The paradox of terrorism in civil war

Journal of Ethics

Volumn 8, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 97-138

  Kalyvas, Stathis N ^a  

^a YALE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Civil war; Indiscriminate victimization; Non combatants; Terrorism; Violence

Indexed keywords

EID: 15944399139     PISSN: 13824554     EISSN: 15728609     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/B:JOET.0000012254.69088.41     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (270)

1. Alex P. Schmid, Political Terrorism: A Research Guide to Concepts, Theories, Data Bases, and Literature (Amsterdam: SWIDOC, 1983), pp. 97-99;
2. Andrew R. Molnar, Human Factors Considerations of Undergrounds in Insurgencies (Washington, DC: Special Operations Research Office, 1965), p. 169.
3. Jacques Sémelin, "Qu'est-ce qu'un crime de masse? Le cas de Γex-Yougoslavie," Critique Internationale 6 (2000), pp. 144-145;
4. Eugene V. Walter, Terror and Resistance (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969), p. 14.
5. Franklin E. Zimring and Gordon J. Hawkins, Deterrence: The Legal Threat in Crime Control (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1973), p. 139.
6. Helen Fein, Genocide: A Sociological Perspective (London: Sage, 1993), p. 21.
7. Walter, Terror and Resistance, p. 9.
8. Onora O'Neill, "Which Are the Offers You Can't Refuse?," in R. G. Frey and Christopher W. Morris (eds.), Violence, Terrorism, and Justice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. 172-173.
9. Walter argues that the administration of punishment and the process of terror often overlap because violent punishments do evoke fear and are often justified by their putative deterrent value (see Walter, Terror and Resistance, p. 23).
10. Quoted in Hugo Grotius, "On the Law of War and Peace & Pi;" 22:2, in De jure belli ac pads, trans. Francis W. Kelsey, with the collaboration of Arthur E. R. Boak, Henry A. Sanders, Jesse S. Reeves and Herbert F. Wright (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1925).
11. Norma Kriger, Zimbabwe's Guerrilla War: Peasant Voices (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 156.
12. Shaun Vincent, "The Mozambique Conflict (1980-1992)," in Michael Cranna (ed.), The True Cost of Conflict (New York: The New Press, 1994), p. 87.
13. Ponciano Del Pino H., "Family, Culture, and 'Revolution': Everyday Life with Sendero Luminoso," in Steve J. Stern (ed.), Shining and Other Paths: War and Society in Peru, 1980-1995 (Durham: Duke University Press, 1998), p. 168.
14. Jeffrey Race, War Comes to Long An: Revolutionary Conflict in a Vietnamese Province (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973), p. 135.
15. Diego Gambetta, The Sicilian Mafia: The Business of Private Protection (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993), p. 2.
16. Dave Grossman, On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1995), p. 207.
17. Michael J. Schroeder, " 'To Induce a Sense of Terror': Caudillio Politics and Political Violence in Northern Nicaragua, 1926-34 and 1981-95," in Bruce B. Campbell and Arthur D. Brenner (eds.), Death Squads in Global Perspective: Murder with Deniability (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000), p. 38.
18. Paul Richards, Fighting for the Rain Forest: War, Youth, and Resources in Sierra Leone (Oxford: James Currey, 1996), p. 181.
19. Jagath P. Senaratne, Political Violence in Sri Lanka, 1977-1990: Riots, Insurrections, Counterinsurgencies, Foreign Intervention (Amsterdam: VU University Press, 1997), p. 145.
20. O'Neill, "Which Are the Offers You Can't Refuse?," pp. 171-172.
21. " Molnar, Human Factors Considerations of Undergrounds in Insurgencies, p. 184.
22. Richards, Fighting for the Rain Forest: War, Youth, and Resources in Sierra Leone, p. 6;
23. Nathan Leites and Charles Wolf, Jr., Rebellion and Authority: An Analytic Essay on Insurgent Conflicts (Chicago: Markham, 1970), p. 106.
24. Quoted in D. M. Condit, Case Study in Guerrilla War: Greece during World War II (Washington, DC: Special Operations Research Office, The American University, 1961), pp. 265-266.
25. Ingrid Detter De Lupis, The Law of War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 255.
26. Michael Hechter, Principles of Group Solidarity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), p. 162.
27. Zimring and Hawkins, Deterrence: The Legal Threat in Crime Control, p. 75.
28. C. S. Kenny, Outlines of Criminal Law, Based on Lectures Delivered in the University of Cambridge, 13th edition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1929), p. 30.
29. Quoted in Zimring and Hawkins, Deterrence: The Legal Threat in Crime Control, p. 75.
30. Jack Katz, Seductions of Crime: A Chilling Exploration of the Criminal Mind -from Juvenile Delinquency to Cold-Blooded Murder (New York: Basic Books, 1988), pp. 12-51.
31. Zimring and Hawkins, Deterrence: The Legal Threat in Crime Control, p. 95.
32. William H. McNeill, The Greek Dilemma: War and Aftermath (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1947), p. 57.
33. Czeslaw Milosz, The Captive Mind (New York: Vintage, 1990), p. 90.
34. Walter, Terror and Resistance, pp. 25-26;
35. Thomas P. Thornton, "Terror as a Weapon of Political Agitation," in Harry Eckstein (ed.), Internal War: Problems and Approaches (New York: The Free Press, 1964), p. 81.
36. Linda Green, "Living in a State of Fear," in Carolyn Nordstrom and Antonius C. G. M. Robben (eds.), Fieldwork Under Fire: Contemporary Studies of Violence and Survival (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), p. 105.
37. R Skouras, A. Hadjidimos, A. Kaloutsis and G. Papadimitriou, I psichopathologia tis pinas, toufovou kai tou agxous: nevroseis kai psichonevroseis [The Psychopathology of Hunger, Fear, and Anxiety: Neuroses and Psychoneuroses] (Athens, 1947), pp. 124-136.
38. Lynn T. White III, Policies of Chaos: The Organizational Causes of Violence in China's Cultural Revolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), p. 328.
39. Mary McAuley, Soviet Politics, 1917-1991 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 50;
40. Barrington Moore, Terror and Progress: USSR (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1954), pp. 169-170.
41. Matthew Cooper, The Nazi War against Soviet Partisans, 1941-1944 (New York: Stein and Day, 1979), p. 27.
42. Raymond Aron, Peace and War (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1966), p. 170.
43. Jan T. Gross, Polish Society under German Occupation: The Generalgouvernement, 1939-1944 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979), p. 238.
44. Gross, Polish Society under German Occupation, p. 212.
45. Gross, Polish Society under German Occupation, p. 202.
46. Gross, Polish Society under German Occupation, pp. 234-235.
47. Julian Paget, Counter-Insurgency Operations: Techniques of Guerrilla Warfare (New York: Walker and Company, 1967), p. 110.
48. The only dissenting opinion seems to be Thornton's; however, I cannot follow his line of thought (see Thornton, "Terror as a Weapon of Political Agitation," p. 81).
49. Robert Thompson, Defeating Communist Insurgency (New York: Praeger, 1966), p. 25.
50. Quoted in Race, War Comes to Long An: Revolutionary Conflict in a Vietnamese Province, p. 238.
51. Ernesto Che Guevara, Guerrilla Warfare (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998), p. 91.
52. Timothy P. Wickham-Crowley, "Terror and Guerrilla Warfare in Latin America, 1956-1970," Comparative Studies in Society and History 32 (1990), p. 215.
53. Joseba Zulaika, Basque Violence: Metaphor and Sacrament (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1988), p. 85.
54. Eric Carlton, Massacres: An Historical Perspective (Aldershot: Scholar Press, 1994), p. 1.
55. Truman Anderson, "Incident at Baranivka: German Reprisals and the Soviet Partisan Movement in Ukraine, October-December 1941," The Journal of Modern History 71 (1999), p. 621.
56. Scott Wilson, "Fewer Massacres in Colombia, But More Deaths," Washington Post (24 June 2002), p. A15.
57. Thierry Leclere, "Cinq questions sur les massacres en Algérie," Télérama 21 (1998), pp. 6-7;
58. Stathis N. Kalyvas, "Wanton and Senseless? The Logic of Massacres in Algeria," Rationality and Society 11 (1999), pp. 243-285.
59. Green, "Living in a State of Fear," p. 114.
60. Shelton H. Davis, "Introduction: Sowing the Seeds of Violence," in Robert M. Carmack (ed.), Harvest of Violence: The Maya Indians and the Guatemalan Crisis (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988), p. 25.
61. The New York Times (15 March 1999), p. A6.
62. The New York Times (8 December 1999), p. Al.
63. Senaratne, Political Violence in Sri Lanka, 1977-1990, p. 146.
64. Surveys conducted in Vietnam found that refugees who moved away from their homes because of (indiscriminate) bombardment and ground military operations tended to associate these actions with the incumbent regime, while refugees who moved because of (selective) terror and coercion tended to associate them with the insurgents. See Louis A. Wiesner, Victims and Survivors: Displaced Persons and Other War Victims in Vietnam, 1954-1975 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1988), p. 111.
65. See also Jonathan Spencer, "On Not Becoming a 'Terrorist': Problems of Memory, Agency, and Community in the Sri Lankan Conflict," in Veena Das, Arthur Kleinman, Mamphela Ramphele and Pamela Reynolds (eds.), Violence and Subjectivity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), p. 131;
66. Thomas H. Henriksen, Revolution and Counterrevolution: Mozambique's War of Independence, 1964-1974 (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1983), p. 118.
67. " Unaware of its own irony, a U.S. report in Vietnam pointed out that "areas cannot be pacified if there are no people living in them" (quoted in Wiesner, Victims and Survivors, p. 113).
68. Carlos Iván Degregori, "Harvesting Storms: Peasant Rondas and the Defeat of Sendero Luminoso in Ayacucho," in Steve J. Stern (ed.), Shining and Other Paths: War and Society in Peru, 1980-1995 (Durham: Duke University Press, 1998), pp. 143-144.
69. Robert Cribb, Gangsters and Revolutionaries: The Jakarta People's Militia and the Indonesian Revolution, 1945-1949 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1991), p. 151.
70. Schroeder, " 'To Induce a Sense of Terror': Caudillio Politics and Political Violence in Northern Nicaragua, 1926-34 and 1981-95," p. 39.
71. Brian McAllister Linn, The U.S. Army and Counterinsurgency in the Philippine War, 1899-1902 (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1989), p. 139.
72. Quoted in Linn, The U.S. Army and Counterinsurgency in the Philippine War, 1899-1902, p. 160.
73. Leites and Wolf, Rebellion and Authority: An Analytic Essay on Insurgent Conflicts, p. 109.
74. Fred H. Barton, Salient Operational Aspects of Paramilitary Warfare in Three Asian Areas (ORO-T-228. Chevy Chase: Operations Research Office, 1953), p. 138.
75. Wickham-Crowley, "Terror and Guerrilla Warfare in Latin America, 1956-1970," pp. 216-217.
76. Scott Peterson, Me against My Brother. At War in Somalia, Sudan, and Rwanda: A Journalistic Report from the Battlefields of Africa (New York: Routledge, 2000), p. 220;
77. Del Pino, "Family, Culture, and 'Revolution': Everyday Life with Sendero Luminoso," pp. 163-164, 172;
78. Richards, Fighting for the Rain Forest: War, Youth, and Resources in Sierra Leone, p. 181;
79. Wiesner, Victims and Survivors, pp. 58, 123;
80. Michael Fellman, Inside War: The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri during the American Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 25;
81. R J. West, Jr., The Village (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1985), p. 272;
82. Cheah Boon Kheng, Red Star Over Malaya: Resistance and Social Conflict during and after the Japanese Occupation of Malaya, 1941-1946 (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1983), p. 65;
83. Paget, Counter-Insurgency Operation, pp. 93-94;
84. Thompson, Defeating Communist Insurgency, pp. 25-27.
85. Kalyvas, "Wanton and Senseless? The Logic of Massacres in Algeria." Richard L. Clutterbuck, The Long War: Counterinsurgency in Malaya and Vietnam (New York: Praeger, 1966), p. 63.
86. Del Pino, "Family, Culture, and 'Revolution': Rveryday Life with Sendero Luminoso," p. 189.
87. In secessionist wars, ethnic insurgents may use indiscriminate violence in the initial stages of the conflict against ethnic others so as to drive them off the territory they seek to control (e.g., Senaratne, Political Violence in Sri Lanka, 1977-1990, p. 88). Here the goal of violence is not civilian compliance. Once this goal is achieved, ethnic insurgents often turn to selective violence against their co-ethnics, especially if incumbents adopt strategies of cooptation.
88. In Waldemar Lotnik's account of the Polish-Ukrainian war in 1943-1944, massacres of villagers targeted primarily the rival group. A former Polish partisan, Lotnik recalls his officer's talk on the eve of one of the first massacres: "Don't burn, don't loot. Just shoot young, able-bodied men. If anyone resists, make sure you shoot him before he shoots you. We have to teach them that they cannot take out selected Polish citizens and kill and torture them. We must teach them that they can't get away with that" [see Waldemar Lotnik, Nine Lives: Ethnic Conflict in the Polish-Ukrainian Borderlands (London: Serif, 1999), p. 65].
89. Quoted in Roger Dupuy, Les chouans (Paris: Hachette, 1997), pp. 158-159.
90. Phillip Shaw Paludan, Victims: A True Story of the Civil War (Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, 1981), p. 43.
91. Quoted in Stephen V. Ash, Middle Tennessee Society Transformed, 1860-1870: War and Peace in the Upper South (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1988), p. 156.
92. Quoted in Fellman, Inside War: The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri during the American Civil War, p. 201.
93. Quoted in Nikos I. Zervis, / Germaniki katochi sti Messinia [The German Occupation in Messinia] (Kalamata, 1998), p. 179.
94. Otto Heilbrunn, Partisan Warfare (New York: Praeger, 1967), p. 150.
95. E.g., George J. Andreopoulos, "The Age of National Liberation Movements," in Michael Howard, George J. Andreopoulos and Mark R. Shulman (eds.), The Laws of War: Constraints on Warfare in the Western World (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994), p. 196;
96. O'Neill, "Which Are the Offers You Can't Refuse?," p. 80;
97. Molnar, Human Factors Considerations of Undergrounds in Insurgencies, p. 117.
98. Gracchus Babeuf, La guerre de la vendée et le systéme de dépopulation, eds. Reynald Secher and Jean-Joël Brégeon (Paris: Tallandier, 1987), p. 119.
99. Heilbrunn, Partisan Warfare, p. 152.
100. Henriksen, Revolution and Counterrevolution: Mozambique's War of Independence, 1964-1974, pp. 128-129.
101. James S. Coleman, Foundations of Social Theory (Cambridge: The Belknap Press, 1990), p. 501.
102. Race, War Comes to Long An: Revolutionary Conflict in a Vietnamese Province, p. 172.
103. Timothy P. Wickham-Crowley, Guerrillas and Revolution in Latin America: A Comparative Study of Insurgents and Regimes Since 1956 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), p. 139.
104. T. David Mason and Dale A. Krane, "The Political Economy of Death Squads: Toward a Theory of the Impact of State-Sanctionned Terror," International Studies Quarterly 33 (1989), p. 176.
105. Truman Anderson, The Conduct of Reprisals by the German Army of Occupation in the Southern USSR, 1941-1943, Volume 1 (Ph.D. Dissertation, The University of Chicago, 1995), p. 43.
106. Hannah Arendt, On Violence (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1970), p. 56.
107. Paul Aussaresses, Services spéciaux. Algérie 1955-1957 (Paris: Perrin, 2001), p. 62;
108. Senaratne, Political Violence in Sri Lanka, 1977-1990, p. 95;
109. Carl Schmitt, Théorie du partisan (Paris: Flammarion, 1992), p. 280. International sympathy caused by atrocities provides an additional benefit for insurgents.
110. Asimakis Giousas, Aris Velouhiotis kai to matomeno Krikelo [Aris Velouchiotis and bloody Krikelo] (Athens, 1972), p. 125.
111. Condit, Case Study in Guerrilla War: Greece during World War II, p. 268.
112. German field commanders in occupied Greece ended up realizing that indiscriminate killing did not work. For example, after some reprisal executions, a German announcement to the local population remarked that warnings "had been taken seriously only by a few of you" (Zervis, I Germaniki katochi sti Messinia, p. 149). According to historians of the German occupation in Greece, reprisals in Greece produced only locally limited aftereffects of intimidation.
113. Christopher R. Browning, "Germans and Serbs: The Emergence of Nazi Antipartisan Policies in 1941," in Michael Berenbaum (ed.), A Mosaic of Victims: Non-Jews Persecuted and Murdered by the Nazis (New York: New York University Press, 1990), p. 68.
114. Mark Mazower, Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century (London: Allen Lane, 1998), p. 179;
115. Ben Shepherd, "Hawks, Doves and Tote Zonen: A Wehrmacht Security Division in Central Russia, 1943," Journal of Contemporary History 37 (2002), pp. 349-369;
116. Lotnik, Nine Lives: Ethnic Conflict in the Polish-Ukrainian Borderlands, p. 87;
117. Jonathan E. Gumz, "Wehrmacht Perceptions of Mass Violence in Croatia, 1941-1942," The Historical Journal 44 (2001), pp. 1015-1038;
118. Marco Minardi, "War in the Mountains: Community Ties and Civil War in Central Italy," Presented in the Workshop on Civil Wars and Political Violence in 20th Century Europe (European University Institute, Florence 18-20 April 2002), p. 8;
119. H. R. Kedward, In Search of the Maquis: Rural Resistance in Southern France 1942-1944 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 190;
120. Lincoln Li, The Japanese Army in North China, 1937-1941: Problems of Political and Economic Control (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 209-210 and 231;
121. Benedict J. Kerkvliet, The Huk Rebellion: A Study of Peasant Revolt in the Philippines (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977), p. 68;
122. Kheng, Red Star over Malaya: Resistance and Social Conflict during and after the Japanese Occupation of Malaya, 1941-1946;
123. Shelby Tucker, Among the Insurgents: Walking through Burma (London: Flamingo, 2001);
124. Stuart A. Herrington, Stalking the Vietcong: Inside Operation Phoenix: A Personal Account (Novato: Presidio Press, 1997), p. 21.
125. Robert M. Carmack, "The Story of Santa Cruz Quiche," in Robert M. Carmack (ed.), Harvest of Violence: The Maya Indians and the Guatemalan Crisis (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988), pp. 54-55.
126. James W. Trullinger, Village at War: An Account of Conflict in Vietnam (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994), p. 85.
127. Wickham-Crowley, "Terror and Guerrilla Warfare in Latin America, 1956-1970," p. 234.
128. For similar observations see Stathis N. Kalyvas, The Logic of Violence in Civil War (in progress).
129. Niccoló Machiavelli, The Prince, trans. George Bull (London: Penguin, 2003), p. 19.
130. E.g., Wiesner, Victims and Survivors, p. 366.
131. Kay B. Warren, Indigenous Movements and Their Critics: Pan-Maya Activism in Guatemala (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), p. 109.
132. J. F. A. Le Mière de Corvey, quoted in Walter Laqueur, Guerrilla Warfare: A Historical and Critical Study (New Brunswick: Transaction, 1998), p. 113.
133. Jeffrey J. Crow, "Liberty Men and Loyalists: Disorder and Disaffection in the North Carolina Backcountry," in Ronald Hoffman, Thad W. Tate and Peter J. Albert (eds.), An Uncivil War: The Southern Backcountry during the American Revolution (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1985), p. 145.
134. Wickham-Crowley, "Terror and Guerrilla Warfare in Latin America, 1956-1970," p. 235;
135. Thompson, Defeating Communist Insurgency, p. 35.
136. Condit, Case Study in Guerrilla War: Greece during World War II, p. 268.
137. John A. Armstrong, "Introduction," in John A. Armstrong (ed.), Soviet Partisans in World War II (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1964), p. 40.
138. Donald Barnett and Karari Njama, Mau Mau from Within: Autobiography and Analysis of Kenya's Peasant Revolt (Letchworth: MacGibbon and Kee, 1966), p. 130.
139. Minardi, "War in the Mountains: Community Ties and Civil War in Central Italy," p. 6.
140. Quoted in Wiesner, Victims and Survivors, p. 115.
141. Mark Moyar, Phoenix and the Birds of Prey: The CIA's Secret Campaign to Destroy the Viet Cong (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1997), p. 69.
142. E.g., Giovanni Contini, La memoria divisa (Milano: Rizzoli, 1997).
143. Race, War Comes to Long An: Revolutionary Conflict in a Vietnamese Province, p. 134.
144. Kedward, In Search of the Maquis: Rural Resistance in Southern France, 1942-1944, p. 181.
145. Hechter, Principles of Group Solidarity, p. 151.
146. Leites and Wolf, Rebellion and Authority: An Analytic Essay on Insurgent Conflicts, p. 109.
147. Mark Irving Lichbach, "Deterrence or Escalation? The Puzzle of Aggregate Studies of Repression and Dissent," The Journal of Conflict Resolution 31 (1987), p. 287.
148. Capriciousness may be useful, argue Leites and Wolf, but it should be used consistently and sparingly (Leites and Wolf, Rebellion and Authority: An Analytic Essay on Insurgent Conflicts, p. 99). A counterpoint is made by De Swaan who argues that totalitarian regimes never exactly specify a detailed schedule of compliance [Abram De Swaan, "Terror as Government Service," in M. Hoefnagels (ed.), Repression and Repressive Violence (Amsterdam: Swets and Zeitlinger, 1977)].
149. Wiesner, Victims and Survivors, p. 128.
150. Neil Sheehan, A Bright Shining Lie: John Paul Vann and America in Vietnam (New York: Vintage, 1989), p. 115.
151. Quoted in Anderson, "Incident at Baranivka," p. 610.
152. Zervis, / Germaniki katochi sti Messinia, p. 221.
153. Siddiq Salik, Witness to Surrender (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1978), p. 105.
154. Thompson, Defeating Communist Insurgency, pp. 114-117.
155. Michalis Papakonstantinou, To chroniko tis megalis nichtas [The Chronicle of the Long Night] (Athens: Estia, 1999), p. 313.
156. Thanasis Svolos, Andartis sta vouna tou moria. Odoiporiko (1947-49) [Guerrilla in the Mountains of Morias: A Journey (1947-49)] (Athens, 1990), p. 22.
157. Bruce J. Calder, The Impact of Intervention: The Dominican Republic during the U.S. Occupation of 1916-1924 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1984), p. 154.
158. David Stoll, Between Two Armies: In the Ixil Towns of Guatemala (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), p. 120.
159. Odoric Y. K. Wou, Mobilizing the Masses: Building Revolution in Henan (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994), p. 231.
160. Timothy P. Wickham-Crowley, Exploring Revolution: Essays on Latin American Insurgency and Revolutionary Theory (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1991), p. 43.
161. Kedward, In Search of the Maquis: Rural Resistance in Southern France 1942-1944, p. 190.
162. Carlos Rafael Cabarrús, Génesis de una revolución: análisis del surgimiento y desarrollo de la organización campesina en El Salvador [Genesis of a Revolution: Analysis of the Emergence and Development of the Peasant Organization in El Salvador] (Hidalgo: Ediciones de la Casa Chata, 1983), p. 195.
163. Thomas M. McKenna, Muslim Rulers and Rebels: Everyday Politics and Armed Separatism in the Southern Philippines (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), p. 183.
164. On this point, see Stoll, Between Two Armies: In the Ixil Towns of Guatemala, p. 20;
165. and Davis, "Introduction: Sowing the Seeds of Violence," p. 23.
166. Quoted in Olav Riste and Berit Nökleby, Norway 1940-1945 (Oslo: Johan Grundt Tanum Forlag, 1973), pp. 68-69. The same logic appears to have led the Cetnik guerrillas in occupied Yugoslavia to tone down their activity.
167. E.g., Beppe Fenoglio, La guerre sur les collines [The War in the Hills] (Paris: Galimard, 1973), pp. 166-167.
168. Roger Petersen recounts similar incidents in the Lithuanian village of Samogitia during the guerrilla war against the Soviet regime right after the end of WWII [Roger Pertersen, Resistance and Rebellion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), pp. 196-197;
169. Kalyvas, The Logic of Violence in Civil War].
170. Tzvetan Todorov, A French Tragedy: Scenes of Civil War, Summer 1944 (Hanover: University Press of New England, 1996), p. 72.
171. As one of the inhabitants of the Saint-Amand put it after the maquisards fled the town: "On June 7, the maquis ordered the rounds of drinks and, on June 8, it left us the job of paying the check" (Todorov, A French Tragedy: Scenes of Civil War, Summer 1944, pp. 42-43).
172. For other cases of civilians blaming the rebels for having provoked incumbent reprisal violence, see Kalyvas, The Logic of Violence in Civil War.
173. Michael Fellman, Inside War: The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri during the American Civil War, pp. 35-36.
174. Quoted in Richard Stubbs, Hearts and Minds in Guerrilla Warfare: The Malayan Emergency 1948-1960 (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 73.
175. Quoted in Alexander De Waal, Evil Days: Thirty Years of War and Famine in Ethiopia (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1991), p. 123.
176. Jeffrey A. Sluka, Hearts and Minds, Water and Fish: Support for the IRA and INLA in a Northern Irish Ghetto (Greenwich: JAI press, 1989), pp. 288-289, 300.
177. Babeuf, La guerre de la Vendée et le système de dépopulation [The War of the Vendée and the System of Depopulation], in Reynald Secher and Jean-Joël Brégeon (eds.), p. 120.
178. Dupuy, Les Chouans, p. 40.
179. Peter Loizos, "Intercommunal Killing in Cyprus," Man 23 (1988), p. 650.
180. Leonardo Paggi, Storia e memoria di un massacro ordinario [History and Memory of an Ordinary Massacre] (Rome: Manifestolibri, 1996).
181. Hugh H. Gardner, Guerrilla and Counterguerrilla Warfare in Greece, 1941-1945 (Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the U.S. Army, 1962), p. 154.
182. James D. Henderson, When Colombia Bled: A History of the Vwlencia in Tolima (Birmingham: The University of Alabama Press, 1985), pp. 150-152.
183. West also noted the surprising absence of reaction to this pattern: "no one asked why the VC had singled them out" (see West, The Village, p. 273).
184. "Once Fertile Valley Left Arid by Taliban," The New York Times (7 January 2002), p.A9.
185. Rana Mitter, The Manchurian Myth: Nationalism, Resistance, and Collaboration in Modern China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), p. 180.
186. E.g., Patrick McGrath, "Bristol and the Civil War," in R.C. Richardson (ed.), The English Civil Wars: Local Aspects (Phoenix Mill: Sutton, 1997), p. 112.
187. Claudio Pavone, Una guerra civile: saggio storico sulla moralità nella resistenza [A Civil War: A Historical Essay on the Morality in the Resistance] (Turin: Bollati Boringhieri, 1994), p. 481.
188. Grossman, On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society, p. 179.
189. Quoted in Warren, Indigenous Movements and Their Critics: Pan-Maya Activism in1 Guatemala, p. 100.
190. Paludan, Victims: A True Story of the Civil War, p. 94;
191. Li, The Japanese Army in North China, 1937-1941, p. 232.
192. Robert M. Weir, " 'The Violent Spirit,' the Reestablishment of Order, and the Continuity of Leadership in Post-Revolutionary South Carolina," in Ronald Hoffman, Thad W. Tate, and Peter J. Albert (eds.), An Uncivil War: The Southern Backcountry during the American Revolution (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1985), p. 74.
193. Fellman, Inside War: The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri during the American Civil War, p. 128.
194. John Mueller, "The Banality of 'Ethnic War,'" International Security 25 (2000), pp. 42-70;
195. Katz, Seductions of Crime: A Chilling Exploration of the Criminal Mind-from Juvenile Delinquency to Cold-blooded Murder;
196. Leites and Wolf, Rebellion and Authority: An Analytic Essay on Insurgent Conflicts, pp. 92-94.
197. Fellman, Inside War: The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri during the American Civil War, pp. 176-184.
198. Ken Flower, Serving Secretly: An Intelligence Chief on Record; Rhodesia Into Zimbabwe, 1964-1981 (London: John Murray, 1987), p. 124.
199. Henriksen, Revolution and Counterrevolution: Mozambique's War of Independence, 1964-1974, p. 129.
200. De Waal, Evil Days: Thirty Years of War and Famine in Ethiopia, p. 43.
201. Fellman, Inside War: The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri during the American Civil War, p. 32.
202. Moyar, Phoenix and the Birds of Prey: The CIA's Secret Campaign to Destroy the Viet Cong, p. 98.
203. Quoted in Alessandro Portelli, The Battle of Valle Giulia: Oral History and the Art of Dialogue (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1997), p. 139.
204. Thompson, Defeating Communist Insurgency, p. 84.
205. West, The Village, p. 256.
206. Quoted in Thomas C. Thayer, War without Fronts: The American Experience in Vietnam (Boulder: Westview Press, 1985), p. 5.
207. Thompson, Defeating Communist Insurgency, p. 84.
208. Thayer, War without Fronts: The American Experience in Vietnam, p. 4.
209. Race, War Comes to Long An: Revolutionary Conflict in a Vietnamese Province, p. 227.
210. John P. Cann, Counterinsurgency in Africa: The Portuguese Way of War, 1961-1974 (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1997), p. 63.
211. Sam C. Sarkesian, "The American Response to Low-Intensity Conflict: The Formative Period," in David A. Charters and Maurice Tugwell (eds.), Armies in Low-Intensity Conflicts: A Comparative Analysis (London: Brassey's Defense Publishers, 1989), pp. 44-45.
212. Paget, Counter-Insurgency Operation, p. 31;
213. Richard Duncan Downie, Learning from Conflict: The U.S. Military in Vietnam, El Salvador, and the Drug War (Westport: Praeger, 1998), p. 133.
214. It appears that the lessons learned in Korea went unheeded in Vietnam, and so did the Vietnam lessons in Central America [see Amrom Katz, "An Approach to Future Wars of National Liberation," in Sam C. Sarkesian (ed.), Revolutionary Guerrilla Warfare (Chicago: Precedent Publishing, 1975), p. 589].
215. Mason and Krane, "The Political Economy of Death Squads: Toward a Theory of the Impact of State-Sanctionned Terror," International Studies Quarterly 33 (1989), pp. 175-198;
216. Douglas S. Blaufarb and George K. Tanham, Who Will Win? A Key to the Puzzle of Revolutionary War (New York: Crane Russak, 1989), p. 19.
217. Hannes Heer and Klaus Naumann (eds.), War of Extermination: The German Military in World War II, 1941-1944 (New York: Berghahn Books, 2000).
218. Sheehan, A Bright Shining Lie: John Paul Vann and America in Vietnam, p. 110.
219. Julio de la Cueva, "Religious Persecution, Anticlerical Tradition, and Revolution: On Atrocities against the Clergy during the Spanish Civil War," Journal of Contemporary History 33 (1998), p. 360.
220. Quoted in Condit, Case Study in Guerrilla War: Greece during World War II, p. 268.
221. Alan Berlow, Dead Season: A Story of Murder and Revenge (New York: Vintage, 1998), p. 180.
222. "Guerrillas may initiate acts of violence in communities that are earnestly cooperating in order to provoke unjust retaliation against these communities. Unjust or misplaced punishment at the hands of the occupying force is vigorously exploited by the guerrillas to gain sympathizers and strengthen their own cause" (United States Department of Defense, FM 31-20, "Operations Against Guerrilla Forces," quoted in Barton, Salient Operational Aspects of Paramilitary Warfare in Three Asian Areas, p. 3).
223. E.g., A. Thomas Ferguson, Jr., "Sources for the Study of Revolutionary Guerrilla Warfare," in Sam C. Sarkesian (ed.), Revolutionary Guerrilla Warfare (Chicago: Precedent Publishing, 1975), pp. 617-623;
224. Adrian H. Jones and Andrew R. Molnar, Internal Defense against Insurgency: Six Cases (Washington, DC: Center for Research in Social Systems, 1966).
225. Michael R Brown and Rduardo Fernandez War of Shadows: The Struggle for Utopia in the Peruvian Amazon (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), pp. 111-204.
226. Wiesner, Victims and Survivors, pp. 122-123.
227. Quoted in Michael Bilton and Kevin Sim, Four Hours in My Lai (New York: Penguin, 1992), p. 40.
228. Surprising as it may seem, the military often quantifies this cost. For example, the estimated cost of killing a single rebel in Kenya was £10,000, in Malaya it exceeded $200,000, while in Vietnam it reached $373,000 (Laqueur, Guerrilla Warfare: A Historical and Critical Study, p. 379;
229. Paget, Counter-Insurgency Operation, p. 101).
230. Berlow, Dead Season: A Story of Murder and Revenge, p. 180.
231. Quoted in Cooper, The Nazi War against Soviet Partisans, 1941-1944, p. 143.
232. Cooper, The Nazi War against Soviet Partisans, 1941-1944, pp. 143, 153.
233. Sheehan, A Bright Shining Lie: John Paul Vann and America in Vietnam.
234. The South Vietnamese also used selective violence in the early 1960s - especially before the conflict escalated into a full-fledged war (Molnar, Human Factors Considerations of Undergrounds in Insurgencies, p. 184). However, selective violence remained quite marginal in the overall scheme of incumbent violence - until years later.
235. " Bernard B. Fall, "Vietnam Blitz: A Report on the Impersonal War," in Reporting Vietnam: American Journalism 1959-1975 (New York: The Library of America, 2000), p. 110.
236. Sheehan, A Bright Shining Lie: John Paul Vann and America in Vietnam, p. 109.
237. Robert Taber, The War of the Flea: A Study of Guerrilla Warfare Theory and Practice (New York: Lyle Stuart, 1965), p. 95.
238. Sheehan, A Bright Shining Lie: John Paul Vann and America in Vietnam, p. 619.
239. Sheehan, A Bright Shining Lie: John Paul Vann and America in Vietnam, p. 650.
240. A Lieutenant colonel in Vietnam pointed out: "The day I got there, that man [his predecessor] was leaving. He had his hat and coat on, threw me the key and said, 'There's the shack. Good Luck. Every day is different around here.' That's all the training I had." Quoted in Katz, "An Approach to Future Wars of National Liberation," p. 591.
241. The South Vietnamese regime encouraged this misallocation of military resources because it was unwilling to commit the South Vietnamese military to a full-fledged war; it was primarily concerned instead with preserving its elite troops to protect itself from a coup - as opposed to wasting it in fighting the war. In turn, this calculation could only be sustained because of the perverse effect of the U.S. involvement in Vietnam: the South Vietnamese government assumed that the U.S., as the preeminent power in the world, could not afford to let their anti-Communist government fall to Vietcong.
242. Quoted in Charles Tilly, The Vendée (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1964), p. 338.
243. Salik, Witness to Surrender, p. 117.
244. Lichbach, "Deterrence or Escalation? The Puzzle of Aggregate Studies of Repression and Dissent," p. 297.
245. Linn, The U.S. Army and Counterinsurgency in the Philippine War, 1899-1902, pp. 56-58.
246. Degregori, "Harvesting Storms: Peasant Rondas and the Defeat of Sendero Luminoso in Ayacucho," p. 141.
247. John M. Watanabe, Maya Saints and Souls in a Changing World (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1992), p. 181.
248. Stoll, Between Two Armies: In the Ixil Towns of Guatemala, p. 6.
249. Condit, Case Study in Guerrilla War: Greece during World War II, pp. 265-266.
250. Svolos, Andartis sta vouna tou Moria. Odoiporiko (1947-49), p. 25.
251. Heilbrunn, Partisan Warfare, p. 147.
252. Apparently, the Germans also changed their treatment of the partisans they captured: "They had learned by bitter experience that harshness stiffened partisan resistance and that if anything could weaken it, it was the more lenient treatment of partisan prisoners" (Heilbrunn, Partisan Warfare, pp. 148 and 151).
253. According to a German report: "The aim must be: The peasants themselves should defend their property against the band, in which task they can be supplied by us with weapons and technical help, if they have proved their reliability" (quoted in Cooper, The Nazi War against Soviet Partisans, 1941-1944, p. 107).
254. Alexander Dallin, Ralph Mavrogordato and Wilhelm Moll, "Partisan Psychological Warfare and Popular Attitudes," in John A. Armstrong (ed.), Soviet Partisans in World War II(Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1964), pp. 327-333.
255. Laqueur, Guerrilla Warfare: A Historical and Critical Study, p. 209.
256. Li, The Japanese Army in North China, 1937-1941, pp. 204-209.
257. Sam Adams, War of Numbers: An Intelligence Memoir (South Royalton: Steerforth Press, 1994), p. 178.
258. Herrington, Stalking the Vietcong, p. 69.
259. Moyar, Phoenix and the Birds of Prey, p. 146.
260. Moyar, Phoenix and the Birds of Prey, pp. 298-318.
261. Christian Geffray, La cause des armes au Mozambique: anthropologie d'une guerre civile [The Causes of Conflict in Mozambique: Anthropology of a Civil War] (Paris: Karthala, 1990).
262. Michael R. Gordon, "Chechens Say They Were Shot at in Safe Corridor," The New York Times (17 December 1999), p. Al.
263. The Economist (22 March 2003), p. 46.
264. For more evidence, see Kalyvas, The Logic of Violence in Civil War.
265. Wou, Mobilizing the Masses: Building Revolution in Henan, pp. 123, 142.
266. Patricia E. Griffin, The Chinese Communist Treatment of Counterrevolutionaries: 1924-1949 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976), pp. 93-94, 146.
267. Laqueur, Guerrilla Warfare: A Historical and Critical Study, p. 290;
268. Thompson, Defeating Communist Insurgency, p. 25.
269. Race, War Comes to Long An: Revolutionary Conflict in a Vietnamese Province, p. 189;
270. Fall, "Vietnam Blitz: A Report on the Impersonal War," p. 111.