Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. (2003) 45:295-301.
16. MATHAI D, JONES RN, PFALLER MA: Epidemiology and frequency of resistance among pathogens causing urinary tract infections in 1,510 hospitalized patients: a report from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (North America). Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. (2001) 40:129-136
17. BOUZA E, SAN JUAN R, MUÑOZ P, VOSS A, KLUYTMANS J; Co-operative group of the European Study Group on Nosocomial Infections (ESGNI): a European perspective on nosocomial urinary tract infections I. Report on the microbiology workload, etiology and antimicrobial susceptibility (ESGNI-003 study). Clin. Microbiol. Infect. (2001) 7:523-531.
18. WAGENLEHNER FM, NIEMETZ A, DALHOFF A, NABER KG: Spectrum and antibiotic resistance of uropathogens from hospitalized patients with urinary tract infections: 1994 - 2000. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents (2002) 19:557-564.
19. ABRAHAM EP, CHAIN E: An enzyme from bacteria able to destroy penicillin. Nature (1940) 146:837.
20. KARLOWSKY JA, KELLY LJ, THORNSBERRY C et al.: Susceptibility to fluoroquinolones among commonly isolated Gram-negative bacilli in 2000: TRUST and TSN data for the United States. Tracking resistance in the United States today. The Surveillance Network. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents (2002) 19:21-31.
21. KARLOWSKY JA, KELLY LJ, THORNSBERRY C, JONES ME, SAHM DF: Trends in antimicrobial resistance among urinary tract infection isolates of Escherichia coli from female outpatients in the United States. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (2002) 46:2540-2545.
22. MORRISSEY I, FARRELL DJ, ROBBINS M, WERLING H-O, FELINGHAM D: Surveillance of the antibiotic susceptibility of urinary tract infection (UTI) pathogens in Europe from outpatients (OUT) and inpatients (IN) during 1999/2000. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. (2003) 9(Suppl. 1):Abstract.
23. LUNA CM, VUJACICH P, NIEDERMAN MS et al.: Impact of BAL data on the therapy and outcome of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest (1997) 111:676-685.
24. MONTRAVERS P, GAUZIT R, MULLER C, MARMUSE JP, FICHELLE A, DESMONTS JM: Emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in cases of peritonitis after intraabdominal surgery affects the efficacy of empirical antimicrobial therapy. Clin. Infect. Dis. (1996) 23:486-494.
25. ELHANAN G, SARHAT M, RAZ R: Empiric antibiotic treatment and the missuse of culture results and antibiotic sensitivities in patients with community-acquired bacteraemia due to urinary tract infection. J. Infect. (1997) 35:283-288. Clinical study highlighting the importance of empiric antibiotic treatment.
26. MILLER LG, TANG AW: Treatment of uncomplicated urinary tract infections in an era of increasing antimicrobial resistance. Mayo Clin. Proc. (2004) 79:1048-1053.
27. SCHAEFFER AJ: The expanding role of fluoroquinolones. Dis. Mon. (2003) 49:129-147.
28. HISANAGA TL, DECORBY MR, LAINGK NM et al.: Antibiotic resistance in outpatient urinary isolates: final results from the North American Urinary Tract Infection Collaborative Alliance (NAUTlCA). Abstracts of the 41st Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. San Diego, CA, USA (2003).
29. SCHITO GC: Why fosfomycin trometamol as first line therapy for uncomplicated UTI? Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents. (2003) 22:79-83.
30. UNGHERI D, ALBINI E, BELLUCO G: In-vitro susceptibility of quinolone-resistant clinical isolates of Escherichia coli to fosfomycin trometamol. J. Chemother. (2002) 14:237-240.
31. LECOMTE F, ALLAERT FA: Le traitement monodose de la cystite par fosfomycin trometamol. Analyse de 15 essais comparatifs portant sur 2048 malades. Médecine et Maladies infectieuses (1996) 26:338-343.
32. GRANINGER W: Pivmecillinam-therapy of choice for lower urinary tract infection. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents. (2003) 22:73-78.
33. NICOLLE LA: Pivmecillinam in the treatment of urinary tract infections. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (2000) 46:35-39.
34. STEIN GE: Comparison of single-dose fosfomycin and a 7-day course of nitrofurantoin in female patients with uncomplicated urinary tract infection. Clin. Ther. (1999) 21:1864-1872.
35. HOOTON TM: The current management strategies for community-acquired urinary tract infection. Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am. (2003) 17:303-332.
36. TALAN DA, KLIMBERG IW, NICOLLE LE, SONG J, KOWALSKY SF, CHURCH DA: Once daily, extended release ciprofloxacin for complicated urinary tract infections and acute uncomplicated pyelonephritis. J. Urol. (2004) 171:734-739.
37. NABER KG, BARTNICKI A, BISCHOFF W et al.: Gatifloxacin 200 mg or 400 mg once daily is as effective as ciprofloxacin 500 mg twice daily for the treatment of patients with acute pyelonephritis or complicated urinary tract infections. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents. (2004) 23(Suppl. 1):41-53.
38. NABER KG, SCHOENWALD S, HAUKE W: Cefpodoxime proxetil in patients with acute uncomplicated pyelonephritis. International, prospective, randomized comparative study versus ciprofloxacin in general practice. (Article in German). Chemotherapie Journal (2001) 10:29-34.
39. STAMM WE, MCKEVITT M, COUNTS GW: Acute renal infection in women:treatment with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole or ampicillin for two or six weeks. Ann. Intern. Med. (1987) 106:341-345.
40. RICHARD GA, KLIMBERG IN, FOWLER CL, CALLERY-D'AMICO S, KIM SS: Levofloxacin versus ciprofloxacin versus lomefloxacin in acute pyelonephritis. Urology (1998) 52:51-55.
41. VOGEL F, NABER KG, WACHA H et al.: Parenterale Antibiotika bei Erwachsenen. Chemotherapie Journal (1999) 8:2-49.
42. NABER KG, FÜNFSTÜCK R, GATERMANN S, HOYME U: Infektionen der Nieren und des Urogenitaltraktes. Chemotherapie Journal (2004) 13:78-84.
43. BAUER HW, BLEBMANN GS, PITROW DB, RAHLFS VW: Prevention of recurrent urinary tract infections with immunoactive E. coli fractions. Eur. J. Obstet. Gyn. (1999) 86:33.
44. BAUER HW, RAHLFS VW, LAUENER PA, BLEBMANN GS: Prevention of recurrent urinary tract infections with immunoactive E. coli fractions: a meta-analysis of five placebo-controlled double-blind studies. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents(2002) 19:451-456.
45. RIEDASCH G, MÖHRING K: Immunisierungstherapie rezidivierender Harnwegsinfekte der Frau. Therapiewoche (1986) 6:896-900.
46. CARLSSON S, GOVONI M, WIKLUND NP, WEITZBERG E, LUNDBERG JO: In vitro evaluation of a new treatment for urinary tract infections caused by nitrate-reducing bacteria. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (2003) 47:3713-3718.
47. MULVEY MA, SCHILLING JD, MARTINEZ JJ, HULTGREN SJ: Bad bugs and beleagured bladders: interplay between uropathogenic Escherichia coli and innate host defenses. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (2000) 97:8829-8835. Important new pathogenic concept in bladder infection.
48. MARTINEZ JJ, MULVEY MA, SCHILLING JD, PINKNER JS HULTGREN SJ: Type 1 pilus-mediated bacterial invasion of bladder epithelial cells. Eur. Mol. Biol. Organ (2000) 12:2803-2812.
49. SAMUELSSON P, HANG L, WULLT B, IRJALA H, SVANBORG C: Toll-like receptor 4 expression and cytokine responses in the human urinary tract mucosa. Infect. Immun. (2004) 72:3179-3186. Important new pathogenic concept in UTI.
50. SCHILLING JD, MARTIN SM, HUNSTAD DA et al.: CD14- and Toll-like receptor-dependent activation of bladder epithelial cells by lipopolysaccharide and Type 1 piliated Escherichia coli. Infect. Immun. (2003) 71:1470-1480.
51. SVANBORG C: Bacterial induction of inflammation in the urinary tract [abstract1355]. In: Programme of the 39th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, DC, USA (1999):770.
52. GEERLINGS SE, STOLK RP, CAMPS MJ et al.: Asymptomatic bacteriuria may be considered a complication in women with diabetes. Diabetes Care (2000) 23:744-749.
53. GEERLINGS SE, BROUWER EC, VAN KESSEL CP et al.: Cytokine secretion is impaired in women with diabetes mellitus [abstract 1609]. In: Programme of the 39th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, DC, USA (1999):388.
54. HVIDBERG H, STRUVE C, KROGFELT KA et al.: Development of a long-term ascending urinary tract infection mouse model for antibiotic treatment studies. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (2000) 44:156-163.
55. NICKEL C, OLSON ME, COSTERTON JW: Rat model of experimental bacterial prostatitis. Infection (1991) 19:126-130.
56. COSTERTON JW: Introduction to biofilm. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents (1999) 11:217-221.
57. REID G: Biofilms in infectious disease and on medical devices. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents (2003) 22:223-226.
58. TENKE P: Biofilm infection in UTI. In: Hot topics in urinary tract infections. UTI Symposium, Budapest, Hungary (2003).
59. GOTO T, NAKAME Y, NISHIDA M, OHI Y: Bacterial biofilms and catheters in experimental urinary tract infection. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents (2003) 22:227-231.
60. MARCHESE A, BOZZOLASCO M, GUALCO L, DEBBIA EA, SCHITO GC, SCHITO AM: Effect of fosfomycin alone and in combination with N-acetylcysteine on E. coli biofilms. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents (2003) 22:95-100.
61. DRLICA K, ZHAO X: DNA gyrase, topoisomerase, and the 4-quinolones. Microbio. Molecular Bio. Reviews (1997) 61:377-392.
62. LEHN N: Mechanismen der Resistenzentwicklung gegen Antibiotika, Epidemiologie. In: Die Infekttologie. Adam D, Doerr HW, Link H, Lode H (Eds). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, Germany (2004):82-98.
63. BURCHALL JJ, ELWELL LP, FLING ME: Molecular mechanisms of resistance to trimethoprim. Rev. Infect. Dis. (1982) 4:246-254.
64. THEN RL: Mechanisms of resistance to trimethoprim, the sulfonamides, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Rev. Infect. Dis. (1982) 4:261-269.
65. PARK H, BRADRICK TD, HOWELL EE: Aglutamine 67 → histidine mutation in homotetrameric R67 dihydrofolate reductase results in four mutations per single active site pore and causes substantial substrate and cofactor inhibition. Protein Eng. (1997) 10:1415-1424.
66. SHINABARGER D: Mechanism of action of the oxazolidinone antibacterial agents. Expert Opin. Invest. Drugs (1999) 8:1195-1202.
67. PECHERE JC, MICHEA-HAMZHEPOUR M, KOHLER T: Antibiotic efflux, a mechanism of multiple resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Bull. Acad. Natl. Med. (1998) 182:599-612.
68. PIDDOCK LJ: Mechanisms of fluoroquinolone resistance: an update 1994-1998. Drugs (1999) 58(Suppl. 2):11-18.
69. TANAKA M, ONODERA Y, UCHIDA Y, SATO K, HAYAKAWA I: Inhibitory activities of quinolones against DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV purified from Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrobial Agents Chemother. (1997) 41:2362-2306.
70. LINDE HJ, SCHMIDT M, FUCHS E, REISCHL U, NILLER HH, LEHN N: In vitro activities of six quinolones and mechanisms of resistance in Staphylococcus aureus and coagulase-negative staphylococci. Antimicrobial Agents Chemother. (2001) 45:1553-1557.
71. NAVIA MM, RUIZ J, RIBERA A, DE ANTA MT, VILA J: Analysis of the mechanisms of quinolone resistance in clinical isolates of Citrobacter freundii. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (1999) 44:743-748.
72. FONTANA R, LIGOZZI M, PITTALUGA F, SATTA G: Intrinsic penicillin resistance in enterococci. Microb. Drug Resist. (1996) 2:209-213.
73. MARSHALL CG, BROADHEAD G, LESKIW BK, WRIGHT GD: D-Ala-D-Ala ligases from glycopeptide antibiotic-producing organisms are highly homologous to the enterococcal vancomycin-resistance ligases VanA and VanB. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1997) 94:6480-6483.
74. LIVERMORE DM: Antibiotic resistance in staphylococci. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents (2000) 16(Suppl. 1):3-10.
75. STAPLETON P, WU PJ, KING A, SHANNON K, FRENCH G, PHILLIPS I: Incidence and mechanisms of resistance to the combination of amoxicillin and clavulanic acid in Eschericia coli. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1995) 39:2478-2483.
76. CHAVES J, LADONA MG, SEGURA C, COIRA A, REIG R, AMPURDANSE C: SHV-1 beta-lactamase is mainly a chromosomally encoded species-specific enzyme in Klebsiella pneumoniae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (2001) 45:2856-2861.
77. YANG YJ, LIVERMORE DM, WILLIAMS RJ: Chromosomal beta-lactamase expression and antibiotic resistance in Enterobacter cloacae. J. Med. Microbiol. (1988) 25:227-233.
78. BONNET R, DE CHAMPS C, SIROT D, CHANAL C, LABIA R, SIROT J: Diversity of TEM mutants in Proteus mirabilis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1999) 43:2671-2677.
79. PATTERSON JE. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases. Semin. Respir. Infect. (2000) 15:299-307.
80. JONES RN: Resistance patterns among nosocomial pathogens: trends over the past few years. Chest (2001) 119 (Suppl. 2):397-404.
81. CULEBRAS E, MARTINEZ JL: Aminoglycoside resistance mediated by the bifunctional enzyme 6′-N-aminoglycoside aceryltransferase-2′-O- aminoglycoside phosphotransferase. Front Biosci. (1999) 4:D1-D8.
82. AMINOGLYCOSIDE RESISTANCE STUDY GROUPS: The most frequently occurring amoinoglycoside resistance mechanisms-combined results of surveys in eight regions of the world. J. Chemother. (1995) 7(Suppl. 2):17-30.
83. SNYDMAN DR, JACOBUS NV, MCDERMOTT LA et al.: Comparative in vitro activities of daptomycin and vancomycin against resistant Gram-positive pathogens. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (2000) 44:3447-3450.
84. LAGANAS V, ALDER J, SILVERMAN JA: In vitro bactericidal activities of daptomycin against Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecalis are not mediated by inhibition of lipoteichoic acid biosynthesis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (2003) 47:2682-2684.
85. FUCHS PC, BARRY AL, BROWN SD: In vitro bactericidal activity of daptomycin against staphylococci. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (2002) 49:467-470.
86. LOUIE A, KAW P, LIU W et al.: Pharmacodynamics of daptomycin in a murine thigh model of Staphylococcus aureus infection. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (2001) 45:845-851.
87. WOODWORTH JR, NYHART EH Jr, BRIER GL et al.: Single-dose pharmacokinetics and antibacterial activity of daptomycin, a new lipopeptide antibiotic, in healthy volunteers. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (1992) 36:318-325.
88. DE BRUIN MF, TALLY FP: Efficacy and safety of daptomycin for the treatment of bacteremia and serious infections due to Gram-positive bacteria. 4th Decennial International Conference on Nosocomial and Healthcare-Associated Infections. Atlanta, GA, USA (2000).
89. HENRY DC Jr, BETTIS RB, RIFFER E et al.: Comparison of once-daily extended-release ciprofloxacin and conventional twice-daily ciprofloxacin for the treatment of uncomplicated urinary tract infection in women. Clin. Ther. (2002) 24:2088-2104.
90. THEIL FP, FREDE M, STASS H: Population pharmacokinetic characterization of the new ciprofloxacin MR formulation with ciprofloxacin IR [abstract]. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. (2003) 9(Suppl. 1).
91. TALAN DA, NABER KG, PALOU J, ELKHARRAT D: Extended-release ciprofloxacin (Cipro XR) for treatment of urinary tract infections. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents (2004) 23:54-66.
92. UEHLING DT, HOPKINS WJ, ELKAHWAJI JE, SCHMIDT DM, LEVERSON GE: Phase II clinical trial of a vaginal mucosal vaccine for uirnary tract infections. J. Urol. (2003) 170:867-869.
93. LI X, MOBLEY HL: Vaccines for Proteus mirabilis in urinary tract infection. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents (2002) 19:461-465.
94. DRLICA K: A strategy for fighting antibiotic resistance. ASM News (2001) 67:27-33.
95. CHENG Q, NELSON D, ZHU S, FISCHETTI VA: Removal of group B streptococci colonizing the vagina and oropharynx of mice with a bacteriophage lytic enzyme. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (2005) 49:111-117.
96. YOONG P, SCHUCH R, NELSON D, FISCHETTI VA: Identification of a broadly active phage lytic enzyme with lethal activity against antibiotic-resistant Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium. J. Bacteriol. (2004) 186:4808-4812.
97. NEU HC: The crisis in antibiotic resistance. Science (1992) 257:1064-1073.