The patient with a transient bacteremia

General Dentistry

Volumn 53, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 130-144

  Huber, Michaell A ^a   Terezhalmy, Geza T ^b,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS HEALTH SCIENCE CENTER AT SAN ANTONIO   (United States)

^b Division of Oral Medicine   (United States)

^c HIROSHIMA UNIVERSITY   (Japan)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMIKACIN; AMINOGLYCOSIDE ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; AMOXICILLIN; AMPICILLIN; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; AZITHROMYCIN; CEFADROXIL; CEFALEXIN; CEFAZOLIN; CEFEPIME; CEFTAZIDIME; CIPROFLOXACIN; CLARITHROMYCIN; CLINDAMYCIN; IMIPENEM; MEROPENEM; PENICILLIN G; PIPERACILLIN PLUS TAZOBACTAM; TIMENTIN;

ANTIBIOTIC PROPHYLAXIS; ASPLENIA; BACTEREMIA; BACTERIAL ENDOCARDITIS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CHEMOPROPHYLAXIS; CLINICAL TRIAL; DENTIST; DIABETES MELLITUS; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE COURSE; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; HIGH RISK PATIENT; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; INFECTION PREVENTION; INFECTION RISK; JOINT PROSTHESIS; KIDNEY FAILURE; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; MOUTH DISEASE; MOUTH FLORA; MOUTH INFECTION; NEUTROPENIA; ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION; PRESCRIPTION; REVIEW; RISK BENEFIT ANALYSIS; TOOTH DISEASE;

ANTIBIOTIC PROPHYLAXIS; BACTEREMIA; DENTAL CARE; DISEASE; HUMANS; RISK ASSESSMENT;

EID: 17744400569     PISSN: 03636771     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (223)

1. Bernstein M. Subacute bacterial endocarditis following the extraction of teeth; report of a case. Ann Intern Med 1932;5:1138-1144.
2. Burket LW, Burn CG. Bactermias following dental extraction; demonstration of source of bacteria by means of non-pathogen (Serratia marcescens). J Dent Res 1937;16:521-530.
3. Everett ED, Hirschmann JV. Transient bacteremia and endocarditis prophylaxis. A review. Medicine (Baltimore) 1977;56:61-77.
4. Felder RS, Nardone D, Palac R. Prevalence of predisposing factors for endocarditis among an elderly institutionalized population. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1992;73:30-34.
5. Feldman L, Trace IM. Subacute bacterial endocarditis following the removal of teeth or tonsils. Ann Intern Med 1938;11:2124-2132.
6. Horder T. Infective endocarditis. Q J Med 1909;2:289-324.
7. Okell CC, Elliott SD. Bacteremia and oral sepsis with special reference to the etiology of subacute endocarditis. Lancet 1935;2:869-872.
8. Roberts GJ, Gardner P, Simmons NA. Optimum sampling time for detection of dental bacteraemia in children. Int J Cardiol 1992;35:311-315.
9. Rushton MA. Subacute bacterial endocarditis following the extraction of teeth. Guy's Hosp Rep 1930;10:39-44.
10. Weiss H. Relation of portals of entry to subacute bacterial endocarditis. Ann Intern Med 1934;54:710-719.
11. Durack DT. Prevention of infective endocarditis. New Engl J Med 1995;332:38-38-44.
12. Durack DT. Prophylaxis of infective endocarditis. In: Mandell GL, Douglas RG Jr, Bennett JE, eds. Principles and practice of infectious diseases, ed. 3. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1990;716-721.
13. Guntheroth WG. How important are dental procedures as a cause of infective endocarditis? Am J Cardiol 1984;54:797-801.
14. Smith AJ, Jackson MS, Bagg J. The ecology of Staphylococcus species in the oral cavity. J Med Microbiol 2001;50:940-946.
15. Wade W. Unculturable bacteria - The uncharacterized organisms that cause oral infections. J R Soc Med 2002;95:81-83.
16. Dasgupta MK. Biofilms and infection in dialysis patients. Semin Dial 2002;15:338-346.
17. Page RC. The pathobiology of periodontal diseases may affect systemic disease: Inversion of a paradigm. Ann Periodontol 1998;3:108-120.
18. Socransky SS, Haffajee AD. Dental biofilms: Difficult therapeutic targets. Periodontol 2000 2002;28:12-55.
19. Baltch AL, Pressman HL, Schaffer C, Smith RP, Hammer MC, Shayegani M, Michelsen P. Bacteremia in patients undergoing oral procedures. Study following parenteral antimicrobial prophylaxis as recommended by the American Heart Association, 1977. Arch Intern Med 1988;148:1084-1088.
20. Bender IB, Montgomery S. Nonsurgical endodontic procedures for the patient at risk for infective endocarditis and other systemic disorders. J Endodontol 1986;12:400-407.
21. Brenman HS, Randall E. Local degerming with povidone-iodine, II. Prior to gingivectomy. J Periodontol 1974;45:870-872.
22. Carroll GC, Sebor RJ. Dental flossing and its relationship to transient bacteremia. J Periodontol 1980;51:691-692.
23. Cobe HM. Transitory bacteremia. Oral Surg 1954;7:609-615.
24. Cutcher JL, Goldberg JR, Lilly GE, Jones JC. Control of bacteremia associated with extraction of teeth. II. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1971;31:602-605.
25. Debelian GJ, Olsen I, Tronstad L. Anaerobic bacteremia and fungemia in patients undergoing endodontic therapy: An overview. Ann Periodontol 1998;3:281-287.
26. Debelian GJ, Olsen I, Tronstad L. Bacteremia in conjunction with endodontic therapy. Endod Dent Traumatol 1995;11:142-149.
27. Degling TE. Orthodontics, bacteremia, and the heart damaged patient. Angle Orthod 1972;42:399-402.
28. Donley TG, Donley KB. Systemic bacteremia following toothbrushing: A protocol for the management of patients susceptible to infective endocarditis. Gen Dent 1988;36:482-484.
29. Elliot SD. Bacteremia and oral sepsis. Proc R Soc Med 1939;32:747-754.
30. Farrington FH. The incidence of transient bacteremia following pulpotomies on primary teeth. ASDC J Dent Child 1973;40:175-184.
31. Hall G, Nord CE, Heimdahl A. Elimination of bacteremia after dental extractions: Comparison of erythromycin and clindamycin for prophylaxis of infective endocarditis. J Antimicrob Chemother 1996;37:783-795.
32. Heimdahl A, Hall G, Hedberg M, Sandberg H, Soder PO, Tuner K, Nord CE. Detection and quantitation by lysis-filtration of bacteremia after different oral surgical procedures. J Clin Microbiol 1990;28:2205-2209.
33. Jokinen MA. Prevention of postextraction bacteremia by local prophylaxis. Int J Oral Surg 1978;7:450-452.
34. Jones JC, Cutcher JL, Goldberg JR, Lilly GE. Control of bacteremia associated with extraction of teeth. Oral Surg 1970;30:454-459.
35. Lockhart PB. An analysis of bacteremias during dental extraction. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of chlorhexidine. Arch Intern Med 1996;156:513-520.
36. Lofthus JE, Waki MY, Jolkovsky DL, Otomo-Corgel J, Newman MG, Flemmig T, Nachnani S. Bacteremia following subgingival irrigation and scaling and root planing. J Periodontol 1991;62:602-607.
37. MacFarlane TW, Ferguson MM, Mulgrew CJ. Post-extraction bacteremia: Role of antiseptics and antibiotics. Br Dent J 1984;156:179-181.
38. Murray M, Moosnick F. Incidence of bacteremia in patients with dental disease. J Lab Clin Med 1941;26:801-802.
39. Okabe K, Nakagawa K, Yamamoto E. Factors affecting the occurrence of bacteremia associated with tooth extraction. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1995;24:239-242.
40. Rise E, Smith JF, Bell J. Reduction of bacteremia after oral manipulations. Arch Otolaryng 1969;90:198-201.
41. Scopp IW, Orvieto LD. Gingival degerming by povidone-iodine irrigation: Bacteremia reduction in extraction procedures. J Am Dent Assoc 1971;83:1294-1296.
42. Wahlmann U, Al-Nawas B, Jutte M, Wagner W. Clinical and microbiological efficacy of single dose cefuroxime prophylaxis for dental surgical procedures. Int J Antimicrob Agents 1999;12:253-256.
43. Waki MY, Jolkovsky DL, Otomo-Corgel J, Lofthus JE, Nachnani S, Newman MG, Flemmig TF. Effects of subgingival irrigation on bacteremia following scaling and root planing. J Periodontol 1990;61:405-411.
44. Al-Karaawi ZM, Lucas VS, Gelbier M, Roberts GJ. Dental procedures in children with severe congenital heart disease: A theoretical analysis of prophylaxis and non-prophylaxis procedures. Heart 2001;85:66-68.
45. Dajani AS, Taubert KA, Wilson W, Bolger AF, Bayer A, Ferrieri P, Gewitz MH, Shulman ST, Nouri S, Newburger JW, Hutto C, Pallasch TJ, Gage TW, Levison ME, Peter G, Zuccaro G Jr. Prevention of bacterial endocarditis. Recommendations by the American Heart Association. J Am Dent Assoc 1997;277:1794-1801.
46. Pallasch TJ, Slots J. Antibiotic prophylaxis and the medically compromised patient. Periodontol 2000 1996;10:107-138.
47. Reinhardt RA, Tussing GJ, Kalkwarf KL. Endocarditis prophylaxis for patients with periodontal disease. Am Fam Physician 1983;27:129-134.
48. Lockhart PB, Schmidtke MA. Antibiotic considerations in medically compromised patients. Den Clin North Am 1994;38:381-402.
49. Child JS. Risks for and prevention of infective endocarditis. Cardiol Clin 1996;14:327-343.
50. Cowper TR. Pharmacologic management of the patient with disorders of the cardiovascular system. Infective endocarditis. Den Clin North Am 1996;40:611-647.
51. De Rossi SS, Glick M. Lupus erythematosus: Considerations for dentistry. J Am Dent Assoc 1998;129:330-339.
52. Droz D, Koch L, Lenain A, Micialski H. Bacterial endocarditis: Results of a survey in a children's hospital in France. Br Dent J 1997;183:101-105.
53. Lacassin F, Hoen B, Leport C, Selton-Suty C, Delahaye F, Goulet V, Etienne J, Briancon S. Procedures associated with infective endocarditis in adults. A case control study. Eur Heart J 1995;16:1968-1974.
54. Lindemann RA, Henson JL. The dental management of patients with vascular grafts placed in the treatment of arterial occlusive disease. J Am Dent Assoc 1982;104:625-628.
55. Lockhart PB, Durack DT. Oral microflora as a cause of endocarditis and other distant site infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1999;13:833-850, vi.
56. Luce EB, Montgomery MT, Redding SW. The prevalence of cardiac valvular pathosis in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1990;70:590-592.
57. Pallasch TJ. Current status of fenfluramine/dexfenfluramine-induced cardiac valvulopathy. J Calif Dent Assoc 1999;27:400-404.
58. Zysset MK, Montgomery MT, Redding SW, Dell'Italia LJ. Systemic lupus erythematosus: A consideration for antimicrobial prophylaxis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1987;64:30-34.
59. Otis LL, Terezhalmy GT. The granunlocytopenic patient: Another consideration for antimicrobial prophylaxis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1985;60:125-129.
60. De Rossi SS, Glick M. Dental considerations in asplenic patients. J Am Dent Assoc 1996;127:1359-1563.
61. Llibre JM, Cucurull J, Aloy A, Hernandez JA. Antimicrobial prophylaxis for dental extractions after splenectomy. Lancet 1991;337:1485-1486.
62. Terezhalmy GT, Hall EH. The asplenic patient: A consideration for antimicrobial prophylaxis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1984;57:114-117.
63. Hall EH, Sherman RG, Emmons WW 3rd, Naylor GD. Antibacterial prophylaxis. Dent Clin North Am 1994;38:707-718.
64. Tong DC, Rothwell BR. Antibiotic prophylaxis in dentistry: A review and practice recommendations. J Am Dent Assoc 2000;131:366-374.
65. De Rossi SS, Glick M. Dental considerations for the patient with renal disease receiving hemodialysis. J Am Dent Assoc 1996;127:211-219.
66. Naylor GD, Fredericks MR. Pharmacologic considerations in the dental management of the patient with disorders of the renal system. Dent Clin North Am 1996;40:665-683.
67. Naylor GD, Hall EH, Terezhalmy GT. The patient with chronic renal failure who is undergoing dialysis or renal transplantation: Another consideration for antimicrobial prophylaxis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1988;65:116-121.
68. Svirsky JA, Nunley J, Dent CD, Yeatts D. Dental and medical considerations of patients with renal disease. J Calif Dent Assoc 1998;26:761-770.
69. Werner CW, Saad TF. Prophylactic antibiotic therapy prior to dental treatment for patients with end-stage renal disease. Spec Care Dentist 1999;19:106-111.
70. Eigner TL, Jastak JT, Bennett WM. Achieving oral health in patients with renal failure and renal transplants. J Am Dent Assoc 1986;113:612-616.
71. Little JW, Palace DA, Miller CS, Rhodus NL. Dental management of the medically compromised patient, ed. 6. St. Louis: Mosby 2002:501-525.
72. Seymour RA, Thomason JM, Ellis JS. Oral and dental problems in the organ transplant patient. Dent Update 1994;21:209-212.
73. Diz Dios P, Fernandez Feijoo J, Vazquez Garcia E. Tooth extraction in HIV seropositive patients. Int Dent J 1999;49:317-321.
74. Cioffi GA, Terezhalmy GT, Taybos GM. Total joint replacement: A consideration for antimicrobial prophylaxis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1988;66:124-129.
75. Field EA, Martin MV. Antibiotic prophylaxis for patients with prosthetic joints undergoing dental treatment. Br Dent J 1991;171:352-353.
76. Field EA, Martin MV. Need for antibiotic prophylaxis for dental patients with a penile prosthesis. Br Dent J 1990;169:75.
77. Field EA, Martin MV. Prophylactic antibiotics for patients with artificial joints undergoing oral and dental surgery: Necessary or not? Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1991;29:341-346.
78. Freedman AM, Jackson IT. Infections in breast implants. Infec Dis Clin North Am 1989;3:275-287.
79. Hunter JG, Padilla M, Cooper-Vastola S. Late Clostridium perfringens breast implant infection after dental treatment. Ann Plast Surg 1996;36:309-312.
80. Rubin R, Salvati EA, Lewis R. Infected total hip replacement after dental procedures. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1976;41:18-23.
81. Waldman BJ, Mont MA, Hungerford DS. Total knee arthroplasty infections associated with dental procedures. Clin Orthop 1997;343:164-172.
82. Bayer AS, Bolger AF, Taubert KA, Wilson W, Steckelberg J, Karchmer AW, Levison M, Chambers HF, Dajani AS, Gewitz MH, Newburger JW, Gerber MA, Shulman ST, Pallasch TJ, Gage TW, Ferrieri P. Diagnosis and management of infective endocarditis and its complications. Circulation 1998;98:2936-2948.
83. Cates JE, Christie RV. Subacute bacterial endocarditis: A review of 442 patients treated in 14 centers appointed by the penicillin trials committee of the MRC. Q J Med 1951;78:93-130.
84. Durack DT, Lukes AS, Bright DK. New criteria for diagnosis of infective endocarditis: Utilization of specific echocardiographic findings. Duke Endocarditis Service. Am J Med 1994;96:200-209.
85. Durack DT, Petersdorf RG. Chemotherapy of experimental streptococcal endocarditis. I. Comparison of commonly recommended prophylactic regimens. J Clin Invest 1973;52:592-598.
86. Kelson SR, White PD. Notes on 250 cases of subacute bacterial (streptococcal) endocarditis studied and treated between 1927 and 1939. Ann Int Med 1945;22:40-60.
87. Mylonakis E, Calderwood SB. Infective endocarditis in adults. N Eng J Med 2001;345:1318-1330.
88. Northrup PM, Crowley MC. The prophylactic use of sulfathiazole in transient bacteremia following the extraction of teeth. J Oral Surg 1943;1:19-29.
89. Nissen H, Nielsen PF, Frederiksen M, Helleberg C, Nielsen JS. Native valve infective endocarditis in the general population: A 10-year survey of the clinical picture during the 1980s. Eur Heart J 1992;13:872-877.
90. Wilson WR, Karchmer AW, Dajani AS, Taubert KA, Bayer A, Kaye D, Bisno AL, Ferrieri P, Shulman ST, Durack DT. Antibiotic treatment of adults with infective endocarditis due to streptococci, enterococci, staphylococci, and HACEK microorganisms. American Heart Association. JAMA 1995;274:1706-13.
91. Little JW, Falace DA, Miller CS, Rhodus NL. Dental management of the medically compromised patient, ed. 6. St. Louis: Mosby; 2002:21-51.
92. Durack DT, Beeson PB. Experimental bacterial endocarditis. II. Survival of bacterial endocardial vegetations. Br J Exp Pathol 1972;53:50-53.
93. Durack DT. Experimental bacterial endocarditis. IV. Structure and evolution of very early lesions. J Pathol 1975;115:81-89.
94. Soxman JA. Subacute bacterial endocarditis: Considerations for the pediatric patient. J Am Dent Assoc 2000;131:668-669.
95. Starkebaum M, Durack D, Beeson P. The "incubation period" of subacute bacterial endocarditis. Yale J Biol Med 1977;50:49-58.
96. Tyler MT, Lozada-Nur F, Glick M, eds. Clinician's guide to treatment of medically complex dental patients, ed. 2. Baltimore: American Academy of Oral Medicine;2001.
97. Blijlevens NM, Donnelly JP, de Pauw BE. Empirical therapy of febrile neutropenic patients with mucositis: Challenge of risk-based therapy. Clin Microbiol Infect 2001;7 Suppl 4:47-52.
98. Prentice HG, Hann IM, Nazareth B, Paterson P, Bhamra A, Kibbler CC. Oral ciprofloxacin plus colistin: Prophylaxis against bacterial infection in neutropenic patients. A strategy for the prevention of emergence of antimicrobial resistance. Br J Haematol 2001;115:46-52.
99. Carratala J, Alcaide F, Fernandez-Sevilla A, Corbella X, Linares J, Gudiol F. Bacteremia due to viridans streptococci that are highly resistant to penicillin: Increase among neutropenic patients with cancer. Clin Infect Dis 1995;20:1169-1173.
100. Horvathova Z, Spanik S, Sufliarsky J, Mardiak J, Pichna P, Pichnova E, Krajcik S, Mraz M, Chmelík B, Dacok J, Beresova J, Krupova I, Hrachova A, Trupl J, Kunova A, Krcmery V Jr. Bacteremia due to methicillin-resistant staphylococci occurs more frequently in neutropenic patients who receive antimicrobial prophylaxis and is associated with higher mortality in comparison to methicillin-sensitive bacteremia. Int J Antimicrob Agents 1998;10:55-58.
101. The choice of antibacterial drugs. Med Lett Drugs Ther 2001;43:69-78.
102. Tunkel AR, Sepkowitz KA. Infections caused by viridans streptococci in patients with neutropenia. Clin Infect Dis 2002;34:1524-1529.
103. Shaw JH, Print CG. Postsplenectomy sepsis. Br J Surg 1989;76:1074-1081.
104. Ellison EC, Fabri PJ. Complications of splenectomy. Etiology, prevention, and management. Surg Clin North Am 1983;63:1313-1330.
105. Huber MA, Drake AJ 3rd. Pharmacology of the endocrine pancreas, adrenal cortex, and female reproductive organ. Dent Clin North Am 1996;40:753-777.
106. Mealey BL. Diabetes and periodontal disease: Two sides of a coin. Compend Contin Educ Dent 2000;21:943-950.
107. Grossi SG, Skrepcinski FB, DeCaro T, Zambon JJ, Cummins D, Genco RJ. Response to periodontal therapy in diabetics and smokers. J Periodontol 1996;67:1094-1102.
108. Birkedal-Hansen H. Role of cytokines and inflammatory mediators in tissue destruction. J Periodont Res 1993;28:500-510.
109. Grossi SG. Treatment of periodontal disease and control of diabetes: An assessment of the evidence and the need for future research. Ann Periodontol 2001;6:138-145.
110. Yamamoto M, Fujihashi K, Hiroi T, McGhee JR, Van Dyke TE, Kiyono H. Molecular and cellular mechanisms for periodontal disease: Role of Th1 and Th2 type cytokines in induction of mucosal inflammation. J Periodont Res 1997;32:115-119.
111. Little JW, Palace DA, Miller CS, Rhodus NL. Dental management of the medically compromised patient, ed. 6. St. Louis: Mosby, 2002:248-270.
112. Chandu A, Macisaac RJ, Smith AC, Bach LA. Diabetic ketoacidosis secondary to dento-alveolar infection. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2002;31:57-59.
113. Garcia RI, Henshaw MM, Krall EA. Relationship between periodontal health and systemic health. Periodontol 2000 2001;25:21-36.
114. Iacopino AM. Periodontitis and diabetes interrelationships: Role of inflammation. Ann Periodontol 2001;6:125-137.
115. Scannapieco FA. Position paper of the American Academy of Periodontology: Periodontal disease as a potential risk factor for systemic diseases. J Periodontol 1998;69:841-850.
116. U.S. Renal Data System. USRDS 2004 annual data report: Atlas of end-stage renal disease in the United States. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases;2004.
117. Abbott KC, Agodoa LY. Etiology of bacterial septicemia in chronic dialysis patients in the United States. Clin Nephrol 2001;56:124-131.
118. Hoen B, Kessler M, Hestin D, Mayeux D. Risk factors for bacterial infections in chronic haemodialysis adult patients: A multicenter prospective survey. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1995;10:377-381.
119. Levy HM. Dental considerations for the patient receiving dialysis for renal failure. Spec Care Dentist 1988;8:334-336.
120. Manton SL, Midda M. Renal failure and the dental patient: A cautionary tale. Br Dent J 1986;160:388-390.
121. Naugle K, Darby ML, Bauman DB, Lineberger LT, Powers R. The oral health status of individuals on renal dialysis. Ann Periodontol 1998;3:197-205.
122. Nassar GM, Ayus JC. Infectious complications of the hemodialysis access. Kidney Int 2001;60:1-13.
123. Butterly DW, Schwab SJ. Catheter access for hemodialysis: An overview. Semin Dial 2001;14:411-415.
124. Tokars JI, Miller ER, Stein G. New national surveillance system for hemodialysis-associated infections: Initial results. Am J Infect Control 2002;30:288-295.
125. Saeed Abdulrahman I, Al-Mueilo SH, Bokhary HA, Ladipo GO, Al-Rubaish A. A prospective study of hemodialysis access-related bacterial infections. J Infect Chemother 2002;8:242-246.
126. Blankestijn PJ. Treatment and prevention of catheter-related infections in haemodialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2001;16:1975-1978.
127. Robinson DL, Fowler VG, Sexton DJ, Corey RG, Conlon PJ. Bacterial endocarditis in hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 1997;30:521-524.
128. Vijayvargiya R, Veis JH. Antibiotic-resistant endocarditis in a hemodialysis patient. J Am Soc Nephrol 1996;7:536-542.
129. Build an advanced report. Available at: http://www.optn.org/latestData/ rptData.asp. Accessed November 12, 2004.
130. Donnelly JP. Bacterial complications of transplantation: Diagnosis and treatment. J Antimicrob Chemother 1995;36 Suppl B:59-72.
131. Fishman JA, Rubin RH. Infection in organ-transplant recipients. New Engl J Med 1998;338:1741-1751.
132. Husain S, Singh N. The impact of novel immunosuppressive agents on infections in organ transplant recipients and the interactions of these agents with antimicrobials. Clin Infect Dis 2002;35:53-61.
133. Kontoyiannis DP, Rubin RH. Infections in the organ transplant recipient. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1995;9:811-822.
134. Meyer U, Weingart D, Deng MC, Scheld HH, Joos U. Heart transplants - Assessment of dental procedures. Clin Oral Invest 1999;3:79-83.
135. Rubin RH, Tolkoff-Rubin NE. Antimicrobial strategies in the care of organ transplant recipients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1993;37:619-624.
136. Wagener MM, Yu VL. Bacteremia in transplant recipients: A prospective study of demographics, etiologic agents, risk factors, and outcomes. Am J Infect Control 1992;20:239-247.
137. Berger BJ, Hussain F, Roistacher K. Bacterial infections in HIV-infected patients. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1994;8:449-465.
138. Wininger DA, Pass RJ. Impact of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole prophylaxis of pathogens causing human immunodeficiency virus-associated bacteremias. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002;46:594-597.
139. USPHS/IDSA guidelines for preventing opportunistic infections in persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus: Disease specific recommendations. USPHS/IDSA Prevention of Opportunistic Infections Working Group. Clin Infect Dis 1995; 21 Suppl 1:S32-S43.
140. 1997 USPHS/IDSA guidelines for the prevention of opportunistic infections in persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus: Disease-specific recommendations. USPHS/IDSA Prevention of Opportunistic Infections Working Group. US Public Health Services/Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 1997;25 Suppl 3:S313-S335.
141. Heller HM. Adverse cutaneous drug reactions in patients with human immunodeficiency virus-1 infection. Clin Dermatol 2000;18:485-489.
142. Tilles SA. Practical issues in the management of hypersensitivity reaction: Sulfonamides. South Med J 2001;94:817-824.
143. Leegaard TM, Caugant DA, Froholm LO, Hoiby EA, Ronning EJ, Sandven P, Bruun JN. Do HIV-seropositive patients become colonised with drug-resistant microorganisms? Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2002;21:856-863.
144. Carr A, Cooper DA. Adverse effects of antiretroviral therapy. Lancet 2000;356:1423-1430.
145. Powderly WG. Prophylaxis for opportunistic infections in an era of effective antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2000;31:597-601.
146. Gupta G. Current concepts in HIV pathogenesis and treatment. J Calif Dent Assoc 2001;29:129-135.
147. Max B, Sherer R. Management of the adverse effecets of antiretroviral therapy and medication adherence. Clin Infect Dis 2000;30 Suppl 2:S96-S116.
148. Scully C, Diz Dios P. Orofacial effects of antiretroviral therapies. Oral Dis 2001;7:205-210.
149. Pirmohamed M, Park BK. HIV and drug allergy. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol 2001;1:311-316.
150. Ward HA, Russo GG, Shrum J. Cutaneous manifestations of antiretroviral therapy. J Am Acad Dermatol 2002;46:284-293.
151. Schierholz JM, Beuth J. Implant infections: A haven for opportunistic bacteria. J Hosp Infect 2001;49:87-93.
152. Sugarman B, Young EJ. Infections associated with prosthetic devices: Magnitude of the problem. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1989;3:187-198.
153. Jacobson JJ, Schweitzer S, DePorter DJ, Lee JJ. Chemoprophylaxis of patients with prosthetic joints: A simulation model. J Dent Educ 1988;52:599-604.
154. Jacobson JJ, Schweitzer SO, Kowalski CJ. Chemoprophylaxis of prosthetic joint patients during dental treatment: A decision-utility analysis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1991;72:167-177.
155. Jacobson JJ. Is the jaw bone connected to the hip bone? Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 1996;81:263.
156. Little JW. Patients with prosthetic joints: Are they at risk when receiving invasive dental procedures? Spec Care Dentist 1997;17:153-160.
157. Wahl MJ. Myths of dental-induced prosthetic joint infections. Clin Infec Dis 1995;20:1420-1425.
158. Jacobson JJ, Matthews LS. Bacteria isolated from late prosthetic joint infections: Dental treatment and chemoprophylaxis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1987;63:122-126.
159. Advisory statement. Antibiotic prophylaxis for dental patients with total joint replacements. American Dental Association; American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. J Am Dent Assoc 1997;128:1004-1008.
160. Jacobson JJ, Patel B, Asher G, Woolliscroft JO, Schaberg D. Oral staphylococcus on older subjects with rheumatoid arthritis. J Am Geriatr Soc 1997;45:590-593.
161. Baltch AL, Pressman HL, Hammer MC, Sutphen NC, Smith RP, Shayegani M. Bacteremia following dental extractions in patients with and without penicillin prophylaxis. Am J Med Sci 1982;283:129-140.
162. van der Meer JT, Thompson J, Valkenburg HA, Michel MF. Epidemiology of bacterial endocarditis in the Netherlands. II. Antecedent procedures and use of prophylaxis. Arch Intern Med 1992;152:1869-1873.
163. Van der Meer JT, Van Wijk W, Thompson J, Vandenbroucke JP, Valkenburg HA, Michel MF. Efficacy of antibiotic prophylaxis of native-valve endocarditis. Lancet 1992;339:135-139.
164. Strom BL, Abrutyn E, Berlin JA, Kinman JL, Feldman RS, Stolley PD, Levison ME, Korzeniowski OM, Kaye D. Dental and cardiac risk factors for infective endocarditis. A population-based, case-control study. Ann Intern Med 1998;129:761-769.
165. Hall G, Hedstrom SA, Heimdahl A, Nord CE. Prophylactic administration of penicillins for endocarditis does not reduce the incidence of postextraction bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis 1993;17:188-194.
166. Madsen KL. Effect of chlorhexidine mouthrinse and periodontal treatment upon bacteremia produced by oral hygiene procedures. Scan J Dent Res 1974;82:1-7.
167. Carmona IT, Diz Dios P, Scully C. An update on the controversies in bacterial endocarditis of oral origin. Oral Surg Oral Oral Med Oral Path Radiol Endod 2002;93:660-670.
168. Hall G, Heimdahl A, Nord CE. Bacteremia after oral surgery and antibiotic prophylaxis for endocarditis. Clin Infect Dis 1999;29:1-8.
169. Little JW, Falace DA, Miller CS, Rhodus NL. Dental management of the medically compromised patient, ed. 6. St. Louis: Mosby; 2002:52-63.
170. Martin MV, Butterworth ML, Longman LP. Infective endocarditis and the dental practitioner: A review of 53 cases involving litigation. Br Dent J 1997;182:465-468.
171. Meehan S, Schmidt MC, Mitchell PF. Infective endocarditis in a patient with Hodgkin's lymphoma: A case report. Spec Care Dentist 1994;14:57-60.
172. Morris AM, Webb GD. Antibiotics before dental procedures for endocarditis prophylaxis: Back to the future. Heart 2001;86:3-4.
173. Pallasch TJ. A critical appraisal of antibiotic prophylaxis. Int Dent J 1989;39:183-196.
174. Bor DH, Himmelstein DU. Endocarditis prophylaxis for patients with mitral valve prolapse. A quantitative analysis. Am J Med 1984;76:711-717.
175. Saxon A, Beall GN, Rohr AS, Adelman DC. Immediate hypersensitivity reactions to beta-lactam antibiotics. Ann Intern Med 1987;107:204-215.
176. Seymour RA, Lowry R, Whitworth JM, Martin MV. Infective endocarditis, dentistry and antibiotic prophylaxis; time for a rethink? Br J Dent 2000;189:610-616.
177. Tzukert AA, Leviner E, Benoliel R, Katz J. Analysis of the American Heart Association's recommendations for the prevention on infective endocarditis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1986;62:276-279.
178. Doern GV, Ferraro MJ, Brueggemann AB, Ruoff KL. Emergence of high rates of antimicrobial resistance among viridans group streptococci in the United States. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996;40:891-894.
179. Hall GE, Baddour LM. Apparent failure of endocarditis prophylaxis caused by penicillin-resistant Streptococcus mitis. Am J Med 2002;324:51-53.
180. Levy CS, Kogulan P, Gill VJ, Croxton MB, Kane JG, Lucey DR. Endocarditis caused by penicillin-resistant viridans streptococci: 2 cases and controversies in therapy. Clin Infec Dis 2001;33:577-579.
181. Avorn J, Solomon DH. Cultural and economic factors that (mis)shape antibiotic use: The nonpharmacologic basis of therapeutics. Ann Intern Med 2000;133:128-135.
182. Berns JS, Tokars JI. Preventing bacterial infections and antimicrobial resistance in dialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 2002;40:886-898.
183. Berns JS. Infection with antimicrobial-resistant microorganisms in dialysis patients. Semin Dial 2003;16:30-37.
184. Leviner E, Tzukert AA, Benoliel R, Baram O, Sela MN. Development of resistant oral viridans streptococci after administration of prophylactic antibiotics: Time management in the dental treatment of patients susceptible to infective endocarditis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1987;64:417-420.
185. Lockhart PB, Brennan MT, Fox PC, Norton HJ, Jernigan DB, Strausbaugh LJ. Decision-making on the use of antimicrobial prophylaxis for dental procedures: A survey of infectious disease consultants and review. Clin Infect Dis 2002;34:1621-1626.
186. Slavkin HC. Emerging and re-emerging infectious disease: A biological evolutionary drama. J Am Dent Assoc 1997;128:108-113.
187. Slots J, Pallasch TJ. Dentist's role in halting antimicrobial resistance. J Dent Res 1996;75:1338-1341.
188. Tokars JI. Infections due to antimicrobial-resistant pathogens in the dialysis unit. Blood Purif 2000;18:355-360.
189. Tzukert AA, Leviner E, Sela M. Prevention of infective endocarditis: Not by antibiotics alone. A 7-year follow-up of 90 dental patients. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1986;62:385-388.
190. Jones TD, Baumgartner L, Bellows MT, Breese BB, Kuttner AG, McCarty M, Rammelkamp CH. Committee on Prevention of Rheumatic Fever and Bacterial Endocarditis. Prevention of rheumatic fever and bacterial endocarditis through control of streptococcal infection. Circulation 1955;11:317-320.
191. Committee on Prevention of Rheumatic Fever and Bacterial Endocarditis. Prevention of rheumatic fever and bacterial endocarditis through control of streptococcal infection. Circulation 1960;21:151-155.
192. Wannamaker LW, Denny FW, Diehl A, Jawetz E, Kirby WMM, Markowitz M, McCarty M, Mortimer EA, Paterson PY, Perry W, Rammelkamp CH, Stollerman GH. Committee on Prevention of Rheumatic Fever and Bacterial Endocarditis. Prevention of rheumatic fever and bacterial endocarditis through control of streptococcal infection. Circulation 1965;31:953-955.
193. Taranta A, Ayoub EM, Gordis L, Kaplan EL, Krause RM, Jackson WH, Millard HD, Paterson PY, Perry LW, Zimmerman RL, Manning JA, Goldberg SJ, Jesse MJ, Malm JR, Ongley PA, Rashkind WJ, Ritter DG, Robinson SL, Talner NS. Committee on Rheumatic Fever and the Committee on Congenital Cardiac Defects. Prevention of bacterial endocarditis. Circulation 1972;46:3-5.
194. Kaplan EL, Anthony BF, Bisno A, Durack D, Houser H, Millard HD, Sanford J, Shulman ST, Stillerman M, Taranta A, Wenger N. Committee on Prevention of Rheumatic Fever and Bacterial Endocarditis. Prevention of rheumatic fever and bacterial endocarditis. Circulation 1977;56:139A-143A.
195. Shulman ST, Amren DP, Bisno AL, Dajani AS, Durack DT, Gerber MA, Kaplan EL, Millard HD, Sanders WE, Schwartz RH, et al. Prevention of bacterial endocarditis. A statement for health professionals by the Committee on Rheumatic Fever and Infective Endocarditis of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young. Circulation 1984;70:1123A-1127A.
196. Dajani AS, Bisno AL, Chung KJ, Durack DT, Freed M, Gerber MA, Karchmer AW, Millard HD, Rahimtoola S, Shulman ST, Watanakunakorn C, Taubet KA. Prevention of bacterial endocarditis. Recommendations by the American Heart Association. JAMA 1990;264:2919-2922.
197. Strom BL, Abrutyn E, Berlin JA, Kinman JL, Feldman RS, Stolley PD, Levison ME, Korzeniowski OM, Kaye D. Risk factors for infective endocarditis: Oral hygiene and nondental exposures. Circulation 2000;102:2842-2848.
198. Randall E, Brenman HS. Local degerming with povidone-iodine, I. Prior to dental prophylaxis. J Periodontol 1974;45:966-969.
199. Paget DS, Bukhari RH, Zayyat EJ, Lohr JM, Roberts WH, Welling RE. Infectibility of endovascular stents following antibiotic prophylaxis or after arterial wall incorporation. Am J Surg 1999;178:219-224.
200. Roberts HW, Redding SW. Coronary artery stents: Review and patient-management recommendations. J Am Dent Assoc 2000;131:797-801.
201. Cardiac valvulopathy associated with exposure to fenfluramine or dexfenfluramine: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services interim public health recommendations, November 1997. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1997;46:1061-1066.
202. Galve E, Candell-Riera J, Pigrau C, Permanyer-Miralda G, Garcia-Del-Castillo H, Soler-Soler J. Prevalence, morphologic types, and
203. Mills JA. Systemic lupus erythematosus. New Engl J Med 1994;330:1871-1879.
204. Durack DT. Antibiotics for prevention of endocarditis during dentistry: Time to scale back? Ann Intern Med 1998;129:829-831.
205. Terezhalmy GT, Safadi TJ, Longworth DL, Muehrcke DD. Oral disease burden in patients undergoing prosthetic heart valve implantation. Ann Thorac Surg 1997;63:402-404.
206. Verhaaren H, Claeys G, Verschraegen G, de Niel C, Leroy J, Clement D. Endocarditis from a dental focus. Importance of oral hygiene in valvular heart disease. Int J Cardiol 1989;23:343-347.
207. Antony SJ, Stratton CW, Dummer JS. Lactobacillus bacteremia: Description of the clinical course in adult patients without endocarditis. Clin Infect Dis 1996;23:773-778.
208. Fruchart C, Salah A, Gray C, Martin E, Stamatoullas A, Bonmarchand G, Lemeland JF, Tilly H. Lactobacillus species as emerging pathogens in neutropenic patients. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1997;16:681-684.
209. Holmstrup P, Glick M. Treatment of periodontal disease in the immunodeficient patient. Periodontol 2000 2002;28:190-205.
210. Schutze GE, Mason EO Jr, Barson WJ, Kim KS, Wald ER, Givner LB, Tan TQ, Bradley JS, Yogev R, Kaplan SL. Invasive pneumococcal infections in children with asplenia. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2002;21:278-282.
211. Grossi SG, Skrepcinski FB, DeCaro T, Robertson DC, Ho AW, Dunford RG, Genco RJ. Treatment of periodontal disease in diabetics reduces glycated hemoglobin. J Periodontol 1997;68:713-719.
212. Rifkin BR, Vernillo AT, Golub LM. Blocking periodontal disease progression by inhibiting tissue-destructive enzymes: A potential therapeutic role for tetracycline and their chemically-modified analogs. J Periodontol 1993;64:819-827.
213. Paterson DL, Dominguez EA, Chang FY, Snydman DR, Singh N. Infective endocarditis in solid organ transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis 1998;26:689-694.
214. Lucartorto FM, Franker CK, Maza J. Postscaling bacteremia in HIV-associated gingivitis and periodontitis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1992;73:550-554.
215. Patton LL. Hematologic abnormalitites among HIV-infected patients. Associations of significance for dentistry. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 1999;88:561-567.
216. Ryder MI. An update on HIV and periodontal disease. J Periodontol 2002;73:1071-1078.
217. Patton LL, Glick M. Clinician's guide to treatment of HIV-infected patients, ed. 3. Baltimore: American Academy of Oral Medicine;2001.
218. Navazesh M. Current oral manifestations of HIV infection. J Calif Dent Assoc 2001;29:137-141.
219. Baker KA. Antibiotic prophylaxis for selected implants and devices. J Calif Dent Assoc 2000;28:620-626.
220. Cutando-Soriano A, Galindo-Moreno P. Antibiotic prophylaxis in dental patients with body prostheses. Med Oral 2002;7:348-359.
221. Little JW, Rhodus NL. The need for antibiotic prophylaxis of patients with penile implants during invasive dental procedures: A national survey of urologists. J Urol 1992;148:1801-1804.
222. Manian FA. Cellulitis associated with oral source of infection in breast cancer patients: Report of two cases. Scand J Infect Dis 1997;29:421-422.
223. Little JW, Falace DA, Miller CS, Rhodus NL. Dental management summary. In: Dental management of the medically compromised patient, ed 6. St. Louis: Mosby;2002: DM1-DM75.