Human African trypanosomiasis of the CNS: Current issues and challenges

Journal of Clinical Investigation

Volumn 113, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 496-504

  Kennedy, Peter G E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

2 [1 IMINO 2 (2 METHOXYPHENYL)ETHYL] 7,7 DIPHENYLPERHYDROISOINDOL 4 ONE; 2,5 BIS(4 AMIDINOPHENYL)FURAN; ANTIBODY; CD4 ANTIGEN; CYTOKINE; DB 289; DIAMIDINE DERIVATIVE; DIMINAZENE ACETURATE; DNA; EFLORNITHINE; ENDOTOXIN; GAMMA INTERFERON; GLYCOPROTEIN; GLYCOSYLPHOSPHATIDYLINOSITOL; IMMUNOGLOBULIN M; INTERLEUKIN 1; INTERLEUKIN 10; INTERLEUKIN 4; INTERLEUKIN 6; MACROPHAGE INFLAMMATORY PROTEIN 1ALPHA; MACROPHAGE INFLAMMATORY PROTEIN 2; MELARSOPROL; NIFURTIMOX; PENTAMIDINE; PROSTAGLANDIN D2; RANTES; SUBSTANCE P; SURAMIN; TACHYKININ RECEPTOR; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG; ANTITRYPANOSOMAL AGENT;

AFRICAN TRYPANOSOMIASIS; AGGLUTINATION TEST; AGRANULOCYTOSIS; ALOPECIA; ANAPHYLACTIC SHOCK; BONE MARROW TOXICITY; BRAIN DISEASE; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM INFECTION; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; DERMATITIS; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; DRUG BIOAVAILABILITY; DRUG COST; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; GENOME; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HUMAN; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPOGLYCEMIA; HYPOTENSION; INCIDENCE; KIDNEY FAILURE; LATEX AGGLUTINATION TEST; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; NEUROPATHOLOGY; NEUROTOXICITY; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SEIZURE; SEROLOGY; TRYPANOSOMA; TSETSE FLY; AFRICA; ANIMAL; METABOLISM; PATHOLOGY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; TRYPANOSOMA BRUCEI; ULTRASTRUCTURE;

AFRICA; ANIMALS; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM PROTOZOAL INFECTIONS; HUMANS; TRYPANOCIDAL AGENTS; TRYPANOSOMA BRUCEI BRUCEI; TRYPANOSOMIASIS, AFRICAN;

EID: 1642410384     PISSN: 00219738     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1172/JCI200421052     Document Type: Review

References (59)

1. Vickerman, K. 1997. Landmarks in trypanosome research. In Trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis. G. Hide, J.C. Mottram, G.H. Coombs, and P.H. Holmes, editors. Cab International. Oxford, United Kingdom. 1-37.
2. Williams, B.I. 1996. African trypanosomiasis. In The Wellcome Trust illustrated history of tropical diseases. F.E.A.G. Cox, editor. The Wellcome Trust. London, United Kingdom. 178-191.
3. Bentivoglio, M., Grassi-Zucconi, G., and Kristensson, K. 1994. From trypanosomes to the nervous system, from molecules to behavior: a survey, on the occasion of the 90th anniversary of Castellani's discovery of the parasites in sleeping sickness. Ital. J. Neurol. Sci. 15:77-89.
4. 1986. Epidemiology and control of African trypanosomiasis. Report of a WHO expert committee. World Health Organization. Geneva, Switzerland. Technical Report Series, No. 739. 126 pp.
5. Atouguia, J.L.M., and Kennedy, P.G.E. 2000. Neurological aspects of human African trypanosomiasis. In Infectious diseases of the nervous system. L.E. Davis and P.G.E. Kennedy, editors. Butterworth-Heinemann. Oxford, United Kingdom. 321-372.
6. Kuzoe, F.A. 1993. Current situation of African trypanosomiasis. Acta Trop. 54:153-162.
7. Aksoy, S. 2003. Control of tsetse flies and trypanosomes using molecular genetics. Vet. Parasitol. 115:125-145.
8. El-Sayed, N.M.A., and Donelson, J.E. 1997. Sequencing and mapping the African trypanosome enome. In Trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis. G. Hide, J.C. Mottram, G.H. Coombs, and P.H. Holmes, editors. Cab International. Oxford, United Kingdom. 51-55.
9. Donelson, J.E. 2002. Antigenic variation and the African trypanosome genome. Acta Tropica. 85:391-404.
10. Barry, J.D. 1997. The biology of antigenic variation in African trypanosomes. In Trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis. G. Hide, J.C. Mottram, G.H. Coombs, and P.H. Holmes, editors. Cab International. Oxford, United Kingdom. 89-107.
11. Apted, F.I.C. 1970. Clinical manifestations and diagnosis of sleeping sickness. In The African trypanosomiasis. H.W. Mulligan, editor. George Allen & Unwin. London, United Kingdom. 661-683.
12. Duggan, A.J., and Hutchington, M.P. 1966. Sleeping sickness in Europeans: a review of 109 cases. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 69:124-131.
13. Kristensson, K., Grassi-Zucconi, G., and Bentivoglio, M. 1995. Nervous system dysfunctions in African trypanosomiasis. In Recent advances in tropical neurology. F. Clifford Rose, editor. Elsevier Science BV. Oxford, United Kingdom. 165-174.
14. Truc, P., et al. 2002. Evaluation of the micro-CATT, CATT/Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, and LATEX/T.b. gambiense methods for serodiagnosis and surveillance of human African trypanosomiasis in West and Central Africa. Bull. World Health Organ. 80:882-886.
15. 1998. Control and surveillance of African trypanosomiasis. Report of a WHO expert committee. World Health Organization. Geneva, Switzerland. Technical Report Series, No. 881. 114 pp.
16. Lejon, V., et al. 2003. Intrathecal immune response pattern for improved diagnosis of central nervous system involvement in trypanosomiasis. J. Infect Dis. 187:1475-1483.
17. Jamonneau, V., et al. 2003. Stage determination and therapeutic decision in human African trypanosomiasis: value of polymerase chain reaction and immunoglobulin M quantification on the cerebrospinal fluid of sleeping sickness patients in Côte d'Ivoire. Trop. Med. Int. Health. 8:589-594.
18. Lejon, V., et al. 2002. IgM quantification in the cerebrospinal fluid of sleeping sickness patients by a latex card agglutination test. Trop. Med. Int. Health. 7:685-692.
19. Solano, P., et al. 2002. Comparison of different DNA preparation protocols for PCR diagnosis of human African trypanosomosis in Côte d'Ivoire. Acta Trop. 82:349-356.
20. Gill, D.S., Chatha, D.S., and del Carpio-O'Donovan, R. 2003. MR imaging findings in African trypansomiasis. Am. J. Neuroradiol. 24:1383-1385.
21. Baumann, H., and Strassmann, G. 1993. Suramin inhibits the stimulation of acute phase plasma protein genes by IL-6-type cytokines in rat hepatoma cells. J. Immunol. 151:1456-1462.
22. Benaim, G., Lopez-Estrano, C., Docampo, R., and Moreno, S.N. 1993. A calmodulin-stimulated Ca2+ pump in plasma-membrane vesicles from Trypanosoma brucei; selective inhibition by pentamidine. Biochem. J. 296:759-763.
23. Fairlamb, A.H., Henderson, G.B., and Cerami, A. 1989. Trypanothione is the primary target for arsenical drugs against African trypanosomes. Proc Natl. Acad. Sci U. S. A. 86:2607-2611.
24. Metcalf, B.W., et al. 1978. Catalytic irreversible inhibition of mammalian ornithine decarboxylase by substrate and product analogues. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 100:2551-2553.
25. Henderson, G.B., et al. 1988. "Subversive" substrates for the enzyme trypanothione disulfide reductase: alternative approach to chemotherapy of Chagas disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 85:5374-5378.
26. Fairlamb, A.H. 1990. Future prospects for the chemotherapy of human trypanosomiasis. 1. Novel approaches to the chemotherapy of trypanosomiasis. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 84:613-617.
27. Legros, D., et al. 2002. Treatment of human African trypanosomiasis - present situation and needs for research and development. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2:437-440.
28. Legros, D., Evans, S., Maiso, F., Enyaru, J.C.K., and Mbulamberi, D. 1994. Risk factors for treatment failure after melarsoprol for Trypanosoma brucei gambiense trypanosomiasis in Uganda. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 93:439-442.
29. Pepin, J., and Milord, F. 1994. The treatment of human African trypanosomiasis. Adv. Parasitol. 33:1-47.
30. Pepin, J., et al. 1994. Gambiense trypanosomiasis: frequency of and risk factors for, failure of melarsoprol therapy. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 88:447-452.
31. Pepin, J., et al. 1989. Trial of prednisolone for prevention of melarsoprol-induced encephalopathy in gambiense sleeping sickness. Lancet. 1:1246-1249.
32. Burri, C., et al. 2000. Efficacy of new, concise schedule for melarsoprol in treatment of sleeping sickness caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense: a randomised trial. Lancet. 355:1419-1425.
33. Burri, C., and Brun, R. 2003. Eflornithine for the treatment of human African trypanosomiasis. Parasitol. Res. 90(Suppl. 1):S49-S52.
34. Adams, J.H., et al. 1986. Human African trypanosomiasis (T.b. gambiense): a study of 16 fatal cases of sleeping sickness with some observations on acute reactive arsenical encephalopathy. Neuropathol. Appl. Neurobiol. 12:81-94.
35. MacLean, L., Odiit, M., and Sternberg, J.M. 2001. Nitric oxide and cytokine synthesis in human African trypanosomiasis. J. Infect. Dis. 184:1086-1090.
36. Lejon, V., et al. 2002. Interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8 and IL-10 in serum and CSF of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense sleeping sickness patients before and after treatment. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 96:329-333.
37. Pentreath, V.W. 1995. Trypanosomiasis and the nervous system. Pathology and immunology. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 89:9-15.
38. Pentreath, V.W. 1989. Neurobiology of sleeping sickness. Parasitol. Today. 5:215-218.
39. Pepin, J., and Milord, F. 1991. African trypanosomiasis and drug induced encephalopathy: risk factors and pathogenesis. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 85:222-224.
40. Lambert, P.H., Berney, M., and Kazyumba, G.L. 1981. Immune complexes in serum and cerebrospinal fluid in sleeping sickness. Correlation with polyclonal B-cell activation and with intracerebral immunoglobulin synthesis. J. Clin. Invest. 67:77-85.
41. Hunter, C.A., Jennings, F.W., Adams, J.H., Murray, M., and Kennedy, P.G.E. 1992. Sub-curative chemotherapy and fatal post-treatment reactive encephalopathies in African trypanosomiasis. Lancet. 339:956-958.
42. Poltera, A.A. 1980. Immunopathological and chemotherapeutic studies in experimental trypanosomiasis with special reference to the heart and brain. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 74:706-715.
43. Kennedy, P.G.E. 1999. The pathogenesis and modulation of the post-treatment reactive encephalopathy in a mouse model of human African trypanosomiasis. J. Neuroimmunol. 100:36-41.
44. Hunter, C.A., Jennings, F.W., Kennedy, P.G.E., and Murray, M. 1992. Astrocyte activation correlates with cytokine production in central nervous system of Trypanosoma brucei brucei-infected mice. Lab. Invest. 67:635-642.
45. Hunter, C.A., Gow, J.W., Kennedy, P.G.E., Jennings, F.W., and Murray, M. 1991. Immunopathology of experimental African sleeping sickness: detection of cytokine mRNA in the brains of Trypanosoma brucei brucei-infected mice. Infect. Immun. 59:4636-4640.
46. Jennings, F.W., et al. 1997. The role of the polyamine inhibitor eflornithine in the neuropathogenesis of experimental murine African trypanosomiasis. Neuropathol. Appl. Neurobiol. 23:225-234.
47. Hunter, C.A., Jennings, F.W., Kennedy, P.G.E., and Murray, M. 1992. The use of azathioprine to ameliorate post-treatment encephalopathy associated with African trypanosomiasis. Neuropathol. Appl. Neurobiol. 18:619-625.
48. Kennedy, P.G.E., et al. 1997. A substance P antagonist, RP-67,580, ameliorates a mouse meningoencephalitic response to Trypanosoma brucei brucei. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 94:4167-4170.
49. Kennedy, P.G.E., et al. 2003. Clinical and neuroinflammatory responses to meningoencephalitis in Substance P receptor knockout mice. Brain. 16:1683-1690.
50. Sharafeldin, A., Eltayeb, R., Pashendov, M., and Bakhiet, M. 2000. Chemokines are produced in the brain early during the course of experimental African trypanosomiasis. J. Neuroimmunol. 103:165-170.
51. Paulnock, D.M., and Coller, S.P. 2001. Analysis of macrophage activation in African trypanosomiasis. J. Leukoc. Biol. 69:685-690.
52. Magez, S., et al. 1998. The glycosyl-inositol-phosphate and dimyristoyl-glycerol moieties of the glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor of the trypanosome variant-specific surface glycoprotein are distinct macrophage-activating factors. J. Immunol. 160:1949-1956.
53. Sternberg, J.M. 1998. Immunobiology of African trypanosomiasis. Chem. Immunol. 70:186-199.
54. Olsson, T., et al. 1993. CD8 is critically involved in lymphocyte activation by a T. brucei brucei-released molecule. Cell. 72:715-727.
55. Vaidya, T., et al. 1997. The gene for a T lymphocyte triggering factor from African trypanosomes. J. Exp. Med. 186:433-438.
56. Bentivoglio, M., Grassi-Zucconi, G., Olsson, T., and Kristensson, K. 1994. Trypanosoma brucei and the nervous system. Trends Neurosci. 17:325-329.
57. Hunter, C.A., and Kennedy, P.G.E. 1992. Immunopathology in central nervous system human African trypanosomiasis. J. Neuroimmunol. 36:91-95.
58. Schleifer, K.W., Filutowicz, H., Schopf, L.R., and Mansfield, J.M. 1993. Characterization of T helper cell responses to the trypanosome variant surface glycoprotein. J. Immunol. 150:2910-2919.
59. Kennedy, P.G.E., Murray, M., Jennings, F., and Rodgers, J. 2002. Sleeping sickness: new drugs from old? Lancet. 359:1695-1696.