Potential Mechanisms for Altered Iron Metabolism in Human Immunodeficiency Virus Disease

Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care

Volumn 15, Issue 6, 2004, Pages 31-45

  Butensky, Ellen ^a   Kennedy, Christine M ^b   Lee, Marion M ^b   Harmatz, Paul ^c   Miaskowski, Christine ^b  

^a Department of Gastroenterology and Nutrition   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c CHILDREN S HOSPITAL OAKLAND   (United States)

Author keywords

anemia; anemia of chronic disease; HIV AIDS; iron deficiency anemia; iron metabolism; iron overload; oxidative stress

Indexed keywords

IRON;

ANEMIA; BIOLOGICAL MODEL; BLOOD; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; INFLAMMATION; IRON DEFICIENCY ANEMIA; IRON OVERLOAD; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW;

ANEMIA; ANEMIA, IRON-DEFICIENCY; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION; IRON; IRON OVERLOAD; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; OXIDATIVE STRESS;

EID: 16644392141     PISSN: 10553290     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1055329004271125     Document Type: Article

References (137)

1. Abshire T.C. The anemia of inflammation. Pediatric Clinics of North America 43 3 (1996) 623-637
2. Al-Khafaji B., Kralovic S., and Smith R. Increased hepatic iron in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: An autopsy study. Modern Pathology 10 5 (1997) 474-480
3. Allard J.P., Aghdassi E., Chau J., Salir I., and Walmsley S. Oxidative stress and plasma antioxidant micronutrients in humans with HIV infection. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 67 (1998) 143-147
4. Allard J.P., Aghdassi E., Chau J., Tam C., Kovacs C.M., Salit I.E., et al. Effects of vitamin E and C supplementation on oxidative stress and viral load in HIV-infected subjects. AIDS 12 (1998) 1653-1659
5. Alvarez-Hernandez X., Liceaga J., and McKay I.C. Induction of hypoferremia and modulation of macrophage iron metabolism by tumor necrosis factor. Laboratory Investigation 61 (1989) 319-322
6. Arango C.A., Midani S., Alvarez A., Kubilis P.S., and Rathore M.H. Usefulness of acute phase reactants in the diagnosis of acute infections in HIV-infected children. Southern Medical Journal 92 2 (1999) 209-213
7. Arango, C. A., Villalobos T. I., Rathore M. H., Midani S. & Ayoub, E. M. (1996, May 6-10) Comparison of the usefulness of ESR and CRP in HIV indeterminate and infected children. Paper presented at theAmerican Pediatric Association and Society for Pediatric Research Annual Meeting, Washington, DC.
8. Arditi M., Kabat W., and Yogev R. Serum tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin 1-beta, p24 antigen concentrations and CD4+ cells at various stages of human immunodeficiency virus 1 infection in children. Pediatric Infectious Diseases Journal 10 6 (1991) 420-455
9. Babior B.M. Oxygen-dependent microbial killing by phagocytes. New England Journal of Medicine 298 12 (1978) 659-668
10. Babior B.M. Oxidants from phagocytes: Agents of defense and destruction. Blood 64 5 (1984) 959-966
11. Bacon B.R., and Britton R.S. Hepatic injury in chronic iron overload: Role of lipid peroxidation. Chemico-Biological Interactions 70 (1989) 183-226
12. Bacon B.R., and Britton R.S. The pathology of hepatic iron overload: A free radical-mediated process. Hepatology 11 1 (1990) 127-137
13. Baer A.N., Dessypris E.N., Goldwasser E., and Krantz S.B. Blunted erythropoietin response to anemia in rheumatoid arthritis. British Journal of Haematology 66 (1987) 559-564
14. Bain B.J. Pathogenesis and pathophysiology of anemia in HIV infection. Current Opinion in Hematology 6 (1999) 89-93
15. Balbaryski J., Gaddi E., Laucella S., Cantisano C., Barboni G., Candi M., et al. Anemia associated with HIV-infection in children. International Conference on AIDS 12 552 (1998) 32161
16. Baruchel S., and Wainberg M.A. The role of oxidative stress in disease progression in individuals infected by the human immunodeficiency virus. Journal of Leukocyte Biology 52 (1992) 111-114
17. Beard J.L., Dawson H., and Pinero D.J. Iron metabolism: Acomprehensive review. Nutrition Reviews 54 10 (1996) 295-317
18. Bland J.S. Oxidants and antioxidants in clinical medicine: Past, present and future potential. Journal of Nutritional & Environmental Medicine 5 (1995) 255-280
19. Blumberg B.S., Hann H., Mildvan D., Mathur W., Lustbader E., and London W.T. Iron and iron binding proteins in persistent generalised lymphadenopathy and AIDS. The Lancet 347 (1984) 347
20. Boelaert J.R., Weinberg G.A., and Weinberg E.D. Altered iron metabolism in HIV infection: Mechanisms, possible consequences, and proposals for management. Infectious Agents and Disease 5 (1996) 36-46
21. Borgna-Pignatti C., and Castriota-Scanderbeg A. Methods for evaluating iron stores and efficacy of chelation in transfusional hemosiderosis. Haemotologica 76 (1991) 409-423
22. Boyer C.G. Chemotherapy-related anemia and fatigue in home care patients. Home Healthcare Nurse 18 4 (2000) 3-12
23. Breen E.C., Rezai A.R., Nakajima K., Beall G.N., Mitsuyasu R.T., Hirano T., et al. Infection with HIV is associated with elevated IL-6 levels and production. The Journal of Immunology 144 2 (1990) 480-484
24. Buhl R., Holroyd K.J., Mastrangeli A., Cantin A.M., Jaffe H.A., Wells F.B., et al. Systemic glutathione deficiency in symptom-free HIV-seropositive individuals. The Lancet 2 (1989) 1294-1298
25. Buonaguro L., Barillari G., Chang H.K., Bohan C.A., Kao V., Morgan R., et al. Effects of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 tat protein on the expression of inflammatory cytokines. Journal of Virology 66 12 (1992) 7159-7167
26. Buttke T.M., and Sandstrom P.A. Oxidative stress as a mediator of apoptosis. Immunology Today 15 1 (1994) 7-10
27. Castaldo A., Tarallo L., Palomba E., Albano F., Russo S., Zuin G., et al. Iron deficiency and intestinal malabsorption in HIV disease. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition 22 4 (1996) 359-363
28. Castella A., Croxson T.S., Mildvan D., Witt D.H., and Zalusky R. The bone marrow in AIDS: A histologic, hematologic, and microbiologic study. American Journal of Clinical Pathology 84 (1985) 425-432
29. Cordiali Fei P., Massa A., Prignano G., Pietravalle M., Alemanno L., Vitelli G., et al. Behaviour of several 'progression markers' during the HIV-Ab seroconversion period. Comparison with later stages. Journal of Biological Regulators and Homeostatic Agents 6 2 (1992) 57-64
30. de Monye C., Karcher D.S., Boelaert J.R., and Gordeuk V.R. Bone marrow macrophage iron grade and survival of HIV-seropositive patients. AIDS 13 (1999) 375-380
31. Deiss A. Iron metabolism in reticuloendothelial cells. Seminars in Hematology 20 2 (1983) 81-90
32. Delmas-Beauvieux M., Peuchant E., Couchouron A., Constans J., Sergeant C., Simonoff M., et al. The enzymatic antioxidant system in blood and glutathione status in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients: Effects of supplementation with selenium or B-carotene. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 64 (1996) 101-107
33. Douvas G.S., May M.H., and Crowle A.J. Transferrin, iron and serum lipids enhance or inhibit Mycobacterium avium replication in human macrophages. The Journal of Infectious Diseases 167 (1993) 857-864
34. Dworkin B.M., Rosenthal W.S., Wormser G.P., Weiss L., Nunez M., Joline C., et al. Abnormalities of blood selenium and glutathione peroxidase activity in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and AIDS-related complex. Biological Trace Element Research 15 (1988) 167-177
35. Ellaurie M., Burns E.R., and Rubinstein A. Hematologic manifestations in pediatric HIV infection: Severe anemia as a prognostic factor. The American Journal of Pediatric Hematology/ Oncology 12 4 (1990) 449-453
36. Ellaurie M., and Rubinstein A. Tumor necrosis factor alpha in pediatric HIV-1 infection. AIDS 6 (1992) 1265-1268
37. Ellaurie M., and Rubinstein A. Ferritin levels in pediatric HIV-1 infection. Acta Paediatrica 83 (1994) 1035-1037
38. Faquin W.C., Schneider T.J., and Goldberg M.A. Effect of inflammatory cytokines on hypoxia-induced erythropoietin production. Blood 79 8 (1992) 1987-1994
39. Farthing M.J. Iron and immunity. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavia 36 Suppl. (1989) 44-52
40. Ferri R.S., Adinolfi A., Orsi A.J., Sterken D.J., Keruly J.C., Davis S., et al. Treatment of anemia in patients with HIV infection, part 1: The need for adequate guidelines. JANAC: Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care 12 6 (2001) 39-51
41. Ferri R.S., Adinolfi A., Orsi A.J., Sterken D.J., Keruly J.C., Davis S., et al. Treatment of anemia in patients with HIV infection, part 2: Guidelines for management of anemia. JANAC: Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care 13 1 (2002) 50-59
42. Finch C. Regulators of iron balance in humans. Blood 84 6 (1994) 1697-1702
43. Fishbane S. Review of issues relating to iron and infection. American Journal of Kidney Diseases 34 Suppl. 2 (1999) S47-S52
44. Flament J., Goldman M., Waterlot Y., Dupont E., Wybran J., and Vanherweghem J.L. Impairment of phagocyte oxidative metabolism in hemodialyzed patients with iron overload. Clinical Nephrology 25 5 (1986) 227-230
45. Forsyth B.W., Andiman W.A., and O'Connor T. Development of a prognosis-based clinical staging system for infants infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Journal of Pediatrics 129 (1996) 648-655
46. Frontiera M., and Myers A.M. Peripheral blood and bone marrow abnormalities in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Western Journal of Medicine 147 (1987) 157-160
47. Gelman B.B., Rodriguez-Wolf M.G., Wen J., Kumar S., Campbell G.R., and Herzog N. Siderotic cerebral macrophages in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Archives ofPathology and Laboratory Medicine 116 (1992) 509-516
48. Gomes M.S., and Appelberg R. Evidence for a link between iron metabolism and Nramp1gene function in innate resistance against Mycobacterium avium. Immunology 95 (1998) 165-168
49. Goossens V., Grooten J., De Vos K., and Fiers W. Direct evidence for tumor necrosis factor-induced mitochondrial reactive oxygen intermediates and their involvement in cytotoxicity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 92 (1995) 8115-8119
50. Gougerot-Pocidalo M., Aillet F., Virelizier J., and Israel N. Influence of redox status of lymphocytes and monocytes in HIV transcription and replication. Immunobiology 193 (1995) 204-209
51. Graham N.M.H., Sorensen D., Odaka N., Brookmeyer R., Chan D., Willett W.C., et al. Relationship of serum copper and zinc levels to HIV-1 seropositivity and progression to AIDS. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 4 (1991) 976-980
52. Gurram M., Chirmule N., Wang X., Ponugoti N., and Pahwa S. Increased spontaneous secretion of interleukin 6 and tumor necrosis factor alpha by peripheral blood lymphocytes of human immunodeficiency virus-infected children. Pediatric Infectious Diseases Journal 13 (1994) 496-501
53. Halliwell B. Oxidants and human disease: Some newconcepts. FASEB Journal 1 (1987) 358-364
54. Halliwell B., and Chirico S. Lipid peroxidation: Its mechanism, measurement, and significance. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 57 Suppl. (1993) 715S-725S
55. Harris C.E., Biggs J.C., Concannon A.J., and Dodds A.J. Peripheral blood and bone marrow findings in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Pathology 22 (1990) 206-211
56. Henderson R.A., Talusan K., Hutton N., Yolken R.H., and Caballero B. Serum and plasma markers of nutritional status in children infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 97 (1997) 1377-1381
57. Hiltgartner M. Hematologic manifestations in HIVinfected children. Journal of Pediatrics 119 1 [part 2] (1991) S47-S49
58. Israel N., Hazan U., Alcami J., Munier A., Arenzana-Seisdedos F., Bachelerie F., et al. Tumor necrosis factor stimulates transcription of HIV-1 in human T lymphocytes, independently and synergistically with mitogens. The Journal of Immunology 143 12 (1989) 3956-3960
59. Janeway C.A., Travers P., Walport M., and Capra J.D. Immunobiology: The immune system in health and disease. 4th ed. (1999), Current Biology Publications, London
60. Jareno E.J., Bosch-Morell F., Fernandez-Delgado R., Donat J., and Romero F.J. Serum malondialdehyde in HIV-seropositive children negatively correlates with CD4+ lymphocytes count. Biofactors 8 1-2 (1998) 129-132
61. Jareno E.J., Bosch-Morell F., Fernandez-Delgado R., Donat J., and Romero F.J. Serum malondialdehyde in HIV seropositive children. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 24 3 (1998) 503-506
62. Jelkmann W., Pagel H., Wolff M., and Fandrey J. Monokines inhibiting erythropoietin production in human hepatoma cultures and in isolated perfused rat kidneys. Life Sciences 50 4 (1992) 301-308
63. Kaplan J.E., Hanson D., Dworkin M.S., Frederick T., Bertoll J., Lindegren M., et al. Epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus-associated opportunistic infections in the United States in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clinical Infectious Diseases 30 Suppl. 1 (2000) S5-S14
64. Karcher D.S., and Frost A.R. The bone marrow in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-related disease. American Journal of Clinical Pathology 95 (1991) 63-71
65. Kendler B.S. Free radicals in health and disease: Implications for primary health care providers. Nurse Practitioner 20 7 (1995) 29-36 43-43
66. Knutson M.D., Lim A.K., and Viteri F.E. A practical and reliable method for measuring ethane and pentane in expired air from humans. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 27 5/6 (1999) 560-571
67. Knutson M.D., Walter P.B., Ames B.N., and Viteri F.E. Both iron deficiency and daily iron supplements increased lipid peroxidation in rats. Journal of Nutrition 130 (2000) 621-628
68. Lacey C.J., Murphy M.E., Sanderson M.J., Monteiro E.F., Vail A., and Schorah C.J. Antioxidant-micronutrients and HIV infection. International Journal of STD and AIDS 7 (1996) 485-489
69. Lacroix C., and Said G. Muscle siderosis in AIDS: A marker for macrophage dysfunction?. Journal of Neurology 239 (1992) 46-48
70. Livrea M.A., Tesoriere L., Pintaudi A.M., Calabrese A., Maggio A., Freisleben H.J., et al. Oxidative stress and antioxidant status in beta-thalassemia major: Iron overload and depletion of lipid-soluble antioxidants. Blood 88 9 (1996) 3608-3614
71. Lubin B.L., Golden C., Kelly P., and Oski F.A. Nutritional Anemias. In: Walker W.A., and Watkins J.B. (Eds). Nutrition in pediatrics: Basic science and clinical applications. 2nd ed. (1997), B. C. Decker, London 660-677
72. Lucesoli F., and Fraga C.G. Oxidative stress in testes of rats subjected to chronic iron intoxication and alpha-tocopherol supplementation. Toxicology 132 (1999) 179-186
73. Lustbader E.D., Hann H.L., and Blumberg B.S. Serum ferritin as a predictor of host response to hepatitis Bvirus infection. Science 220 (1983) 423-425
74. Malvy D.J., Richard M., Arnaud J., Favier A., and Amedee-Manesme O. Relationship of plasma malondialdehyde, vitamin E and antioxidant micronutrients to human immunodeficiency virus-1 seropositivity. Clinica Chimica Acta 224 (1994) 89-94
75. Mastroiacovo P., Ajassa C., Berardelli G., Bruni R., Catania N., Fidanza A., et al. Antioxidant vitamins and immunodeficiency. International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research 66 2 (1996) 141-145
76. Means R.T. Pathogenesis of the anemia of chronic disease: A cytokine-mediated anemia. Stem Cells 13 1 (1995) 32-37
77. Means R.T., Dessypris E.N., and Krantz S.B. Inhibition of human erythroid colony-forming units by itnerleukin-1 is mediated by gamma interferon. Journal of Cellular Physiology 150 (1992) 59-64
78. Means R.T., and Krantz S.B. Inhibition of human erythroid colony-forming units by tumor necrosis factor requires beta interferon. Journal of Clinical Investigation 91 (1993) 416-419
79. Merrill J.E., Koyanagi Y., and Chen I.S.Y. Interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor alpha can be induced from mononuclear phagocytes by human immunodeficiency virus type 1 binding to the CD4 receptor. Journal of Virology 63 10 (1989) 4404-4408
80. Mir N., Costello C., Luckit J., and Lindley R. HIV-disease and bone marrowchanges: Astudy of 60 cases. European Journal of Haematology 42 (1989) 339-343
81. Mocroft A., Kirk O., Barton S.E., Dietrich M., Proernca R., Colebunders R., et al. Anaemia is an independent predictive marker for clinical prognosis in HIV-infected patients from across Europe. AIDS 13 (1999) 943-950
82. Moldawer L.L., Marano M.A., Wei H., Fong Y., Silen M.L., Kuo G., et al. Cachectin/tumor necrosis factor-alpha alters red blood cell kinetics and induces anemia in vivo. FASEB Journal 3 (1989) 1637-1643
83. Monroe J.A., Godwin J.H., and Godwin T.A. HIV/AIDS case histories: Iron deficiency anemia and altered iron metabolism in HIV infection. AIDS Patient Care and STD's 14 12 (2000) 667-669
84. Moore R.D. Human immunodeficiency virus infection, anemia, and survival. Clinical Infectious Diseases 29 (1999) 44-49
85. Moore R.D., and Forney D. Anemia in HIV-infected patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 29 (2002) 54-57
86. Moore R.D., Keruly J.C., and Chaisson R.E. Anemia and survival in HIV infection. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 19 1 (1998) 29-33
87. Morris C.R., Araba-Owoyele L., Spector S.A., and Maldonado Y.A. Disease patterns and survival after acquired immunodeficiency syndrome diagnosis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected children. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 15 (1996) 321-328
88. Mueller B.U., Tannenbaum S., and Pizzo P.A. Bone marrow aspirates and biopsies in children with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Journal of Pediatric Hematology Oncology 18 3 (1996) 266-271
89. Muller F. Reactive oxygen intermediates and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 13 (1992) 651-657
90. Muntane J., Puig-Parellada P., and Mitjavila T. Iron metabolism and oxidative stress during acute and chronic phases of experimental inflammation: Effect of iron-dextran and deferoxamine. Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine 126 (1995) 435-443
91. Nable G., and Baltimore D. An inducible transcription factor activates expression of human immunodeficiency virus in T cells. Nature 326 6114 (1987) 711-713
92. Nemeth E., Valore E.V., Territo M., Schiller G., Lichtenstein A., and Ganz T. Hepcidin, a putative mediator of anemia of inflammation, is a type II acute-phase protein. Blood (2002). http://www.bloodjournal.org/cgi/content/abstract/2002-10-3235 Available: http://www.bloodjournal.org/cgi/content/abstract/2002-10-3235
93. Olivares M., Walter T., Hertrampf E., and Pizarro F. Anaemia and iron deficiency disease in children. British Medical Bulletin 55 3 (1999) 534-543
94. Omene J.A., Easington C.R., Glew R.H., Prosper M., and Ledlie S. Serum beta-carotene deficiency in HIV-infected children. Journal of the National Medical Association 88 12 (1996) 789-793
95. Oppenheimer S.J. Iron and infection in the tropics: Paediatric clinical correlates. Annals of Tropical Paediatrics 18 Suppl. 1 (1998) S81-S87
96. Osborn L., Kunkel S., and Nabel G.J. Tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin 1 stimulate the human immunodeficiency virus enhancer by activation of the nuclear factor KB. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 86 (1989) 2336-2340
97. Osborne B.M., Guarda L.A., and Butler J.J. Bone marrow biopsies in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Human Pathology 15 (1984) 1048-1053
98. Patruta S.I., Edlinger R., Sunder-Plassmann G., and Horl W.H. Neutrophil impairment associated with iron therapy in hemodialysis patients with functional iron deficiency. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 9 4 (1998) 655-663
99. Patt A., Horesh I.R., Berger E.M., Harken A.H., and Repine J.E. Iron depletion or chelation reduces ischemia/ reperfusion-induced edema in gerbil brains. Journal of Pediatric Surgery 25 (1990) 224-227
100. Periquet B.A., Jammes N.M., Lambert W.E., Tricoire J., Moussa M.M., Garcia J., et al. Micronutrient levels in HIV-1 infected children. AIDS 9 (1995) 887-893
101. In: Pizzo P.A., and Wilfert C.M. (Eds). Pediatric AIDS: The challenges of HIV infection in infants, children, and adolescents. 3rd ed. (1998), Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD
102. Pollycove M. Iron overload syndromes. Clinical Physiology and Biochemistry 4 (1986) 61-77
103. Qian S.Y., and Buettner G.R. Iron and dioxygen chemistry is an important route to initiation of biological free radical oxidations: An electron paramagnetic resonance spin trapping study. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 26 11/12 (1999) 1447-1456
104. Rao J., and Jagadeesan V. Lipid peroxidation and activities of antioxidant enzymes in iron deficiency and effect of carcinogen feeding. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 21 (1996) 103-108
105. Richard M.J., Guiraud P., Meo J., and Favier A. Highperformance liquid chromatographic separation of malondialdehydethiobarbituric acid adduct in biological materials (plasma and human cells) using a commercially available reagent. Journal of Chromatography 577 (1992) 9-18
106. Richer S. A practical guide for differentiating between iron deficiency anemia and anemia of chronic disease in children and adults. The Nurse Practitioner 22 4 (1997) 82-99
107. Rieckmann P., Poli G., Fox C.H., Kehrl J.H., and Fauci A.S. Recombinant gp120 specifically enhances tumor necrosis factor-alpha production and Ig secretion in B lymphocytes from HIV-infected individuals but not from seronegative donors. The Journal of Immunology 147 9 (1991) 2922-2927
108. Rimaniol A., Zylberberg H., Zavala F., and Viard J. Inflammatory cytokines and inhibitors in HIV infection: Correlation between interleukin-1 receptor antagonist and weight loss. AIDS 10 (1996) 1349-1356
109. Rogers J.T., Bridges K.R., Durmowicz G.P., Glass J., Auron P.E., and Munro H.N. Translational control during the acute phase response. Ferritin synthesis in response to interleukin-1/. Journal of Biology and Chemistry 265 24 (1990) 14572-14578
110. Rossol, S., Voth R. Meyer zum Buschenfelde, K. H. & Hess, G. (1990, June 20-23) Tumor necrosis factor-alpha production in HIV-1 infection[Abstract]. Paper presented at the International Conference on AIDS, San Francisco.
111. Rudd M.J., Good M.F., Chapman D.E., Powell L.W., and Halliday J.W. Clonal analysis of the effect of iron on human cytotoxic and proliferating T lymphocytes. Immunologic and Cell Biology 68 Part 5 (1990) 317-324
112. Salvarani C., Casali B., Salvo D., Brunati C., Macchioni P.L., Massai G., et al. The role of interleukin 1, erythropoietin and red cell bound immunoglobulins in the anaemia of rheumatoid arthritis. Clinical Experience in Rheumatology 9 3 (1991) 241-246
113. Sappey C., Leclercq P., Coudray C., Faure P., Micoud M., and Favier A. Vitamin, trace element and peroxide status in HIV seropositive patients: Asymptomatic patients present a severe B-carotene deficiency. Clinica Chimica Acta 230 (1994) 35-42
114. Schreck R., Rieber P., and Baeuerle P.A. Reactive oxygen intermediates as apparently widely used messengers in the activation of the NF-kB transcription factor and HIV-1. TheEMBO Journal 10 8 (1991) 2247-2258
115. Schwartz K.B. Oxidative stress during viral infection: A review. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 21 5 (1996) 641-649
116. Seifert A., Von Herrath D., and Schaefer K. Iron overload, but not treatment with desferrioxamine favours the development of septicemia in patients on maintenance hemodialysis. Quarterly Journal of Medicine 65 248 (1987) 1015-1024
117. Semba R.D., and Gray G.E. Pathogenesis of anemia during human immunodeficiency virus infection. Journal of Investigative Medicine 49 3 (2001) 225-239
118. Semba R.D., Shah N., Klein R.S., Mayer K.H., Schuman P., and Vlahov D. Prevalence and cumulative incidence of and risk factors for anemia in a multicenter cohort study of human immunodeficiency virus-infected and uninfected women. Clinical Infectious Diseases 34 (2002, January 15) 260-266
119. Semba R.D., Shah N., Strathdee S.A., and Vlahov D. High prevalence of iron deficiency and anemia among female injection drug users with and without HIV infection. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 29 (2002) 142-144
120. Shenoy C.M., and Lin J.H. Bone marrow findings in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). American Journal of Medical Science 292 6 (1986) 372-375
121. Spivak J.L., Bender B.S., and Quinn T.C. Hematologic abnormalities in the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. The American Journal of Medicine 77 (1984) 224-228
122. Sullivan P.S., Hanson D.L., Chu S.Y., Jones J.L., Ward J.W., and The Adult/Adolescent Spectrum of Disease Group. Epidemiology of anemia in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected persons: Results from the multistate adult and adolescent spectrum of HIV disease surveillance project. Blood 91 1 (1998) 301-308
123. Syrjala H., Ladhevirta J., Ruutu P., Jokipii L., Jokipii A.M.M., and Ruutu T. Acute phase response in pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases 22 (1990) 713-716
124. Tarallo, L., Castaldo A., Napoli E., Palomba E., Falconieri P. & Guarino, A. (1993, June 6-11) Iron absorption, iron blood levels and anemia in HIV-infected children. The Italian Pediatric Intestinal/HIV Study Group. Paper presented at the International Conference on AIDS, Berlin.
125. In: Thomas C.L. (Ed). Taber's cyclopedic medical dictionary. 15th ed. (1985), F. A. Davis, Philadelphia
126. Torresin, A., Penco G., Cassola G., Canevarollo N., Guida B, Crisalli, M. P. et al: (1992, July 19-24)Ferritin serum levels as outcome predictor in HIV infection. Preliminary report [Abstract]. Paper presented at the International Conference on AIDS, Amsterdam.
127. Tran T.N., Eubanka S.K., Schaffer K.J., Zhou C.Y.J., and Linder M.C. Secretion of ferritin by rat hepatoma cells and its regulation by inflammatory cytokines and iron. Blood 90 12 (1997) 4979-4986
128. Treacy M., Lai L., Costello C., and Clark A. Peripheral blood and bone marrow abnormalities in patients with HIV related disease. British Journal of Haematology 65 (1987) 289-294
129. Uehara M., Chiba H., Mogi H., Suzuki K., and Goto S. Induction of increased phosphatidylcholine hydroperoxide by an iron-deficient diet in rats. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 8 (1997) 385-391
130. Velati, C., Macagni A., Vismara L., DeFerrari C., Lobbiani A., Galli M., et al: (1994, August 7-12)Iron stores and anemia in HIV-1 infection[Abstract]. Paper presented at the International Conference on AIDS, Yokohama, Japan.
131. Vicenzi E., Biswas P., Mengozzi M., and Poli G. Role of pro-inflammatory cytokines and B-chemokines in controlling HIV replication. Journal of Leukocyte Biology 62 (1997) 34-40
132. Walter T., Arredondo S., Arevalo M., and Stekel A. Effect of iron therapy on phagocytosis and bactericidal activity in neutrophils of iron-deficient infants. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 44 (1986) 877-882
133. Walter T., Olivares M., Pizarro F., and Munoz C. Iron, anemia, and infection. Nutrition Reviews 55 4 (1997) 111-124
134. Ward C.G., Hammond J.S., and Bullen J.J. Effect of iron compounds on antibacterial function of human polymorphs and plasma. Infectious Immunology 51 3 (1986) 723-730
135. Weiss G. Iron and anemia of chronic disease. Kidney International 55 Suppl. 69 (1999) S12-S17
136. Worwood M. The laboratory assessment of iron status- An update. Clinica Chimica Acta 259 (1997) 3-23
137. Wu A.C., Lesperance L., and Bernstein H. Screening for iron deficiency. Pediatrics in Review 23 5 (2002) 171-177