Trust and leadership

Political Science

Volumn 56, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 27-38

  Gomibuchi, Seishi ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Followers; Leadership change; New Zealand Labour Party; Trust

Indexed keywords

EID: 15544381400     PISSN: 00323187     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/003231870405600205     Document Type: Article

References (63)

1. See, for example, Warren G. Bennis, On Becoming a Leader: the Leadership Classic, rev. ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Perseus, 2003); John W. Gardner, On Leadership (New York: The Free Press, 1990); James David Barber, The Presidential Character: Predicting Performance in the White House, fourth ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1992); James P. Pfiffner, The Character Factor: How We Judge America's Presidents (Texas: Texas A&M University Press, 2004); and Stanley A. Renshon, The Psychological Assessment of Presidential Candidates (New York: New York University Press, 1996). The notable work on the characters of New Zealand Prime Ministers includes John Henderson, 'Labour's Prime Ministers and the Party: a Study of Contrasting Political Styles', in Margaret Clark (ed.) The Labour Party After 75 Years (Victoria University of Wellington Department of Politics, Occasional Publication no. 4, Wellington: Department of Politics, Victoria University of Wellington, 1992) and Jon Johansson, 'Muldoon and Character', in Margaret Clark (ed.) Muldoon Revisited (Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 2004), pp. 269-86.
2. See, for example, Warren G. Bennis, On Becoming a Leader: the Leadership Classic, rev. ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Perseus, 2003); John W. Gardner, On Leadership (New York: The Free Press, 1990); James David Barber, The Presidential Character: Predicting Performance in the White House, fourth ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1992); James P. Pfiffner, The Character Factor: How We Judge America's Presidents (Texas: Texas A&M University Press, 2004); and Stanley A. Renshon, The Psychological Assessment of Presidential Candidates (New York: New York University Press, 1996). The notable work on the characters of New Zealand Prime Ministers includes John Henderson, 'Labour's Prime Ministers and the Party: a Study of Contrasting Political Styles', in Margaret Clark (ed.) The Labour Party After 75 Years (Victoria University of Wellington Department of Politics, Occasional Publication no. 4, Wellington: Department of Politics, Victoria University of Wellington, 1992) and Jon Johansson, 'Muldoon and Character', in Margaret Clark (ed.) Muldoon Revisited (Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 2004), pp. 269-86.
3. See, for example, Warren G. Bennis, On Becoming a Leader: the Leadership Classic, rev. ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Perseus, 2003); John W. Gardner, On Leadership (New York: The Free Press, 1990); James David Barber, The Presidential Character: Predicting Performance in the White House, fourth ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1992); James P. Pfiffner, The Character Factor: How We Judge America's Presidents (Texas: Texas A&M University Press, 2004); and Stanley A. Renshon, The Psychological Assessment of Presidential Candidates (New York: New York University Press, 1996). The notable work on the characters of New Zealand Prime Ministers includes John Henderson, 'Labour's Prime Ministers and the Party: a Study of Contrasting Political Styles', in Margaret Clark (ed.) The Labour Party After 75 Years (Victoria University of Wellington Department of Politics, Occasional Publication no. 4, Wellington: Department of Politics, Victoria University of Wellington, 1992) and Jon Johansson, 'Muldoon and Character', in Margaret Clark (ed.) Muldoon Revisited (Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 2004), pp. 269-86.
4. See, for example, Warren G. Bennis, On Becoming a Leader: the Leadership Classic, rev. ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Perseus, 2003); John W. Gardner, On Leadership (New York: The Free Press, 1990); James David Barber, The Presidential Character: Predicting Performance in the White House, fourth ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1992); James P. Pfiffner, The Character Factor: How We Judge America's Presidents (Texas: Texas A&M University Press, 2004); and Stanley A. Renshon, The Psychological Assessment of Presidential Candidates (New York: New York University Press, 1996). The notable work on the characters of New Zealand Prime Ministers includes John Henderson, 'Labour's Prime Ministers and the Party: a Study of Contrasting Political Styles', in Margaret Clark (ed.) The Labour Party After 75 Years (Victoria University of Wellington Department of Politics, Occasional Publication no. 4, Wellington: Department of Politics, Victoria University of Wellington, 1992) and Jon Johansson, 'Muldoon and Character', in Margaret Clark (ed.) Muldoon Revisited (Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 2004), pp. 269-86.
5. See, for example, Warren G. Bennis, On Becoming a Leader: the Leadership Classic, rev. ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Perseus, 2003); John W. Gardner, On Leadership (New York: The Free Press, 1990); James David Barber, The Presidential Character: Predicting Performance in the White House, fourth ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1992); James P. Pfiffner, The Character Factor: How We Judge America's Presidents (Texas: Texas A&M University Press, 2004); and Stanley A. Renshon, The Psychological Assessment of Presidential Candidates (New York: New York University Press, 1996). The notable work on the characters of New Zealand Prime Ministers includes John Henderson, 'Labour's Prime Ministers and the Party: a Study of Contrasting Political Styles', in Margaret Clark (ed.) The Labour Party After 75 Years (Victoria University of Wellington Department of Politics, Occasional Publication no. 4, Wellington: Department of Politics, Victoria University of Wellington, 1992) and Jon Johansson, 'Muldoon and Character', in Margaret Clark (ed.) Muldoon Revisited (Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 2004), pp. 269-86.
6. See, for example, Warren G. Bennis, On Becoming a Leader: the Leadership Classic, rev. ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Perseus, 2003); John W. Gardner, On Leadership (New York: The Free Press, 1990); James David Barber, The Presidential Character: Predicting Performance in the White House, fourth ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1992); James P. Pfiffner, The Character Factor: How We Judge America's Presidents (Texas: Texas A&M University Press, 2004); and Stanley A. Renshon, The Psychological Assessment of Presidential Candidates (New York: New York University Press, 1996). The notable work on the characters of New Zealand Prime Ministers includes John Henderson, 'Labour's Prime Ministers and the Party: a Study of Contrasting Political Styles', in Margaret Clark (ed.) The Labour Party After 75 Years (Victoria University of Wellington Department of Politics, Occasional Publication no. 4, Wellington: Department of Politics, Victoria University of Wellington, 1992) and Jon Johansson, 'Muldoon and Character', in Margaret Clark (ed.) Muldoon Revisited (Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 2004), pp. 269-86.
7. See, for example, Warren G. Bennis, On Becoming a Leader: the Leadership Classic, rev. ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Perseus, 2003); John W. Gardner, On Leadership (New York: The Free Press, 1990); James David Barber, The Presidential Character: Predicting Performance in the White House, fourth ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1992); James P. Pfiffner, The Character Factor: How We Judge America's Presidents (Texas: Texas A&M University Press, 2004); and Stanley A. Renshon, The Psychological Assessment of Presidential Candidates (New York: New York University Press, 1996). The notable work on the characters of New Zealand Prime Ministers includes John Henderson, 'Labour's Prime Ministers and the Party: a Study of Contrasting Political Styles', in Margaret Clark (ed.) The Labour Party After 75 Years (Victoria University of Wellington Department of Politics, Occasional Publication no. 4, Wellington: Department of Politics, Victoria University of Wellington, 1992) and Jon Johansson, 'Muldoon and Character', in Margaret Clark (ed.) Muldoon Revisited (Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 2004), pp. 269-86.
8. For a comprehensive review of studies on trust in leadership, see Kurt T. Dirks and Donald L. Ferrin, 'Trust in Leadership: Meta-analytic Findings and Implications for Research and Practice', Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 87, No. 4, (August 2002), pp. 611-28.
9. e.g. Pfiffner, The Character Factor; Stanley A. Renshon, 'Political Leadership as Social Capital: Governing in a Divided National Culture', Political Psychology, Vol. 21, No. 1, (March 2000), pp. 199-226.
10. e.g. Pfiffner, The Character Factor; Stanley A. Renshon, 'Political Leadership as Social Capital: Governing in a Divided National Culture', Political Psychology, Vol. 21, No. 1, (March 2000), pp. 199-226.
11. Notable exceptions include studies on the relationship between the perceived levels of trust and voting behaviour. See, for example, Rajnandini Pillai, Ethlyn A. Williams, Kevin B. Lowe, and Dong I. Jung, 'Personality, Transformational Leadership, Trust, and the 2000 U.S. Presidential Vote', The Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 14, No. 2, (April 2003), pp. 161-92.
12. As Dirks and Ferrin pointed out, trust is not a 'property' owned by a relationship or leaders, but a 'belief or perception' held by followers. Dirks and Ferrin, 'Trust in Leadership'. In other words, trustworthiness exists only in the eyes of the beholder. Scott W. Lester and Holly H. Brower, 'In the Eyes of the Beholder: the Relationship Between Subordinates' Felt Trustworthiness and their Work Attitudes and Behaviours', Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, Vol. 10, No. 2, (Fall 2003), pp. 17-33.
13. See Seishi Gomibuchi, Followers and Leadership Durability: an Analysis of Leadership Support in the New Zealand Labour Party, 1990-1996 (Ph.D. thesis, University of Canterbury, 2001).
14. In addition to numerous articles, in recent years at least three special issues of academic journals have been dedicated to this topic. See Denise M. Rousseau, Sim B. Sitkin, Ronald S. Burt, and Colin Camerer (special issue eds.), Academy of Management Review: Special Topic Forum on Trust In and Between Organizations, Vol. 23, No. 3 (July 1998); Reinhard Bachmann, David Knights, and Jorg Sydow (eds.), Organization Studies: Special Issue: Trust and Control in Organizational Relations, Vol. 22, No. 2 (2001); and Bill McEvily, Vincenzo Perrone, and Akbar Zaheer (guest eds.), Organization Science: Special Issue on Trust in an Organizational Context, Vol. 14, No. 1 (January/February 2003).
15. In addition to numerous articles, in recent years at least three special issues of academic journals have been dedicated to this topic. See Denise M. Rousseau, Sim B. Sitkin, Ronald S. Burt, and Colin Camerer (special issue eds.), Academy of Management Review: Special Topic Forum on Trust In and Between Organizations, Vol. 23, No. 3 (July 1998); Reinhard Bachmann, David Knights, and Jorg Sydow (eds.), Organization Studies: Special Issue: Trust and Control in Organizational Relations, Vol. 22, No. 2 (2001); and Bill McEvily, Vincenzo Perrone, and Akbar Zaheer (guest eds.), Organization Science: Special Issue on Trust in an Organizational Context, Vol. 14, No. 1 (January/February 2003).
16. In addition to numerous articles, in recent years at least three special issues of academic journals have been dedicated to this topic. See Denise M. Rousseau, Sim B. Sitkin, Ronald S. Burt, and Colin Camerer (special issue eds.), Academy of Management Review: Special Topic Forum on Trust In and Between Organizations, Vol. 23, No. 3 (July 1998); Reinhard Bachmann, David Knights, and Jorg Sydow (eds.), Organization Studies: Special Issue: Trust and Control in Organizational Relations, Vol. 22, No. 2 (2001); and Bill McEvily, Vincenzo Perrone, and Akbar Zaheer (guest eds.), Organization Science: Special Issue on Trust in an Organizational Context, Vol. 14, No. 1 (January/February 2003).
17. e.g., Rajeev Bhattacharya, Timothy M. Devinney, and Madan M. Pillutla, 'A Formal Model of Trust Based on Outcomes', Academy of Management Review, Vol. 23, No. 3, (July 1998), pp. 459-72.
18. Curiously, in comparison to scholars of other disciplines, political scientists generally appear little concerned about definitions of trust. Even a few studies that specifically deal with this construct skip the process of clarifying what trust actually is. (e.g., Michaelene Cox, 'When Trust Matters: Explaining Differences in Voter Turnout', Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol. 41, No. 4, (September 2003), pp. 757-70.) In contrast, considerably more attention has been directed to the analysis of the ingredients necessary to be seen as trustworthy.
19. Denise M. Rousseau, Sim B. Sitkin, Ronald S. Burt, and Colin Camerer, 'Not So Different After All: a Cross-discipline View of Trust', Academy of Management Review, Vol. 23, No. 3, (July 1998), pp. 393-404, p. 395. Rousseau et al identified two necessary conditions for trust to exist: risk, due to the uncertain nature of the environment within which trustors and trustees have to operate - trust is not required in an environment of certainty; and interdependence, where the accomplishment of one party's interest depends on another's intentions or behaviour.
20. See Roy J. Lewicki, Daniel J. McAllister, and Robert J. Bies, 'Trust and Distrust: New Relationships and Realities', Academy of Management Review, Vol. 23, No. 3, (July 1998), pp. 438-58.
21. See also Bhattacharya, Devinney, and Pillutla, 'A Formal Model of Trust Based on Outcomes'.
22. Manuel Becerra and Anil K. Gupta, 'Perceived Trustworthiness Within the Organization: the Moderating Effect of Communication Frequency on Trustor and Trustee Effects', Organization Science, Vol. 14, No. 1, (January/February 2003), pp. 32-44.
23. Lewicki, McAllister, and Bies, 'Trust and Distrust'.
24. Lewicki et al defined trust and distrust as 'confident positive expectations regarding another's conduct' and 'confident negative expectations regarding another's conduct', respectively. Lewicki, McAllister, and Bies, 'Trust and Distrust'.
25. While Rousseau and her colleagues introduced a third category, 'deterrence-based trust', in which one party is made to believe that another is trustworthy due to the presence of costly sanctions for breach of trust, they quickly dismissed this type since it lacks one of the necessary conditions for trust, i.e., the presence of positive intentions in trustees perceived by trustors. Rousseau, Sitkin, Burt, and Camerer, 'Not So Different After All'.
26. Rousseau, Sitkin, Burt, and Camerer, 'Not So Different After All', p. 400.
27. Roger C. Mayer, James H. Davis, and F. David Schoorman, 'An Integrative Model of Organizational Trust', Academy of Management Review, Vol. 20, No. 3, (July 1995), pp. 709-34, p. 719.
28. James H. Davis, F. David Schoorman, Roger C. Mayer, and Hwee Hoon Tan, 'The Trusted General Manager and Business Unit Performance: Empirical Evidence of a Competitive Advantage', Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 21, No. 5, (May 2000), pp. 563-76.
29. This view is not new. Renshon used similar analysis in his study of 'leadership capital' of which trustworthiness is an integral element. Renshon, 'Political Leadership as Social Capital'.
30. Mayer, Davis, and Schoorman, 'An Integrative Model of Organizational Trust', pp. 714-6.
31. For a more detailed account of the 1996 leadership crisis, see Gomibuchi, Followers and Leadership Durability, chapter 6.
32. See Seishi Gomibuchi, 'In Search of Leadership Challenges', Political Science, Vol. 53, No. 2, (December 2001), pp. 3-20.
33. Simon Kilroy and Graeme Spedon, 'Clark Agrees to Oversee Big Labour Repair Job', The Dominion, 13 October 1995, p. 1.
34. Phil Goff described the situation in the following terms: 'I think it's fair to say at that time the numbers were evenly divided within caucus. And when I say "evenly divided" I mean evenly divided' (Phil Goff, interview with the author, 12 August 1998).
35. According to the Parliamentary Labour Party (caucus) Rules, a vote on whether the leadership position should be vacated or not is the first step for an unscheduled leadership review. If carried, it will trigger a second vote to decide who should be the new caucus leader.
36. The Labour Party functioned - at least publicly - as a unified force after this point until (and beyond) the 1996 election. There were two reasons for this re-discovered unity. First, one of the five frontbenchers, Michael Cullen, replaced David Caygill as Clark's deputy unopposed. This helped the wounds in the caucus heal quickly. (Michael Cullen, interview with the author, 25 July 1998.) Second, Clark's fierce determination demonstrated during her counterattack introduced the public to a side of the leader's character hitherto unknown. This somehow instigated Labour's popularity surge. As Annette King put it: '[The crisis] acted as a catalyst for Helen Clark herself and she came out fighting. And in fact, you know, if someone had said to us: "Was it a well planned strategy?" No, it wasn't. But it certainly acted as a spur to her to come out with all guns blazing'. (Annette King, interview with the author, 12 November 1998.)
37. These caucus groupings are compiled based on information provided in interviews and personal correspondence by 25 individuals who experienced at least one of these two leadership challenges either as MPs or party officials.
38. Richard Northey, personal communication, 2 February 1998.
39. Judith Tizard, interview with the author, 12 June 1998.
40. Steve Maharey, interview with the author, 24 July 1998.
41. Tizard interview.
42. Maharey interview.
43. Ruth Dyson, interview with the author, 4 September 1998.
44. Jill White, interview with the author, 24 July 1998.
45. Maharey interview.
46. Tizard interview; Dyson interview; Richard Northey, interview with the author, 11 June 1998.
47. Tizard interview; Dyson interview; Richard Northey, interview with the author, 11 June 1998.
48. Tizard interview; Dyson interview; Richard Northey, interview with the author, 11 June 1998.
49. Maharey interview.
50. Some loyalists attributed the party's popularity slump to the internal disarray within the caucus, caused by a few disgruntled MPs. (Maharey interview.)
51. Dyson interview. Larry Sutherland, interview with the author, 11 September 1998.
52. Dyson interview. Larry Sutherland, interview with the author, 11 September 1998.
53. David Caygill, interview with the author, 23 November 1998.
54. In my earlier study (Gomibuchi, Followers and Leadership Durability), I further sub-divided this group into two categories: 'pragmatic supporters' and 'waverers' based on their reasons for supporting Clark. However, this sub-categorisation is omitted here since these two groups were indistinguishable in relation to their level of trust in Clark.
55. One opponent says: 'I was concerned about the leadership of the Labour Party - not about Helen Clark because Helen Clark actually is a good leader. She's a strong leader, and she's a fair leader.' (Anonymous 1, interview with the author, 12 November 1998) Another opponent, Michael Cullen, adds unequivocally: 'I was very happy with Helen's leadership style in the caucus.' (Cullen interview.)
56. One opponent says: 'I was concerned about the leadership of the Labour Party - not about Helen Clark because Helen Clark actually is a good leader. She's a strong leader, and she's a fair leader.' (Anonymous 1, interview with the author, 12 November 1998) Another opponent, Michael Cullen, adds unequivocally: 'I was very happy with Helen's leadership style in the caucus.' (Cullen interview.)
57. Anonymous 2, interview with the author, 24 June 1998.
58. Cullen interview.
59. Of Clark's 19 1993 opponents, only two MPs first entered Parliament after 1990. By contrast, all but three of her 14 1993 loyalists (excluding Clark herself) were elected after 1990. Clark was first elected to Parliament in 1981. She became a Cabinet Minister in 1987 and then Deputy Leader, and hence Deputy Prime Minister, two years later.
60. Cullen interview.
61. Helen Clark, 'The Leading Edge: Extending and Enhancing Women as Leaders in Sport' (an address to The Hillary Commission's Women's Leadership Conference, 8 June 1996).
62. Michael Hirschfeld, interview with the author, 24 June 1998. See also Gomibuchi, Followers and Leadership Durability.
63. Michael Hirschfeld, interview with the author, 24 June 1998. See also Gomibuchi, Followers and Leadership Durability.