Misrepresentations of the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis

Journal of the National Medical Association

Volumn 97, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 564-581

  White, Robert M ^a  

^a NONE   (United States)

Author keywords

Distortions; Evidence based information; Historical notables; National Medical Association; Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis; Women

Indexed keywords

ACCURACY; AFRICAN AMERICAN; AUDIOVISUAL EQUIPMENT; COMMUNITY; COMPARATIVE STUDY; DOCTOR PATIENT RELATION; EDUCATION; ETHICS; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; HEALTH CARE SYSTEM; HEALTH PRACTITIONER; HEALTH STATUS; HUMAN; LEADERSHIP; MEDICAL RESEARCH; PLAY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RACE; REVIEW; SYPHILIS;

BIOMEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH; TUSKEGEE SYPHILIS STUDY;

AFRICAN AMERICANS; ALABAMA; CASE-CONTROL STUDIES; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMAN EXPERIMENTATION; HUMANS; RESEARCH SUBJECTS; SYPHILIS;

EID: 16244372750     PISSN: 00279684     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (141)

1. Kenney JA. The status of the National Medical Association. J Natl Med Assoc. 1924;16:198-201.
2. Bousfield MO. A control program in a metropolitan area for tuberculosis among Negroes. J Natl Med Assoc. 1946;28:45-49.
3. Editorial. The NMA and civil rights. J Natl Med Assoc. 1966;58:130.
4. Kenney JA. Our 25th anniversary. J Natl Med Assoc. 1933;25:128-129.
5. Kenney JA. The Journal and 1934. J Natl Med Assoc. 1934;26:28-29; Kenney JA. From Atlanta 1895 to.......Hampton 1938. J Natl Med Assoc. 1938;30:77-78.
6. Kenney JA. The Journal and 1934. J Natl Med Assoc. 1934;26:28-29; Kenney JA. From Atlanta 1895 to.......Hampton 1938. J Natl Med Assoc. 1938;30:77-78.
7. Roman CV. How history is made. J Natl Med Assoc. 1911;3:353-354.
8. AW Dumas. Help me out! Society and Personal. J Natl Med Assoc. 1926; 18:53-54.
9. Alexander WG. NMA Activities: the NMA Defense Fund. J Natl Med Assoc. 1926;18:33-34.
10. Garvin CH. The capital "N" in Negro. J Natl Med Assoc. 1930;22:92.
11. Lewis JH. Contribution of an unknown Negro to anesthesia. J Natl Med Assoc. 1931;23:23-24.
12. Kenney JA. On the firing line. J Natl Med Assoc. 1931;23:92-93.
13. Adams NPG. An interpretation of the significance of the Homer G. Phillips Hospital. J Natl Med Assoc. 1934;26:13-17.
14. Garvin CH. Index medicus of Negro authors.* 1924-1934. J Natl Med Assoc. 1935;27:146-152.
15. Kenney JA. A racial complaint and an apology with redress. J Natl Med Assoc. 1939;31:122-123.
16. Kenney JA. The Negro doctor and organized medicine. J Natl Med Assoc. 1939;31:252-254.
17. Kenney JA. Editorial: an open letter to the American Red Cross. J Natl Med Assoc. 1942;34:250-252.
18. Stubbs FD. The purpose of the Community Hospital. J Natl Med Assoc. 1944;36:152-154.
19. Smith TM. A continuation of the report of presidential activities for the second year. J Natl Med Assoc. 1944;36:162.
20. Callis HA. A challenge to the American College of Physicians. J Natl Med Assoc. 1947;39:37-39.
21. Editorial. Make lynching a federal offense. J Natl Med Assoc. 1947;39:164.
22. Drew CR. Negro physicians and the American Medical Association. J Natl Med Assoc. 1947;39:223-224.
23. Marshall CH Jr. The Southern governors' educational plan. J Natl Med Assoc. 1948;40:122-123.
24. Editorial. Race and disease. J Natl Med Assoc. 1948;40:259-260.
25. Cobb WM. Council on Medical Education and Hospitals. J Natl Med Assoc. 1950;42:56-57.
26. Briefs. Scudder blood transfusion controversy. J Natl Med Assoc. 1960; 52:56-58.
27. -. Kenney on conference with AMA officials. J Natl Med Assoc. 1963; 55:289.
28. Cobb WM. The National Medical Association's contribution to the Selma-Montgomery March. J Natl Med Assoc. 1965;57:243-244.
29. Cobb WM. Gullattee Trustee of Wesleyan University. J Natl Med Assoc. 1970;62:77-78.
30. Sampson CC. Dispelling the myth surrounding Drew's death. J Natl Med Assoc. 1984;76:415-416.
31. Bethea DA. Some significant Negro movements to lower their mortality. J Natl Med Assoc. 1930;22:85-88.
32. Williams DR. African-American health: the role of the social environment. J of Urban Health: Bull of the NY Academy of Medicine. 1998;75:300-321.
33. U.S. Bureau of the Census. Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2002 (122nd ed.). Washington, DC; 2002; p. 71.
34. Lewis JH. Biology of the Negro. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 1942.
35. Goldstein MS. Longevity and health status of whites and nonwhites in the United States. J Natl Med Assoc. 1954;46:83-104.
36. Drexler M. Testifying on Tuskegee. Radcliffe Quarterly. 2003; Winter: 1-3. www.radcliffe.edu/about/news/quarterly_archive/index.php; click Winter 2003. Accessed 02/28/05.
37. McDonald CJ. The contribution of the Tuskegee Study to medical knowledge. J Natl Med Assoc. 1974;66:1-7.
38. Shafer JK, Usilton LJ, Gleeson GA. Untreated syphilis in the male Negro - a prospective study of the effect on life expectancy. Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly. 1954;263-273.
39. Lawson J. Negro nurse wins highest HEW award. The Washington Post. April 19, 1958:B-3.
40. Cave VG. Proper uses and abuses of the health care delivery system for minorities with special reference to the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. J Natl Med Assoc. 1975;67:82-84.
41. Thomas SB, Quinn SC. The Tuskegee Syphilis Study, 1932 to 1972: Implications for HIV education and AIDS risk education programs in the black community. Am J Public Health. 1991;81:1498-1504.
42. Corbie-Smith G, Thomas SB, Williams MV, et al. Attitudes and beliefs of African Americans toward participation in medical research. J Gen Intern Med. 1999;14:537-546.
43. Shavers VL, Lynch CF, Burmeister LF. Racial difference in factors that influence the willingness to participate in medical research studies. Ann Epidemiol. 2002;12:248-256.
44. Brandt AM. Racism and research: the case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Hastings Center Report. 1978;8(December):21-29.
45. Jones JH. Bad blood: the Tuskegee syphilis experiment. New York: The Free Press; 1993.
46. Gamble VN. Under the shadow of Tuskegee: African Americans and health care. Am J Public Health. 1997;87:1773-1778.
47. Reverby SM. History of an apology: from Tuskegee to the White House. Research Nurse. 1997;3(July/August):1-9.
48. Gray FD. The Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Montgomery: The Black Belt Press; 1998.
49. Fairchild AL, Bayer R. Uses and abuses of Tuskegee. Science. 1999;284:919-921.
50. Letter from O. Wenger to MM Davis, August 13, 1929. No. MS C 264 in the collection of the History of Medicine Division, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, MD.
51. Letter from T. Clark to MM Davis, March 31, 1930. No. MS C264 in the collection of the History of Medicine Division, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, MD.
52. Crabtree JS, Bishop EL. Syphilis in a rural Negro population in Tennessee. Am J Public Health. 1932;22:157-164.
53. Gill DG. Bureau of Preventable Diseases. The suspension of venereal disease activities. JMASA. 1933;2:441.
54. Venereal disease control programs of the State Department of Health, AL. Ven Dis Inform. 1936;17:177-178.
55. Editorials. "Shadow of the Land." J Natl Med Assoc. 1938;30:29-30.
56. Public Health Service. Milestones in Venereal Disease Control: Highlights of a Half-Century. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare; 1957. Publication PHS 515.
57. Gill DG. Syphilis in the rural Negro. Results of a study in Alabama. Southern Med J. 1932;25:985-990.
58. Vonderlehr RA, Clark T, Wenger OC, Heller JR. Untreated syphilis in the male Negro. A comparative study of treated and untreated cases. JAMA. 1936;107:856-860.
59. Schuman SH, Olansky S, Rivers E, Smith CA, Rambo DS. Untreated syphilis in the male Negro. Background and current status of patients in the Tuskegee Study. J Chron Dis. 1955;2:543-558.
60. Vonderlehr RA. A comparison of treated and untreated syphilis: the efficacy of modern antisyphilitic treatment. Ann Bull John A. Andrew Clinic. 1938;1:41-52.
61. Shavers VL, Lynch CF, Burmeister LF. Knowledge of the Tuskegee Study and its impact on the willingness to participate in medical research studies. J Natl Med Assoc. 2000;92:563-572.
62. Blum HL, Barnett CW. Prognosis in late latent syphilis. Arch Intern Med. 1948;82:393-409.
63. Hinton WA. The significance of a positive blood test for syphilis. N Engl J Med. 1937;217:978-982.
64. O'Leary PA. Lues Latens. N Engl J Med. 1939;221:764-768.
65. Denison GA, Smith WHY. Mass venereal disease control in urban area. Report of a demonstration. South Med J. 1946;39:195-202.
66. Bauer TJ. Evaluation of antisyphilitic therapy with intensive follow-up. I. The Plan. J of Vener Dis Inform. 1951;32:355-359.
67. Shafer JK, Usilton LJ, Price EV. Long-term studies of results of penicillin therapy in early syphilis. Bull Wld Hlth Org. 1954;10:563-578.
68. U.S. Public Health Service. Blue Star Study II. Results of therapy. J of Vener Dis Inform. 1951;32:359-370.
69. Gjestland T. The Oslo Study of Untreated Syphilis: an epidemiologic investigation of the natural course of the syphilitic infection based upon a re-study of the Boeck-Bruusgaard material. Acta Dermatol Venereol. 1955;35(suppl 34):1-368.
70. Reverby SM. More than fact and fiction. Cultural memory and the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Hastings Center Report. 2001;31(5):22-28.
71. Letter from RA Vonderlehr to T Clark, February 4, 1933. RG90 in the General Records of the Venereal Disease Division 1918-1936, Records of the Public Health Service. National Archives, College Park, MD.
72. Branche GC. Therapeutic quartan malaria in the treatment of neurosyphilis among Negroes. Am J of Psychiatry. 1940;96:967-978.
73. Robinson HM. Syphilis. Treatment of Neurosyphilis. In: Practical dermatology and syphilis. Baltimore, MD: Chelsea Pub, Co.; 1947:110.
74. Becker FT. Induced malaria as a therapeutic agent. In: Boyd MF, ed. Malariology. A comprehensive survey of all aspects of this group of diseases from a global standpoint. Volume II. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders Co.; 1949:1145-1157.
75. Feldshuh D. Miss Evers' Boys. New York: Dramatists Play Service, Inc.; 1995.
76. Rivers E, Schuman S, Simpson L, Olansky S. Twenty years of follow-up experience in a long-range medical study. Public Health Rep. 1953;68:391-395.
77. Carmichael S, Hamilton CV. Black Power. The Politics of Liberation in America. New York, NY: Vantage Books; 1967: 122-145.
78. Thompson WP, Comeau WJ, White PD. The role of the treatment of syphilis in the prevention of cardiovascular involvement. Am Heart J. 1939; 17:286-293.
79. Kenney JA. A plea for conservatism in the use of antiluetic therapy. J Natl Med Assoc. 1941;33:272-273.
80. Parran T. The next great plague to go. Survey Graphic. 1936;25:405-411, 442-443.
81. Vonderlehr RA. Mass control of syphilis. South Med J. 1937;30:281-286.
82. Heller JR. Syphilis control in war time. South Med J. 1944;37:219-224.
83. Letter from an A.A. Surgeon to the Surgeon General, February 1, 1940. No. MS C264 in the collection of the History of Medicine Division, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, MD.
84. Kenney JA. Minutes. 9th Annual Meeting of the National Hospital Association. J Natl Med Assoc. 1933;25:28-33.
85. Heller JR, Bruyere PT. Untreated syphilis in the male Negro. II. Mortality during 12 years of observation. J Ven Dis Inform. 1946;27:34-38.
86. Smith DC, Bruyere MC. The effect of treated acquired syphilis on life expectancy. J Ven Dis Inform. 1946;27:39-46.
87. Gamble VN. The Tuskegee Syphilis Study and women's health. JAMWA. 1997;52:195-197.
88. Pesare PJ, Bauer TJ, Gleeson GA. Untreated syphilis in the male Negro. Am J Syph Gon Ven Dis. 1950;34:201-213.
89. Olansky S, Harris A, Cutler JC, Price EV. Untreated syphilis in the male Negro. Twenty-two years of serologic observation in a selected syphilis study group. AMA Arch Derm. 1956;73:516-522.
90. Rockwell DH, Yobs AR, Moore Jr MB. The Tuskegee study of untreated syphilis. The 30th year of observation. Arch Intern Med. 1964;114:792-798.
91. Olansky S, Simpson L, Schuman SH. Environmental factors in the Tuskegee study of untreated syphilis. Public Health Rep. 1954;69:691-698.
92. Letter from S. Hiltner to BN Butler, October 29, 1972. No. MS C264 in the collection of the History of Medicine Division, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, MD.
93. Letter from M. Smith to RA Vonderlehr, August 26, 1933. RG90, Records of the Public Health Service, General Records of the Venereal Disease Division 1918-1936. National Archives, College Park, MD.
94. Letter from RA Vonderlehr to M. Smith, August 29, 1933. RG90, Records of the Public Health Service, General Records of the Venereal Disease Division 1918-1936. National Archives, College Park, MD.
95. Medicine. Negro Health. Time. April 8, 1940, p. 41-44.
96. Public Health Service. Directory of clinics for the diagnosis and treatment of venereal diseases. Supplement to Venereal Disease Information No. 4. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; 1941:1-6. Federal Security Publication.
97. Gill DG. Syphilis in the rural Negro. Results of a study in Alabama. South Med J. 1932;25:985-990.
98. Maxcy KF, Brunfield WA. A serological survey for syphilis in a negro population. South Med J. 1934;27:891-901.
99. Thomas MA. Pneumothorax clinic in Macon County, AL. J Natl Med Assoc. 1940;32:63-68.
100. Gill DG, Smith WHY, Damon SR. Syphilis in Alabama as revealed by a serologic survey of selective service registrants. Venereal Disease Information. 1943;24:6-11.
101. Kenney JA. Is the Negro more susceptible to syphilis than the white man? J Natl Med Assoc. 1944;36:28-29.
102. Transactions of the Association. Venereal Disease Control. Journal of the Medical Association of Alabama. 1946;15:390-391.
103. Jones JH. The Tuskegee Legacy. AIDS and the black community. Hastings Center Report. 1992;22(Nov-Dec):38-40.
104. -. Quick cure for syphilis. Pencillin offers a new hope in war on scourge of VD. Ebony. February, 1948:43-47.
105. Fowler W. Alabama. Venereal Diseases-Treatment-Isolation or Quarantine (No. 625, Act, September 6, 1927). In: Public health laws and regulation adopted during 1927. Public Health Rep. Supplement No. 75. Washington, DC: USPHS; 1930:1.
106. Letter from RA Vonderlehr to DG Gill, July 10, 1942. No. MS C 264 in the collection of the History of Medicine Division, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, MD.
107. Briggs GC. Treatment plan for infected rejectees. Public Health Nurs. 1942;34:462-463.
108. Webster B. Penicillin in the treatment of latent and cardiovascular syphilis. NY Medicine. 1947;3(July 20):15-18, 28-29.
109. Clark EG, Danbolt N. The Oslo Study of the natural history of untreated syphilis. An epidemiologic investigation based on a restudy of the Boeck-Brusgaard material. A review and appraisal. J Chron Dis. 1955;2:311-344.
110. Kampmeier RH. The late manifestations of syphilis: skeletal, visceral and cardiovascular. Med Clinics of NA. 1964;48:667-697.
111. U.S. Dept of Health, Education, and Welfare. Report of the National Commission on Venereal Disease to the Assistant Secretary for Health and Scientific Affairs. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare; 1972. Publication DHEW (HSM) 72-8125.
112. Cave VG. The prevention of venereal disease. J Natl Med Assoc. 1971;61:66-68.
113. Smith WHY. Venereal disease tests for the masses. Hygeia. 1946;24:186-187, 237.
114. Reverby SM. Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Nurse Rivers, silence and the meaning of treatment. Nursing History Review. 1999;7:3-28.
115. Barker PP. Tuskegee's Clinic goes forward. J Natl Med Assoc. 1995;87:579-580.
116. Kenney JA. The Veteran's Hospital controversy. J Natl Med Assoc. 1995; 87:376-377.
117. Dibble EH. The John A. Andrew Memorial Hospital. J Natl Med Assoc. 1930;22:137-139.
118. Kenney JA. Despise not the day of small beginnings. A brief history of the development of the John A. Andrew Clinic at Tuskegee Institute, Alabama. J Natl Med Assoc. 1946;38:127-32.
119. Deibert AV, Bruyere MC. Untreated syphilis in the male Negro III. Evidence of cardiovascular abnormalities and other forms of morbidity. J Ven Dis Inform. 1946;27:301-314.
120. Shafer JK, Usilton LJ, Gleeson GA. Untreated syphilis in the male Negro-a prospective study of the effect on life expectancy. Public Health Rep. 1954;69:684-690.
121. Peters JJ, Peers JH, Olansky S, Cutler JC, Gleeson GA. Untreated syphilis in the male Negro. Pathologic findings in syphilitic and nonsyphilitic patients. J Chron Dis. 1955;1:127-148.
122. Olansky S, Schuman SH, Peters JJ, Smith CA, Rambo DS. Untreated syphilis in the male Negro.X. Twenty years of clinical observation of untreated syphilitic and presumably nonsyphilitic groups. J Chron Dis. 1956;4:177-185.
123. Caldwell JG, Price EV, Schroeter AL. Aortic regurgitation in the Tuskegee study of untreated syphilis. J Chron Dis. 1973;26:187-194.
124. Reverby SM, ed. Tuskegee's Truths: Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press; 2000.
125. Clinton WJ. Remarks in apology to African-Americans on the Tuskegee Experiment. May 16, 1997. Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents. 1997;33:718-720.
126. Mullan F. Chapter Three, 1912-1920, Public Health Warriors. In: Plagues and Politics. The Story ot the U.S. Public Health Service. New York: Basic Books, Inc.; 1989:80-81.
127. Walls E. The Public Health Service VD Clinic in Hot Springs, AR. Public Health Rep. 1995;110(Jan-Feb):103-104.
128. Walls E. Hot Springs waters and the treatment of venereal diseases: The U.S. Public Health Service Clinic and Camp Garraday. J Ark Med Soc. 1995;91:430-437.
129. Williams RC. The U.S. Public Health Service, 1798-1950. Bethesda, MD: Commissioned Officers Association of the U.S. Public Health Service; 1951:471.
130. Heller JR. The rapid treatment center program. 1. Medical treatment. Am J Nurs. 1946;46:542-543.
131. Vessells A. Slossfield chalks up progress. Public Health Nursing. 1946; 38:490-491.
132. Memorandum from S, Schuman to S. Olansky, December 10, 1951. Chamblee Conference with Mrs. Gleeson and Miss Rambo. Record Group 442, Records of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Venereal Disease Branch, 1929-1972, Tuskegee Syphilis Study. East Point, GA.
133. DuBois WEB. XVII. The Propaganda of History. In: Black Reconstruction in America. Cleveland: The World Publishing Co.; 1965 (originally published by Harcourt, Brace and Co. 1935):711-729.
134. Jarvis CD. Needed: black Americans to save black American lives. The Washington Post. February 13, 1994: C-8.
135. Gaines P. Armed with the truth in a fight for lives. Jarvis hopes ending myth about Charles Drew's death will draw black donors. The Washington Posr. April 10, 1994: B-5.
136. -. J Natl Med Assoc. 1950;42:195.
137. -. Drew, Charles Richard. In: The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. 4. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago; 1990:223.
138. Schulman KA, Berlin JA, Harless W, et al. The effect of race and sex on physicians' recommendations for cardiac catheterization. N Engl J Med. 1999;340:618-626.
139. Schwartz LM, Woloshin S, Welch HG. Misunderstandings about the effects af race and sex on physicians' referrals far cardiac catheterizatian. N Engl J Med 1999;341:279-283.
140. Baden WE, O'Raurke RA, Crawford MH, et al. Outcomes in patients with acute non-Q-wave myacardial infarctions randomly assigned to an invasive as compared with a conservative management strategy. N Engl J Med 1998;338:1785-1792.
141. Kenney JA. The NMA should have priority in venereal disease publicity. J Natl Med Assoc. 1937;29:26-27.