Under the Shadow of Tuskegee: African Americans and Health Care

American Journal of Public Health

Volumn 87, Issue 11, 1997, Pages 1773-1778

  Gamble, Vanessa Northington ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN SCHOOL OF MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AFRICAN AMERICAN; BIOMEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH; HEALTH CARE AND PUBLIC HEALTH; HEALTH CARE DELIVERY; HISTORY; HUMAN; HUMAN EXPERIMENT; MEDICAL RESEARCH; NINETEENTH CENTURY; PATIENT SELECTION; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; RESEARCH SUBJECT; REVIEW; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; SOCIOECONOMICS; SYPHILIS; TRUST; TUSKEGEE SYPHILIS STUDY; TWENTIETH CENTURY; UNITED STATES;

BIOMEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH; HEALTH CARE AND PUBLIC HEALTH; NINETEENTH CENTURY; TUSKEGEE SYPHILIS STUDY; TWENTIETH CENTURY;

AFRICAN AMERICANS; ALABAMA; BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH; DELIVERY OF HEALTH CARE; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMAN EXPERIMENTATION; HUMANS; PATIENT SELECTION; PREJUDICE; RESEARCH SUBJECTS; SYPHILIS; TRUST; VALUE OF LIFE;

EID: 0031279621     PISSN: 00900036     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.87.11.1773     Document Type: Article

References (75)

1. The most comprehensive history of the study is James H. Jones, Bad Blood, new and expanded edition (New York: Free Press, 1993).
2. "Remarks by the President in Apology for Study Done in Tuskegee," Press Release, the White House, Office of the Press Secretary, 16 May 1997.
3. "Final Report of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study Legacy Committee," Vanessa Northington Gamble, chair, and John C. Fletcher, co-chair, 20 May 1996.
4. Vanessa Northington Gamble, "A Legacy of Distrust: African Americans and Medical Research," American Journal of Preventive Medicine 9 (1993): 35-38; Shari Roan, "A Medical Imbalance," Los Angeles Times, 1 November 1994; Carol Stevens, "Research: Distrust Runs Deep; Medical Community Seeks Solution," The Detroit News, 10 December 1995; Lini S. Kadaba, "Minorities in Research," Chicago Tribune, 13 September 1993; Robert Steinbrook, "AIDS Trials Short-change Minorities and Drug Users," Los Angeles Times, 25 September 1989; Mark D. Smith, "Zidovudine: Does It Work for Everyone?" Journal of the American Medical Association 266 (1991): 2750-2751; Charlise Lyles, "Blacks Hesitant to Donate; Cultural Beliefs, Misinformation, Mistrust Make It a Difficult Decision," The Virginian-Pilot, 15 August 1994; Jeanni Wong, "Mistrust Leaves Some Blacks Reluctant to Donate Organs," Sacramento Bee, 17 February 1993; "Nightline," ABC News, 6 April 1994; Patrice Gaines, "Armed with the Truth in a Fight for Lives," Washington Post, 10 April 1994; Fran Henry, "Encouraging Organ Donation from Blacks," Cleveland Plain Dealer, 23 April 1994; G. Marie Swanson and Amy J. Ward, "Recruiting Minorities into Clinical Trials: Toward a Participant-Friendly System," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 87 (1995). 1747-1759; Dewayne Wickham, "Why Blacks Are Wary of White MDs," The Tennessean, 21 May 1997, 13A.
5. Vanessa Northington Gamble, "A Legacy of Distrust: African Americans and Medical Research," American Journal of Preventive Medicine 9 (1993): 35-38; Shari Roan, "A Medical Imbalance," Los Angeles Times, 1 November 1994; Carol Stevens, "Research: Distrust Runs Deep; Medical Community Seeks Solution," The Detroit News, 10 December 1995; Lini S. Kadaba, "Minorities in Research," Chicago Tribune, 13 September 1993; Robert Steinbrook, "AIDS Trials Short-change Minorities and Drug Users," Los Angeles Times, 25 September 1989; Mark D. Smith, "Zidovudine: Does It Work for Everyone?" Journal of the American Medical Association 266 (1991): 2750-2751; Charlise Lyles, "Blacks Hesitant to Donate; Cultural Beliefs, Misinformation, Mistrust Make It a Difficult Decision," The Virginian-Pilot, 15 August 1994; Jeanni Wong, "Mistrust Leaves Some Blacks Reluctant to Donate Organs," Sacramento Bee, 17 February 1993; "Nightline," ABC News, 6 April 1994; Patrice Gaines, "Armed with the Truth in a Fight for Lives," Washington Post, 10 April 1994; Fran Henry, "Encouraging Organ Donation from Blacks," Cleveland Plain Dealer, 23 April 1994; G. Marie Swanson and Amy J. Ward, "Recruiting Minorities into Clinical Trials: Toward a Participant-Friendly System," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 87 (1995). 1747-1759; Dewayne Wickham, "Why Blacks Are Wary of White MDs," The Tennessean, 21 May 1997, 13A.
6. Vanessa Northington Gamble, "A Legacy of Distrust: African Americans and Medical Research," American Journal of Preventive Medicine 9 (1993): 35-38; Shari Roan, "A Medical Imbalance," Los Angeles Times, 1 November 1994; Carol Stevens, "Research: Distrust Runs Deep; Medical Community Seeks Solution," The Detroit News, 10 December 1995; Lini S. Kadaba, "Minorities in Research," Chicago Tribune, 13 September 1993; Robert Steinbrook, "AIDS Trials Short-change Minorities and Drug Users," Los Angeles Times, 25 September 1989; Mark D. Smith, "Zidovudine: Does It Work for Everyone?" Journal of the American Medical Association 266 (1991): 2750-2751; Charlise Lyles, "Blacks Hesitant to Donate; Cultural Beliefs, Misinformation, Mistrust Make It a Difficult Decision," The Virginian-Pilot, 15 August 1994; Jeanni Wong, "Mistrust Leaves Some Blacks Reluctant to Donate Organs," Sacramento Bee, 17 February 1993; "Nightline," ABC News, 6 April 1994; Patrice Gaines, "Armed with the Truth in a Fight for Lives," Washington Post, 10 April 1994; Fran Henry, "Encouraging Organ Donation from Blacks," Cleveland Plain Dealer, 23 April 1994; G. Marie Swanson and Amy J. Ward, "Recruiting Minorities into Clinical Trials: Toward a Participant-Friendly System," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 87 (1995). 1747-1759; Dewayne Wickham, "Why Blacks Are Wary of White MDs," The Tennessean, 21 May 1997, 13A.
7. Vanessa Northington Gamble, "A Legacy of Distrust: African Americans and Medical Research," American Journal of Preventive Medicine 9 (1993): 35-38; Shari Roan, "A Medical Imbalance," Los Angeles Times, 1 November 1994; Carol Stevens, "Research: Distrust Runs Deep; Medical Community Seeks Solution," The Detroit News, 10 December 1995; Lini S. Kadaba, "Minorities in Research," Chicago Tribune, 13 September 1993; Robert Steinbrook, "AIDS Trials Short-change Minorities and Drug Users," Los Angeles Times, 25 September 1989; Mark D. Smith, "Zidovudine: Does It Work for Everyone?" Journal of the American Medical Association 266 (1991): 2750-2751; Charlise Lyles, "Blacks Hesitant to Donate; Cultural Beliefs, Misinformation, Mistrust Make It a Difficult Decision," The Virginian-Pilot, 15 August 1994; Jeanni Wong, "Mistrust Leaves Some Blacks Reluctant to Donate Organs," Sacramento Bee, 17 February 1993; "Nightline," ABC News, 6 April 1994; Patrice Gaines, "Armed with the Truth in a Fight for Lives," Washington Post, 10 April 1994; Fran Henry, "Encouraging Organ Donation from Blacks," Cleveland Plain Dealer, 23 April 1994; G. Marie Swanson and Amy J. Ward, "Recruiting Minorities into Clinical Trials: Toward a Participant-Friendly System," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 87 (1995). 1747-1759; Dewayne Wickham, "Why Blacks Are Wary of White MDs," The Tennessean, 21 May 1997, 13A.
8. Vanessa Northington Gamble, "A Legacy of Distrust: African Americans and Medical Research," American Journal of Preventive Medicine 9 (1993): 35-38; Shari Roan, "A Medical Imbalance," Los Angeles Times, 1 November 1994; Carol Stevens, "Research: Distrust Runs Deep; Medical Community Seeks Solution," The Detroit News, 10 December 1995; Lini S. Kadaba, "Minorities in Research," Chicago Tribune, 13 September 1993; Robert Steinbrook, "AIDS Trials Short-change Minorities and Drug Users," Los Angeles Times, 25 September 1989; Mark D. Smith, "Zidovudine: Does It Work for Everyone?" Journal of the American Medical Association 266 (1991): 2750-2751; Charlise Lyles, "Blacks Hesitant to Donate; Cultural Beliefs, Misinformation, Mistrust Make It a Difficult Decision," The Virginian-Pilot, 15 August 1994; Jeanni Wong, "Mistrust Leaves Some Blacks Reluctant to Donate Organs," Sacramento Bee, 17 February 1993; "Nightline," ABC News, 6 April 1994; Patrice Gaines, "Armed with the Truth in a Fight for Lives," Washington Post, 10 April 1994; Fran Henry, "Encouraging Organ Donation from Blacks," Cleveland Plain Dealer, 23 April 1994; G. Marie Swanson and Amy J. Ward, "Recruiting Minorities into Clinical Trials: Toward a Participant-Friendly System," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 87 (1995). 1747-1759; Dewayne Wickham, "Why Blacks Are Wary of White MDs," The Tennessean, 21 May 1997, 13A.
9. Vanessa Northington Gamble, "A Legacy of Distrust: African Americans and Medical Research," American Journal of Preventive Medicine 9 (1993): 35-38; Shari Roan, "A Medical Imbalance," Los Angeles Times, 1 November 1994; Carol Stevens, "Research: Distrust Runs Deep; Medical Community Seeks Solution," The Detroit News, 10 December 1995; Lini S. Kadaba, "Minorities in Research," Chicago Tribune, 13 September 1993; Robert Steinbrook, "AIDS Trials Short-change Minorities and Drug Users," Los Angeles Times, 25 September 1989; Mark D. Smith, "Zidovudine: Does It Work for Everyone?" Journal of the American Medical Association 266 (1991): 2750-2751; Charlise Lyles, "Blacks Hesitant to Donate; Cultural Beliefs, Misinformation, Mistrust Make It a Difficult Decision," The Virginian-Pilot, 15 August 1994; Jeanni Wong, "Mistrust Leaves Some Blacks Reluctant to Donate Organs," Sacramento Bee, 17 February 1993; "Nightline," ABC News, 6 April 1994; Patrice Gaines, "Armed with the Truth in a Fight for Lives," Washington Post, 10 April 1994; Fran Henry, "Encouraging Organ Donation from Blacks," Cleveland Plain Dealer, 23 April 1994; G. Marie Swanson and Amy J. Ward, "Recruiting Minorities into Clinical Trials: Toward a Participant-Friendly System," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 87 (1995). 1747-1759; Dewayne Wickham, "Why Blacks Are Wary of White MDs," The Tennessean, 21 May 1997, 13A.
10. Vanessa Northington Gamble, "A Legacy of Distrust: African Americans and Medical Research," American Journal of Preventive Medicine 9 (1993): 35-38; Shari Roan, "A Medical Imbalance," Los Angeles Times, 1 November 1994; Carol Stevens, "Research: Distrust Runs Deep; Medical Community Seeks Solution," The Detroit News, 10 December 1995; Lini S. Kadaba, "Minorities in Research," Chicago Tribune, 13 September 1993; Robert Steinbrook, "AIDS Trials Short-change Minorities and Drug Users," Los Angeles Times, 25 September 1989; Mark D. Smith, "Zidovudine: Does It Work for Everyone?" Journal of the American Medical Association 266 (1991): 2750-2751; Charlise Lyles, "Blacks Hesitant to Donate; Cultural Beliefs, Misinformation, Mistrust Make It a Difficult Decision," The Virginian-Pilot, 15 August 1994; Jeanni Wong, "Mistrust Leaves Some Blacks Reluctant to Donate Organs," Sacramento Bee, 17 February 1993; "Nightline," ABC News, 6 April 1994; Patrice Gaines, "Armed with the Truth in a Fight for Lives," Washington Post, 10 April 1994; Fran Henry, "Encouraging Organ Donation from Blacks," Cleveland Plain Dealer, 23 April 1994; G. Marie Swanson and Amy J. Ward, "Recruiting Minorities into Clinical Trials: Toward a Participant-Friendly System," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 87 (1995). 1747-1759; Dewayne Wickham, "Why Blacks Are Wary of White MDs," The Tennessean, 21 May 1997, 13A.
11. Vanessa Northington Gamble, "A Legacy of Distrust: African Americans and Medical Research," American Journal of Preventive Medicine 9 (1993): 35-38; Shari Roan, "A Medical Imbalance," Los Angeles Times, 1 November 1994; Carol Stevens, "Research: Distrust Runs Deep; Medical Community Seeks Solution," The Detroit News, 10 December 1995; Lini S. Kadaba, "Minorities in Research," Chicago Tribune, 13 September 1993; Robert Steinbrook, "AIDS Trials Short-change Minorities and Drug Users," Los Angeles Times, 25 September 1989; Mark D. Smith, "Zidovudine: Does It Work for Everyone?" Journal of the American Medical Association 266 (1991): 2750-2751; Charlise Lyles, "Blacks Hesitant to Donate; Cultural Beliefs, Misinformation, Mistrust Make It a Difficult Decision," The Virginian-Pilot, 15 August 1994; Jeanni Wong, "Mistrust Leaves Some Blacks Reluctant to Donate Organs," Sacramento Bee, 17 February 1993; "Nightline," ABC News, 6 April 1994; Patrice Gaines, "Armed with the Truth in a Fight for Lives," Washington Post, 10 April 1994; Fran Henry, "Encouraging Organ Donation from Blacks," Cleveland Plain Dealer, 23 April 1994; G. Marie Swanson and Amy J. Ward, "Recruiting Minorities into Clinical Trials: Toward a Participant-Friendly System," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 87 (1995). 1747-1759; Dewayne Wickham, "Why Blacks Are Wary of White MDs," The Tennessean, 21 May 1997, 13A.
12. Vanessa Northington Gamble, "A Legacy of Distrust: African Americans and Medical Research," American Journal of Preventive Medicine 9 (1993): 35-38; Shari Roan, "A Medical Imbalance," Los Angeles Times, 1 November 1994; Carol Stevens, "Research: Distrust Runs Deep; Medical Community Seeks Solution," The Detroit News, 10 December 1995; Lini S. Kadaba, "Minorities in Research," Chicago Tribune, 13 September 1993; Robert Steinbrook, "AIDS Trials Short-change Minorities and Drug Users," Los Angeles Times, 25 September 1989; Mark D. Smith, "Zidovudine: Does It Work for Everyone?" Journal of the American Medical Association 266 (1991): 2750-2751; Charlise Lyles, "Blacks Hesitant to Donate; Cultural Beliefs, Misinformation, Mistrust Make It a Difficult Decision," The Virginian-Pilot, 15 August 1994; Jeanni Wong, "Mistrust Leaves Some Blacks Reluctant to Donate Organs," Sacramento Bee, 17 February 1993; "Nightline," ABC News, 6 April 1994; Patrice Gaines, "Armed with the Truth in a Fight for Lives," Washington Post, 10 April 1994; Fran Henry, "Encouraging Organ Donation from Blacks," Cleveland Plain Dealer, 23 April 1994; G. Marie Swanson and Amy J. Ward, "Recruiting Minorities into Clinical Trials: Toward a Participant-Friendly System," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 87 (1995). 1747-1759; Dewayne Wickham, "Why Blacks Are Wary of White MDs," The Tennessean, 21 May 1997, 13A.
13. Vanessa Northington Gamble, "A Legacy of Distrust: African Americans and Medical Research," American Journal of Preventive Medicine 9 (1993): 35-38; Shari Roan, "A Medical Imbalance," Los Angeles Times, 1 November 1994; Carol Stevens, "Research: Distrust Runs Deep; Medical Community Seeks Solution," The Detroit News, 10 December 1995; Lini S. Kadaba, "Minorities in Research," Chicago Tribune, 13 September 1993; Robert Steinbrook, "AIDS Trials Short-change Minorities and Drug Users," Los Angeles Times, 25 September 1989; Mark D. Smith, "Zidovudine: Does It Work for Everyone?" Journal of the American Medical Association 266 (1991): 2750-2751; Charlise Lyles, "Blacks Hesitant to Donate; Cultural Beliefs, Misinformation, Mistrust Make It a Difficult Decision," The Virginian-Pilot, 15 August 1994; Jeanni Wong, "Mistrust Leaves Some Blacks Reluctant to Donate Organs," Sacramento Bee, 17 February 1993; "Nightline," ABC News, 6 April 1994; Patrice Gaines, "Armed with the Truth in a Fight for Lives," Washington Post, 10 April 1994; Fran Henry, "Encouraging Organ Donation from Blacks," Cleveland Plain Dealer, 23 April 1994; G. Marie Swanson and Amy J. Ward, "Recruiting Minorities into Clinical Trials: Toward a Participant-Friendly System," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 87 (1995). 1747-1759; Dewayne Wickham, "Why Blacks Are Wary of White MDs," The Tennessean, 21 May 1997, 13A.
14. Vanessa Northington Gamble, "A Legacy of Distrust: African Americans and Medical Research," American Journal of Preventive Medicine 9 (1993): 35-38; Shari Roan, "A Medical Imbalance," Los Angeles Times, 1 November 1994; Carol Stevens, "Research: Distrust Runs Deep; Medical Community Seeks Solution," The Detroit News, 10 December 1995; Lini S. Kadaba, "Minorities in Research," Chicago Tribune, 13 September 1993; Robert Steinbrook, "AIDS Trials Short-change Minorities and Drug Users," Los Angeles Times, 25 September 1989; Mark D. Smith, "Zidovudine: Does It Work for Everyone?" Journal of the American Medical Association 266 (1991): 2750-2751; Charlise Lyles, "Blacks Hesitant to Donate; Cultural Beliefs, Misinformation, Mistrust Make It a Difficult Decision," The Virginian-Pilot, 15 August 1994; Jeanni Wong, "Mistrust Leaves Some Blacks Reluctant to Donate Organs," Sacramento Bee, 17 February 1993; "Nightline," ABC News, 6 April 1994; Patrice Gaines, "Armed with the Truth in a Fight for Lives," Washington Post, 10 April 1994; Fran Henry, "Encouraging Organ Donation from Blacks," Cleveland Plain Dealer, 23 April 1994; G. Marie Swanson and Amy J. Ward, "Recruiting Minorities into Clinical Trials: Toward a Participant-Friendly System," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 87 (1995). 1747-1759; Dewayne Wickham, "Why Blacks Are Wary of White MDs," The Tennessean, 21 May 1997, 13A.
15. Vanessa Northington Gamble, "A Legacy of Distrust: African Americans and Medical Research," American Journal of Preventive Medicine 9 (1993): 35-38; Shari Roan, "A Medical Imbalance," Los Angeles Times, 1 November 1994; Carol Stevens, "Research: Distrust Runs Deep; Medical Community Seeks Solution," The Detroit News, 10 December 1995; Lini S. Kadaba, "Minorities in Research," Chicago Tribune, 13 September 1993; Robert Steinbrook, "AIDS Trials Short-change Minorities and Drug Users," Los Angeles Times, 25 September 1989; Mark D. Smith, "Zidovudine: Does It Work for Everyone?" Journal of the American Medical Association 266 (1991): 2750-2751; Charlise Lyles, "Blacks Hesitant to Donate; Cultural Beliefs, Misinformation, Mistrust Make It a Difficult Decision," The Virginian-Pilot, 15 August 1994; Jeanni Wong, "Mistrust Leaves Some Blacks Reluctant to Donate Organs," Sacramento Bee, 17 February 1993; "Nightline," ABC News, 6 April 1994; Patrice Gaines, "Armed with the Truth in a Fight for Lives," Washington Post, 10 April 1994; Fran Henry, "Encouraging Organ Donation from Blacks," Cleveland Plain Dealer, 23 April 1994; G. Marie Swanson and Amy J. Ward, "Recruiting Minorities into Clinical Trials: Toward a Participant-Friendly System," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 87 (1995). 1747-1759; Dewayne Wickham, "Why Blacks Are Wary of White MDs," The Tennessean, 21 May 1997, 13A.
16. Vanessa Northington Gamble, "A Legacy of Distrust: African Americans and Medical Research," American Journal of Preventive Medicine 9 (1993): 35-38; Shari Roan, "A Medical Imbalance," Los Angeles Times, 1 November 1994; Carol Stevens, "Research: Distrust Runs Deep; Medical Community Seeks Solution," The Detroit News, 10 December 1995; Lini S. Kadaba, "Minorities in Research," Chicago Tribune, 13 September 1993; Robert Steinbrook, "AIDS Trials Short-change Minorities and Drug Users," Los Angeles Times, 25 September 1989; Mark D. Smith, "Zidovudine: Does It Work for Everyone?" Journal of the American Medical Association 266 (1991): 2750-2751; Charlise Lyles, "Blacks Hesitant to Donate; Cultural Beliefs, Misinformation, Mistrust Make It a Difficult Decision," The Virginian-Pilot, 15 August 1994; Jeanni Wong, "Mistrust Leaves Some Blacks Reluctant to Donate Organs," Sacramento Bee, 17 February 1993; "Nightline," ABC News, 6 April 1994; Patrice Gaines, "Armed with the Truth in a Fight for Lives," Washington Post, 10 April 1994; Fran Henry, "Encouraging Organ Donation from Blacks," Cleveland Plain Dealer, 23 April 1994; G. Marie Swanson and Amy J. Ward, "Recruiting Minorities into Clinical Trials: Toward a Participant-Friendly System," Journal of the National Cancer Institute 87 (1995). 1747-1759; Dewayne Wickham, "Why Blacks Are Wary of White MDs," The Tennessean, 21 May 1997, 13A.
17. For example, see Stephen B. Thomas and Sandra Crouse Quinn, "The Tuskegee Syphilis Study, 1932 to 1972: Implications for HIV Education and AIDS Risk Education Programs in the Black Community," American Journal of Public Health 81 (1991): 1498-1505; Stephen B. Thomas and Sandra Crouse Quinn, "Understanding the Attitudes of Black Americans," in Dimensions of HIV Prevention. Needle Exchange, ed. Jeff Stryker and Mark D. Smith (Menlo Park, Calif.: Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 1993), 99-128; and Stephen B. Thomas and Sandra Crouse Quinn, "The AIDS Epidemic and the African-American Community: Toward an Ethical Framework for Service Delivery," in "It Just Ain't Fair": The Ethics of Health Care for African Americans, ed. Annette Dula and Sara Goering (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1994), 75-88.
18. For example, see Stephen B. Thomas and Sandra Crouse Quinn, "The Tuskegee Syphilis Study, 1932 to 1972: Implications for HIV Education and AIDS Risk Education Programs in the Black Community," American Journal of Public Health 81 (1991): 1498-1505; Stephen B. Thomas and Sandra Crouse Quinn, "Understanding the Attitudes of Black Americans," in Dimensions of HIV Prevention. Needle Exchange, ed. Jeff Stryker and Mark D. Smith (Menlo Park, Calif.: Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 1993), 99-128; and Stephen B. Thomas and Sandra Crouse Quinn, "The AIDS Epidemic and the African-American Community: Toward an Ethical Framework for Service Delivery," in "It Just Ain't Fair": The Ethics of Health Care for African Americans, ed. Annette Dula and Sara Goering (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1994), 75-88.
19. For example, see Stephen B. Thomas and Sandra Crouse Quinn, "The Tuskegee Syphilis Study, 1932 to 1972: Implications for HIV Education and AIDS Risk Education Programs in the Black Community," American Journal of Public Health 81 (1991): 1498-1505; Stephen B. Thomas and Sandra Crouse Quinn, "Understanding the Attitudes of Black Americans," in Dimensions of HIV Prevention. Needle Exchange, ed. Jeff Stryker and Mark D. Smith (Menlo Park, Calif.: Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 1993), 99-128; and Stephen B. Thomas and Sandra Crouse Quinn, "The AIDS Epidemic and the African-American Community: Toward an Ethical Framework for Service Delivery," in "It Just Ain't Fair": The Ethics of Health Care for African Americans, ed. Annette Dula and Sara Goering (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1994), 75-88.
20. Thomas and Quinn, "The AIDS Epidemic and the African-American Community," 83.
21. Thomas and Quinn, "Understanding the Attitudes of Black Americans," 108-109; David L. Kirp and Ronald Bayer, "Needles and Races," Atlantic, July 1993, 38-42.
22. Thomas and Quinn, "Understanding the Attitudes of Black Americans," 108-109; David L. Kirp and Ronald Bayer, "Needles and Races," Atlantic, July 1993, 38-42.
23. Lynda Richardson, "An Old Experiment's Legacy: Distrust of AIDS Treatment," New York Times, 21 April 1997, A1, A7.
24. Todd L. Savitt, "The Use of Blacks for Medical Experimentation and Demonstration in the Old South, " Journal of Southern History 48 (1982): 331-348; David C. Humphrey, "Dissection and Discrimination: The Social Origins of Cadavers in America, 1760-1915," Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 49 (1973): 819-827.
25. Todd L. Savitt, "The Use of Blacks for Medical Experimentation and Demonstration in the Old South, " Journal of Southern History 48 (1982): 331-348; David C. Humphrey, "Dissection and Discrimination: The Social Origins of Cadavers in America, 1760-1915," Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 49 (1973): 819-827.
26. Harriet Martineau, Retrospect of Western Travel, vol. 1 (London: Saunders & Ottley; New York: Harpers and Brothers; 1838), 140,
27. quoted in Humphrey, "Dissection and Discrimination," 819.
28. Theodore Dwight Weld, American Slavery As It Is: Testimony of a Thousand Witnesses (New York: American Anti-Slavery Society, 1839), 170, quoted in Savitt, "The Use of Blacks," 341.
29. Theodore Dwight Weld, American Slavery As It Is: Testimony of a Thousand Witnesses (New York: American Anti-Slavery Society, 1839), 170, quoted in Savitt, "The Use of Blacks," 341.
30. F. N. Boney, "Doctor Thomas Hamilton: Two Views of a Gentleman of the Old South, Phylon 28 (1967): 288-292.
31. J. Marion Sims, The Story of My Life (New York: Appleton, 1889), 236-237.
32. Gladys-Marie Fry, Night Riders in Black Folk History (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984), 171.
33. "Concerning Negro Sorcery in the United States," Journal of American Folk-Lore 3 (1890): 285.
34. Ibid., 210.
35. Humphrey, "Dissection and Discrimination," 822-823.
36. A detailed examination of the campaign to establish Black hospitals can be found in Vanessa Northington Gamble, Making a Place for Ourselves: The Black Hospital Movement, 1920-1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
37. Eugene P. Link, "The Civil Rights Activities of Three Great Negro Physicians (1840-1940)," Journal of Negro History 52 (July 1969): 177.
38. Mossell graduated, with honors, from Penn in 1882 and founded the hospital in 1895.
39. "Seventh Annual Report of the Frederick Douglass Memorial Hospital and Training School" (Philadelphia, Pa.: 1902), 17.
40. H. M. Green, A More or Less Critical Review of the Hospital Situation among Negroes in the United States (n.d., circa 1930), 4-5.
41. For more in-depth discussions of the history of the Tuskegee Veterans Hospital, see Gamble, Making a Place for Ourselves, 70-104; Pete Daniel, "Black Power in the 1920's: The Case of Tuskegee Veterans Hospital," Journal of Southern History 36 (1970): 368-388; and Raymond Wolters, The New Negro on Campus: Black College Rebellions of the 1920s (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975), 137-191.
42. For more in-depth discussions of the history of the Tuskegee Veterans Hospital, see Gamble, Making a Place for Ourselves, 70-104; Pete Daniel, "Black Power in the 1920's: The Case of Tuskegee Veterans Hospital," Journal of Southern History 36 (1970): 368-388; and Raymond Wolters, The New Negro on Campus: Black College Rebellions of the 1920s (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975), 137-191.
43. For more in-depth discussions of the history of the Tuskegee Veterans Hospital, see Gamble, Making a Place for Ourselves, 70-104; Pete Daniel, "Black Power in the 1920's: The Case of Tuskegee Veterans Hospital," Journal of Southern History 36 (1970): 368-388; and Raymond Wolters, The New Negro on Campus: Black College Rebellions of the 1920s (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975), 137-191.
44. "Klan Halts March on Tuskegee," Chicago Defender, 4 August 1923.
45. Charles H. Garvin, "The 'New Negro' Physician," unpublished manuscript, n.d., box 1, Charles H. Garvin Papers, Western Reserve Historical Society Library, Cleveland, Ohio.
46. Ronald A. Taylor, "Conspiracy Theories Widely Accepted in U.S. Black Circles," Washington Times, 10 December 1991, A1; Frances Cress Welsing, The Isis Papers: The Keys to the Colors (Chicago: Third World Press, 1991), 298-299. Although she is not very well known outside of the African-American community, Welsing, a physician, is a popular figure within it. The Isis Papers headed for several weeks the best-seller list maintained by Black bookstores.
47. Ronald A. Taylor, "Conspiracy Theories Widely Accepted in U.S. Black Circles," Washington Times, 10 December 1991, A1; Frances Cress Welsing, The Isis Papers: The Keys to the Colors (Chicago: Third World Press, 1991), 298-299. Although she is not very well known outside of the African-American community, Welsing, a physician, is a popular figure within it. The Isis Papers headed for several weeks the best-seller list maintained by Black bookstores.
48. Jones, Bad Blood, 12.
49. For discussions of allegations of genocide in the implementation of these programs, see Robert G. Weisbord, "Birth Control and the Black American: A Matter of Genocide?" Demography 10 (1973): 571-590; Alex S. Jones, "Editorial Linking Blacks, Contraceptives Stirs Debate at Philadelphia Paper," Arizona Daily Star, 23 December 1990, F4; Doris Y. Wilkinson, "For Whose Benefit? Politics and Sickle Cell," The Black Scholar 5 (1974): 26-31.
50. For discussions of allegations of genocide in the implementation of these programs, see Robert G. Weisbord, "Birth Control and the Black American: A Matter of Genocide?" Demography 10 (1973): 571-590; Alex S. Jones, "Editorial Linking Blacks, Contraceptives Stirs Debate at Philadelphia Paper," Arizona Daily Star, 23 December 1990, F4; Doris Y. Wilkinson, "For Whose Benefit? Politics and Sickle Cell," The Black Scholar 5 (1974): 26-31.
51. For discussions of allegations of genocide in the implementation of these programs, see Robert G. Weisbord, "Birth Control and the Black American: A Matter of Genocide?" Demography 10 (1973): 571-590; Alex S. Jones, "Editorial Linking Blacks, Contraceptives Stirs Debate at Philadelphia Paper," Arizona Daily Star, 23 December 1990, F4; Doris Y. Wilkinson, "For Whose Benefit? Politics and Sickle Cell," The Black Scholar 5 (1974): 26-31.
52. Karen Grisby Bates, "Is It Genocide?" Essence, September 1990, 76.
53. Thomas and Quinn, "The Tuskegee Syphilis Study," 1499.
54. "The AIDS 'Plot' against Blacks," New York Times, 12 May 1992, A22.
55. Harlon L. Dalton, "AIDS in Blackface," Daedalus 118 (Summer 1989): 220-221.
56. Rhonda Bates-Rudd, "State Campaign Encourages African Americans to Offer Others Gift of Bone Marrow," Detroit News, 7 December 1995.
57. From September 1995 to December 1995, New York Undercover was the top-ranked show in Black households. It ranked 122nd in White households. David Zurawik, "Poll: TV's Race Gap Growing," Capital Times (Madison, Wis), 14 May 1996, 5D.
58. Transcript, "NBC Nightly News," 8 April 1997.
59. Patricia A. Turner, I Heard It through the Grapevine: Rumor in African-American Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).
60. "Fear Creates Lack of Donor Organs among Blacks," Weekend Edition, National Public Radio, 13 March 1994.
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