Normal and pathological oscillatory communication in the brain

Nature Reviews Neuroscience

Volumn 6, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 285-296

  Schnitzler, Alfons ^a   Gross, Joachim ^a  

^a HEINRICH HEINE UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACTION POTENTIAL; BRAIN FUNCTION; BRAIN REGION; COGNITION; CORTICAL SYNCHRONIZATION; DEMENTIA; EXCITATORY POSTSYNAPTIC POTENTIAL; HUMAN; INHIBITORY POSTSYNAPTIC POTENTIAL; INTERNEURON; MAGNETOENCEPHALOGRAPHY; MOTOR PERFORMANCE; NERVE CELL NETWORK; OSCILLATION; PARKINSON DISEASE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SENSORY SYSTEM; TECHNIQUE; TREMOR;

ANIMALS; BIOLOGICAL CLOCKS; BRAIN; CELL COMMUNICATION; HUMANS; NERVE NET;

EID: 16344384708     PISSN: 1471003X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/nrn1650     Document Type: Review

References (149)

1. Singer, W. Neuronal synchrony: a versatile code for the definition of relations? Neuron 24, 49-65, 111-125 (1999).
2. Engel, A. K., Fries, P. & Singer, W. Dynamic predictions: oscillations and synchrony in top-down processing. Nature Rev. Neurosci. 2, 704-716 (2001).
3. Varela, F., Lachaux, J. P., Rodriguez, E. & Martinerie, J. The brainweb: phase synchronization and large-scale integration. Nature Rev. Neurosci. 2, 229-239 (2001).
4. Ward, L. M. Synchronous neural oscillations and cognitive processes. Trends Cogn. Sci. 7, 553-559 (2003).
5. Buzsaki, G. & Draguhn, A. Neuronal oscillations in cortical networks. Science 304, 1926-1929 (2004).
6. Brown, P. Oscillatory nature of human basal ganglia activity: relationship to the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease. Mov. Disord. 18, 357-363 (2003).
7. Gross, J. et al. Modulation of long-range neural synchrony reflects temporal limitations of visual attention in humans. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 101, 13050-13055 (2004).
8. Gross, J. et al. Dynamic imaging of coherent sources: studying neural interactions in the human brain. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 98, 694-699 (2001).
9. MacLeod, K., Backer, A. & Laurent, G. Who reads temporal information contained across synchronized and oscillatory spike trains? Nature 395, 693-698 (1998).
10. Stopfer, M., Bhagavan, S., Smith, B. H. & Laurent, G. Impaired odour discrimination on desynchronization of odour-encoding neural assemblies. Nature 390, 70-74 (1997).
11. Perez-Orive, J. et al. Oscillations and sparsening of odor representations in the mushroom body. Science 297, 359-365 (2002). Direct experimental evidence for the functional significance of oscillatory synchronization.
12. Laurent, G. Olfactory network dynamics and the coding of multidimensional signals. Nature Rev. Neurosci. 3, 884-895 (2002).
13. Friedrich, R. W., Habermann, C. J. & Laurent, G. Multiplexing using synchrony in the zebrafish olfactory bulb. Nature Neurosci. 7, 862-871 (2004).
14. Sivan, E. & Kopell, N. Mechanism and circuitry for clustering and fine discrimination of odors in insects. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 101, 17861-17866 (2004). A modelling study complementing the work on synchronization in the insect olfactory system and providing important information on the functional consequences of oscillatory synchronization.
15. Abbott, L. F. & Regehr, W. G. Synaptic computation. Nature 431, 796-803 (2004).
16. Izhikevich, E. M., Desai, N. S., Walcott, E. C. & Hoppensteadt, F. C. Bursts as a unit of neural information: selective communication via resonance. Trends Neurosci. 26, 161-167 (2003).
17. Hutcheon, B. & Yarom, Y. Resonance, oscillation and the intrinsic frequency preferences of neurons. Trends Neurosci. 23, 216-222 (2000).
18. Marshall, S. P. & Lang, E. J. Inferior olive oscillations gate transmission of motor cortical activity to the cerebellum. J. Neurosci. 24, 11356-11367 (2004). The authors studied the resonance properties of rat inferior olives to afferents from the motor cortex at varying frequencies and observed nonlinear effects.
19. Strogatz, S. H. Exploring complex networks. Nature 410, 268-276 (2001).
20. Sporns, O., Chialvo, D. R., Kaiser, M. & Hilgetag, C. C. Organization, development and function of complex brain networks. Trends Cogn. Sci. 8, 418-425 (2004).
21. Buzsaki, G., Geisler, C., Henze, D. A. & Wang, X. J. Interneuron diversity series: circuit complexity and axon wiring economy of cortical interneurons. Trends Neurosci. 27, 186-193 (2004).
22. Chklovskii, D. B., Schikorski, T. & Stevens, C. F. Wiring optimization in cortical circuits. Neuron 34, 341-347 (2002).
23. Laughlin, S. B. & Sejnowski, T. J. Communication in neuronal networks. Science 301, 1870-1874 (2003).
24. Chklovskii, D. B., Mel, B. W. & Svoboda, K. Cortical rewiring and information storage. Nature 431, 782-788 (2004).
25. Wang, X. J. in Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science 272-280 (MacMillan, London, 2003).
26. Whittington, M. A., Traub, R. D., Kopell, N., Ermentrout, B. & Buhl, E. H. Inhibition-based rhythms: experimental and mathematical observations on network dynamics. Int. J. Psychophysiol. 38, 315-336 (2000).
27. Salinas, E. & Sejnowski, T. J. Impact of correlated synaptic input on output firing rate and variability in simple neuronal models. J. Neurosci. 20, 6193-6209 (2000). Neurons with balanced excitatory and inhibitory input are very sensitive to correlations in the input.
28. Bibbig, A., Traub, R. D. & Whittington, M. A. Long-range synchronization of gamma and beta oscillations and the plasticity of excitatory and inhibitory synapses: a network model. J. Neurophysiol. 88, 1634-1654 (2002).
29. Kopell, N., Ermentrout, G. B., Whittington, M. A. & Traub, R. D. Gamma rhythms and beta rhythms have different synchronization properties. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 97, 1867-1872 (2000). Based on computational models, the authors describe properties of different frequencies of neuronal oscillations and the consequences for synchronization.
30. Fellous, J. M. & Sejnowski, T. J. Cholinergic induction of oscillations in the hippocampal slice in the slow (0.5-2 Hz), theta (5-12 Hz), and gamma (35-70 Hz) bands. Hippocampus 10, 187-197 (2000).
31. Gray, C. M., König, P., Engel, A. K. & Singer, W. Oscillatory responses in cat visual cortex exhibit inter-columnar synchronization which reflects global stimulus properties. Nature 338, 334-337 (1989).
32. Tallon-Baudry, C., Mandon, S., Freiwald, W. A. & Kreiter, A. K. Oscillatory synchrony in the monkey temporal lobe correlates with performance in a visual short-term memory task. Cereb. Cortex 14, 713-720 (2004).
33. Tallon-Baudry, C., Bertrand, O. & Fischer, C. Oscillatory synchrony between human extrastriate areas during visual short-term memory maintenance. J. Neurosci. 21, RC177 (2001).
34. von Stein, A., Rappelsberger, P., Sarnthein, J. & Petsche, H. Synchronization between temporal and parietal cortex during multimodal object processing in man. Cereb. Cortex 9, 137-150 (1999).
35. Gail, A., Brinksmeyer, H. J. & Eckhorn, R. Perception-related modulations of local field potential power and coherence in primary visual cortex of awake monkey during binocular rivalry. Cereb. Cortex 14, 300-313 (2004).
36. Breakspear, M., Williams, L. M. & Stam, C. J. A novel method for the topographic analysis of neural activity reveals formation and dissolution of 'dynamic cell assemblies'. J. Comput. Neurosci. 16, 49-68 (2004).
37. Friston, K. J. The labile brain. I. Neuronal transients and nonlinear coupling. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 355, 215-236 (2000).
38. Rodriguez, E. et al. Perception's shadow: long-distance synchronization of human brain activity. Nature 397, 430-433 (1999). This study shows enhanced long-range gamma synchronization during perception and the importance of desynchronization.
39. Fell, J. et al. Human memory formation is accompanied by rhinal-hippocampal coupling and decoupling. Nature Neurosci. 4, 1259-1264 (2001).
40. Hummel, F. & Gerloff, C. Larger interregional synchrony is associated with greater behavioral success in a complex sensory integration task in humans. Cereb. Cortex 1 Sep 2004 (doi:10.1093/cercor/bhh170).
41. Fries, P., Schroder, J. H., Roelfsema, P. R., Singer, W. & Engel, A. K. Oscillatory neuronal synchronization in primary visual cortex as a correlate of stimulus selection. J. Neurosci. 22, 3739-3754 (2002).
42. Tallon-Baudry, C. Attention and awareness in synchrony. Trends Cogn. Sci. 8, 523-525 (2004).
43. Raymond, J. E., Shapiro, K. L. & Arnell, K. M. Temporary suppression of visual processing in an RSVP task: an attentional blink? J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 18, 849-860 (1992).
44. Vallbo, A. B. & Wessberg, J. Organization of motor output in slow finger movements in man. J. Physiol. (Lond.) 469, 673-691 (1993).
45. Kakuda, N., Nagaoka, M. & Wessberg, J. Common modulation of motor unit pairs during slow wrist movements in man. J. Physiol. (Lond.) 520, 929-940 (1999).
46. Wessberg, J. & Kakuda, N. Single motor unit activity in relation to pulsatile motor output in human finger movements. J. Physiol. (Lond.) 517, 273-285 (1999).
47. Gross, J. et al. The neural basis of intermittent motor control in humans. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 99, 2299-2302 (2002).
48. Gross, J. et al. Cortico-muscular synchronization during isometric muscle contraction in humans as revealed by magnetoencephalography. J. Physiol. (Lond.) 527, 623-631 (2000).
49. Salenius, S., Portin, K., Kajola, M., Salmelin, R. & Hari, R. Cortical control of human motoneuron firing during isometric contraction. J. Neurophysiol. 77, 3401-3405 (1997).
50. Conway, B. A. et al. Synchronization between motor cortex and spinal motoneuronal pool during the performance of a maintained motor task in man. J. Physiol. (Lond.) 489, 917-924 (1995).
51. Hari, R. & Salenius, S. Rhythmical corticomotor communication. Neuroreport 10, R1-R10 (1999).
52. Salenius, S. & Hari, R. Synchronous cortical oscillatory activity during motor action. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 13, 678-684 (2003).
53. Murthy, V. N. & Fetz, E. E. Coherent 25- to 35-Hz oscillations in the sensorimotor cortex of awake behaving monkeys. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 89, 5670-5674 (1992).
54. Donoghue, J. P., Sanes, J. N., Hatsopoulos, N. G. & Gaal, G. Neural discharge and local field potential oscillations in primate motor cortex during voluntary movements. J. Neurophysiol. 79, 159-173 (1998).
55. Sanes, J. N. & Donoghue, J. P. Oscillations in local field potentials of the primate motor cortex during voluntary movement. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 90, 4470-4474 (1993).
56. Jackson, A., Gee, Y., Baker, S. & Lemon, R. Synchrony between neurons with similar muscle fields in monkey motor cortex. Neuron 38, 115-125 (2003).
57. Kilner, J. M. et al. Task-dependent modulation of 15-30 Hz coherence between rectified EMGs from human hand and forearm muscles. J. Physiol. (Lond.) 516, 559-570 (1999).
58. Parkis, M. A., Feldman, J. L., Robinson, D. M. & Funk, G. D. Oscillations in endogenous inputs to neurons affect excitability and signal processing. J. Neurosci. 23, 8152-8158 (2003).
59. Lee, D. Coherent oscillations in neuronal activity of the supplementary motor area during a visuomotor task. J. Neurosci. 23, 6798-6809 (2003).
60. Brovelli, A. et al. Beta oscillations in a large-scale sensorimotor cortical network: directional influences revealed by Granger causality. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 101, 9849-9854 (2004).
61. Courtemanche, R., Fujii, N. & Graybiel, A. M. Synchronous, focally modulated beta-band oscillations characterize local field potential activity in the striatum of awake behaving monkeys. J. Neurosci. 23, 11741-11752 (2003). The authors observed that small areas of the monkey striatum decouple from global beta oscillations during task performance.
62. Levy, R., Hutchison, W. D., Lozano, A. M. & Dostrovsky, J. O. Synchronized neuronal discharge in the basal ganglia of parkinsonian patients is limited to oscillatory activity. J. Neurosci. 22, 2855-2861 (2002).
63. Paradiso, G. et al. Involvement of human thalamus in the preparation of self-paced movement. Brain 127, 2717-2731 (2004).
64. Marsden, J. et al. Intermuscular coherence in Parkinson's disease: effects of subthalamic nucleus stimulation. Neuroreport 12, 1113-1117 (2001).
65. MacKay, W. A. Synchronized neuronal oscillations and their role in motor processes. Trends Cogn. Sci. 1, 176-183 (1997).
66. Timofeev, I. & Steriade, M. Neocortical seizures: initiation, development and cessation. Neuroscience 123, 299-336 (2004).
67. Traub, R. D. Fast oscillations and epilepsy. Epilepsy Curr. 3, 77-79 (2003).
68. van der Stelt, O., Belger, A. & Lieberman, J. A. Macroscopic fast neuronal oscillations and synchrony in schizophrenia. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 101, 17567-17568 (2004).
69. Jeong, J. EEG dynamics in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Clin. Neurophysiol. 115, 1490-1505 (2004).
70. Hutchison, W. D. et al. Neuronal oscillations in the basal ganglia and movement disorders: evidence from whole animal and human recordings. J. Neurosci. 24, 9240-9243 (2004).
71. Bevan, M. D., Magill, P. J., Terman, D., Bolam, J. P. & Wilson, C. J. Move to the rhythm: oscillations in the subthalamic nucleus-external globus pallidus network. Trends Neurosci. 25, 525-531 (2002).
72. Wichmann, T. & DeLong, M. R. Functional and pathophysiological models of the basal ganglia. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 6, 751-758 (1996).
73. Lozano, A. M., Dostrovsky, J., Chen, R. & Ashby, P. Deep brain stimulation for Parkinson's disease: disrupting the disruption. Lancet Neurol. 1, 225-231 (2002).
74. Levy, R., Hutchison, W. D., Lozano, A. M. & Dostrovsky, J. O. High-frequency synchronization of neuronal activity in the subthalamic nucleus of parkinsonian patients with limb tremor. J. Neurosci. 20, 7766-7775 (2000).
75. Raz, A., Vaadia, E. & Bergman, H. Firing patterns and correlations of spontaneous discharge of pallidal neurons in the normal and the tremulous 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine vervet model of parkinsonism. J. Neurosci. 20, 8559-8571 (2000).
76. Plenz, D. & Kital, S. T. A basal ganglia pacemaker formed by the subthalamic nucleus and external globus pallidus. Nature 400, 677-682 (1999).
77. Brown, P. et al. Dopamine dependency of oscillations between subthalamic nucleus and pallidum in Parkinson's disease. J. Neurosci. 21, 1033-1038 (2001). In patients with Parkinson's disease, synchronization of neural activity occurs between the STN and the pallidum and is crucially dependent on dopaminergic treatment.
78. Cassidy, M. et al. Movement-related changes in synchronization in the human basal ganglia. Brain 125, 1235-1246 (2002).
79. Williams, D. et al. Dopamine-dependent changes in the functional connectivity between basal ganglia and cerebral cortex in humans. Brain 125, 1558-1569 (2002).
80. Limousin, P. et al. Effect of parkinsonian signs and symptoms of bilateral subthalamic nucleus stimulation. Lancet 345, 91-95 (1995).
81. Siegfried, J. & Lippitz, B. Bilateral chronic electrostimulation of ventroposterolateral pallidum: a new therapeutic approach for alleviating all parkinsonian symptoms. Neurosurgery 35, 1126-1129; discussion 1129-1130 (1994).
82. Hassler, R. Brain mechanisms of intention and attention with introductory remarks on other volitional processes. Prog. Brain Res. 54, 585-614 (1980).
83. Brown, P. & Marsden, C. D. What do the basal ganglia do? Lancet 351, 1801-1804 (1998).
84. Wichmann, T., Bergman, H. & DeLong, M. R. The primate subthalamic nucleus. III. Changes in motor behavior and neuronal activity in the internal pallidum induced by subthalamic inactivation in the MPTP model of parkinsonism. J. Neurophysiol. 72, 521-530 (1994).
85. Kuhn, A. A. et al. Event-related beta desynchronization in human subthalamic nucleus correlates with motor performance. Brain 127, 735-746 (2004).
86. Marsden, J. F., Limousin-Dowsey, P., Ashby, P., Pollak, P. & Brown, P. Subthalamic nucleus, sensorimotor cortex and muscle interrelationships in Parkinson's disease. Brain 124, 378-388 (2001).
87. Brown, P. et al. Effects of stimulation of the subthalamic area on oscillatory pallidal activity in Parkinson's disease. Exp. Neurol. 188, 480-490 (2004).
88. Timmermann, L. et al. Ten-Hertz stimulation of subthalamic nucleus deteriorates motor symptoms in Parkinson's disease. Mov. Disord. 19, 1328-1333 (2004).
89. Bergman, H. & Deuschl, G. Pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease: from clinical neurology to basic neuroscience and back. Mov. Disord. 17 (Suppl. 3), S28-S40 (2002).
90. Bergman, H. et al. Physiology of MPTP tremor. Mov. Disord. 13 (Suppl. 3), 29-34 (1998).
91. Hurtado, J. M., Gray, C. M., Tamas, L. B. & Sigvardt, K. A. Dynamics of tremor-related oscillations in the human globus pallidus: a single case study. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 96, 1674-1679 (1999).
92. Nini, A., Feingold, A., Slovin, H. & Bergman, H. Neurons in the globus pallidus do not show correlated activity in the normal monkey, but phase-locked oscillations appear in the MPTP model of parkinsonism. J. Neurophysiol. 74, 1800-1805 (1995).
93. Deuschl, G. et al. The pathophysiology of parkinsonian tremor: a review. J. Neurol. 247 (Suppl. 5), V33-V48 (2000).
94. Volkmann, J. et al. Central motor loop oscillations in parkinsonian resting tremor revealed by magnetoencephalography. Neurology 46, 1359-1370 (1996).
95. Timmermann, L. et al. The cerebral oscillatory network of parkinsonian resting tremor. Brain 126, 199-212 (2003).
96. Guehl, D. et al. Tremor-related activity of neurons in the 'motor' thalamus: changes in firing rate and pattern in the MPTP vervet model of parkinsonism. Eur. J. Neurosci. 17, 2388-2400 (2003).
97. Pollok, B., Gross, J., Müller, K., Aschersleben, G. & Schnitzler, A. The cerebral oscillatory network associated with auditorily paced finger movements. Neuroimage 24, 646-655 (2005).
98. Pollok, B., Gross, J., Dirks, M. Timmermann, L. & Schnitzler, A. The cerebral oscillatory network of voluntary tremor. J. Physiol. (Lond.) 554, 871-878 (2004).
99. Goldberg, J. A. et al. Enhanced synchrony among primary motor cortex neurons in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine primate model of Parkinson's disease. J. Neurosci. 22, 4639-4653 (2002). This study indicates that abnormal firing patterns and synchronization in the primary motor cortex, rather than changes in firing rates, underlie motor deficits in primate models of Parkinson's disease.
100. Hellwig, B. et al. Tremor-correlated cortical activity detected by electroencephalography. Clin. Neurophysiol. 111, 806-809 (2000).
101. Magill, P. J., Bolam, J. P. & Bevan, M. D. Relationship of activity in the subthalamic nucleus-globus pallidus network to cortical electroencephalogram. J. Neurosci. 20, 820-833 (2000).
102. Drouot, X. et al. Functional recovery in a primate model of Parkinson's disease following motor cortex stimulation. Neuron 44, 769-778 (2004). High-frequency stimulation of primary motor cortex in MPTP-treated baboons effectively reduces the symptoms of Parkinson's disease.
103. Sudmeyer, M. et al. Postural tremor in Wilson's disease: a magnetoencephalographic study. Mov. Disord. 19, 1476-1482 (2004).
104. Hellwig, B. et al. Tremor-correlated cortical activity in essential tremor. Lancet 357, 519-523 (2001).
105. Schnitzler, A., Munks, C., Butz, M., Timmermann, L. & Gross, J. The oscillatory cortico-subcortical network of essential tremor. Mov. Disorder. 19 (Suppl. 9), S454 (2004).
106. Raethjen, J. et al. Corticomuscular coherence in the 6-15 Hz band: is the cortex involved in the generation of physiologic tremor? Exp. Brain Res. 142, 32-40 (2002).
107. Raethjen, J. et al. Is the rhythm of physiological tremor involved in cortico-cortical interactions? Mov. Disord. 19, 458-465 (2004).
108. Timmermann, L., Gross, J., Kircheis, G., Haussinger, D. & Schnitzler, A. Cortical origin of mini-asterixis in hepatic encephalopathy. Neurology 58, 295-298 (2002).
109. Timmermann, L. et al. Mini-asterixis in hepatic encephalopathy induced by pathologic thalamo-motor-cortical coupling. Neurology 61, 689-692 (2003).
110. Silberstein, P. et al. Patterning of globus pallidus local field potentials differs between Parkinson's disease and dystonia. Brain 126, 2597-2608 (2003).
111. Vitek, J. L. Pathophysiology of dystonia: a neuronal model. Mov. Disord. 17 (Suppl. 3), S49-S62 (2002).
112. Foffani, G. et al. Altered subthalamo-pallidal synchronisation in parkinsonian dyskinesias. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 76, 426-428 (2005).
113. Serrien, D. J., Orth, M., Evans, A. H., Lees, A. J. & Brown, P. Motor inhibition in patients with Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: functional actuation patterns as revealed by EEG coherence. Brain 128, 116-125 (2005).
114. Tijssen, M. A., Marsden, J. F. & Brown, P. Frequency analysis of EMG activity in patients with idiopathic torticollis. Brain 123, 677-686 (2000).
115. Tijssen, M. A. et al. Descending control of muscles in patients with cervical dystonia. Mov. Disord. 17, 493-500 (2002).
116. Grosse, P. et al. Patterns of EMG-EMG coherence in limb dystonia. Mov. Disord. 19, 758-769 (2004).
117. Temel, Y. & Visser-Vandewalle, V. Surgery in Tourette syndrome. Mov. Disord. 19, 3-14 (2004).
118. Bressler, S. L. & Kelso, J. A. Cortical coordination dynamics and cognition. Trends Cogn. Sci. 5, 26-36 (2001).
119. Llinas, R. R., Ribary, U., Jeanmonod, D., Kronberg, E. & Mitra, P. P. Thalamocortical dysrhythmia: a neurological and neuropsychiatric syndrome characterized by magnetoencephalography. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 96, 15222-15227 (1999).
120. Stam, C. J. et al. Generalized synchronization of MEG recordings in Alzheimer's disease: evidence for involvement of the gamma band. J. Clin. Neurophysiol. 19, 562-574 (2002).
121. Koenig, T. et al. Decreased EEG synchronization in Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment. Neurobiol. Aging 26, 165-171 (2005).
122. Stam, C. J., van der Made, Y., Pijnenburg, Y. A. & Scheltens, P. EEG synchronization in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease. Acta Neurol. Scand. 108, 90-96 (2003).
123. Pogarell, O. et al. EEG coherence reflects regional corpus callosum area in Alzheimer's disease. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 76, 109-111 (2005).
124. Rodriguez, R., Kallenbach, U., Singer, W. & Munk, M. H. Short- and long-term effects of cholinergic modulation on gamma oscillations and response synchronization in the visual cortex. J. Neurosci. 24, 10369-10378 (2004).
125. Spencer, K. M. et al. Abnormal neural synchrony in schizophrenia. J. Neurosci. 23, 7407-7411 (2003).
126. Spencer, K. M. et al. Neural synchrony indexes disordered perception and cognition in schizophrenia. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 101, 17288-17293 (2004).
127. Passingham, R. E., Stephan, K. E. & Kotter, R. The anatomical basis of functional localization in the cortex. Nature Rev. Neurosci. 3, 606-616 (2002).
128. Logothetis, N. K., Pauls, J., Augath, M., Trinath, T. & Oeltermann, A. Neurophysiological investigation of the basis of the fMRI signal. Nature 412, 150-157 (2001).
129. Bennett, M. V. & Zukin, R. S. Electrical coupling and neuronal synchronization in the mammalian brain. Neuron 41, 495-511 (2004).
130. Crick, F. & Koch, C. Constraints on cortical and thalamic projections: the no-strong-loops hypothesis. Nature 391, 245-250 (1998).
131. Baker, S. N., Kilner, J. M., Pinches, E. M. & Lemon, R. N. The role of synchrony and oscillations in the motor output. Exp. Brain Res. 128, 109-117 (1999).
132. Gervasoni, D. et al. Global forebrain dynamics predict rat behavioral states and their transitions. J. Neurosci. 24, 11137-11147 (2004). Intracranial LFP measurements in rats revealed specific spectral trajectories that are associated with specific brain states and their transitions.
133. Salinas, E. & Sejnowski, T. J. Correlated neuronal activity and the flow of neural information. Nature Rev. Neurosci. 2, 539-550 (2001).
134. Steriade, M. Impact of network activities on neuronal properties in corticothalamic systems. J. Neurophysiol. 86, 1-39 (2001).
135. Tass, P. A. et al. Synchronization tomography: a method for three-dimensional localization of phase synchronized neuronal populations in the human brain using magnetoencephalography. Phys. Rev. Lett. 90, 088101 (2003).
136. David, O., Cosmelli, D., Hasboun, D. & Garnero, L. A multitrial analysis for revealing significant corticocortical networks in magnetoencephalography and electroencephalography. Neuroimage 20, 186-201 (2003).
137. Hoechstetter, K. et al. BESA source coherence: a new method to study cortical oscillatory coupling. Brain Topogr. 16, 233-238 (2004).
138. Rosenblum, M. G., Pikovsky, A. S. & Kurths, J. Phase synchronization of chaotic oscillators. Phys. Rev. Lett. 76, 1804-1807 (1996).
139. Lachaux, J. P., Rodriguez, E., Martinerie, J. & Varela, F. J. Measuring phase synchrony in brain signals. Hum. Brain Mapp. 8, 194-208 (1999).
140. Tass, P. et al. Detection of n:m phase locking from noisy data: application to magnetoencephalography. Phys. Rev. Lett. 81, 3291-3294 (1998).
141. Rosenblum, M. G. & Pikovsky, A. S. Detecting direction of coupling in interacting oscillators. Phys. Rev. E Stat. Nonlin. Soft Matter Phys. 64, 045202 (2001).
142. Baccala, L. A. & Sameshima, K. Partial directed coherence: a new concept in neural structure determination. Biol. Cybern. 84, 463-474 (2001).
143. Halliday, D. M. et al. A framework for the analysis of mixed time series/point process data - theory and application to the study of physiological tremor, single motor unit discharges and electromyograms. Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol. 64, 237-278 (1995).
144. Dahlhaus, R., Eichler, M. & Sandkuhler, J. Identification of synaptic connections in neural ensembles by graphical models. J. Neurosci. Methods 77, 93-107 (1997).
145. Alexander, G. E., Crutcher, M. D. & DeLong, M. R. Basal ganglia-thalamocortical circuits: parallel substrates for motor, oculomotor, 'prefrontal' and 'limbic' functions. Prog. Brain Res. 85, 119-146 (1990).
146. Alexander, G. E. & Crutcher, M. D. Functional architecture of basal ganglia circuits: neural substrates of parallel processing. Trends Neurosci. 13, 266-271 (1990).
147. Hoover, J. E. & Strick, P. L. The organization of cerebellar and basal ganglia outputs to primary motor cortex as revealed by retrograde transneuronal transport of herpes simplex virus type 1. J. Neurosci. 19, 1446-1463 (1999).
148. Albin, R. L., Young, A. B. & Penney, J. B. The functional anatomy of basal ganglia disorders. Trends Neurosci. 12, 366-375 (1989).
149. DeLong, M. R. Primate models of movement disorders of basal ganglia origin. Trends Neurosci. 13, 281-285 (1990).