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Volumn 41, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 73-119

'Men of science': Language, identity and professionalization in the mid-Victorian scientific community

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EID: 1442333910     PISSN: 00732753     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/007327530304100103     Document Type: Review
Times cited : (86)

References (216)
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    • This dominant interpretation is shifting, see Adrian Desmond, "Redefining the X axis: 'Professionals,' 'amateurs' and the making of mid-Victorian biology", Journal of the history of biology, xxxiv (2001), 3-50.
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    • 'Huxley, Lubbock, and half a dozen others': Professionals and gentlemen in the formation of the X Club
    • On Spottiswoode's election see Ruth Barton, "'An influential set of chaps': The X-Club and Royal Society politics 1864-85", The British journal for the history of science, xxiii (1990), 53-81, pp. 68-69. For the historiography of the X Club see Ruth Barton, "'Huxley, Lubbock, and half a dozen others': Professionals and gentlemen in the formation of the X Club", Isis, lxxxix (1998), 410-44, pp. 413-15.
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    • Crosbie Smith, The science of energy: A cultural history of energy physics in Victorian Britain (London, 1998), ch. 9, "North Britain versus metropolis"; and Ruth Barton, "Scientific authority and scientific controversy in Nature: North Britain against the X Club", in Louise Henson et al. (eds), Culture and science in the nineteenth-century media (forthcoming, Aldershot, 2003).
    • (1998) The Science of Energy: A Cultural History of Energy Physics in Victorian Britain
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    • Crosbie Smith, The science of energy: A cultural history of energy physics in Victorian Britain (London, 1998), ch. 9, "North Britain versus metropolis"; and Ruth Barton, "Scientific authority and scientific controversy in Nature: North Britain against the X Club", in Louise Henson et al. (eds), Culture and science in the nineteenth-century media (forthcoming, Aldershot, 2003).
    • (2003) Culture and Science in the Nineteenth-Century Media
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    • Scientific opposition to technical education
    • ed. by Michael D. Stephens and Gordon W. Roderick (Nottingham)
    • On tensions between science and engineering or truth and utility see Ruth Barton, "Scientific opposition to technical education", in Scientific and technical education in early industrial Britain, ed. by Michael D. Stephens and Gordon W. Roderick (Nottingham, 1981), 13-27; Thomas F. Gieryn, "Boundary-work and the demarcation of science from non-science: Strains and interests in professional ideologies of scientists", American sociological review, xlviii (1983), 781-95; idem, Cultural boundaries of science: Credibility on the line (Chicago, 1999).
    • (1981) Scientific and Technical Education in Early Industrial Britain , pp. 13-27
    • Barton, R.1
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    • Boundary-work and the demarcation of science from non-science: Strains and interests in professional ideologies of scientists
    • On tensions between science and engineering or truth and utility see Ruth Barton, "Scientific opposition to technical education", in Scientific and technical education in early industrial Britain, ed. by Michael D. Stephens and Gordon W. Roderick (Nottingham, 1981), 13-27; Thomas F. Gieryn, "Boundary-work and the demarcation of science from non-science: Strains and interests in professional ideologies of scientists", American sociological review, xlviii (1983), 781-95; idem, Cultural boundaries of science: Credibility on the line (Chicago, 1999).
    • (1983) American Sociological Review , vol.48 , pp. 781-795
    • Gieryn, T.F.1
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    • 0004031058 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Chicago
    • On tensions between science and engineering or truth and utility see Ruth Barton, "Scientific opposition to technical education", in Scientific and technical education in early industrial Britain, ed. by Michael D. Stephens and Gordon W. Roderick (Nottingham, 1981), 13-27; Thomas F. Gieryn, "Boundary-work and the demarcation of science from non-science: Strains and interests in professional ideologies of scientists", American sociological review, xlviii (1983), 781-95; idem, Cultural boundaries of science: Credibility on the line (Chicago, 1999).
    • (1999) Cultural Boundaries of Science: Credibility on the Line
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    • Resources of science in Victorian England: The endowment of science movement 1868-1900
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    • Roy MacLeod, "Resources of science in Victorian England: The endowment of science movement, 1868-1900", in Peter Mathias (ed.), Science and society 1600-1900 (Cambridge, 1972), 111-16, pp. 111-12; Roy Porter, "Gentlemen and geology: The emergence of a scientific career, 1660-1920", Historical journal, xxi (1978), 809-36, p. 809; Jack Morrell, "Professionalisation", in Robert Olby et al. (eds), Companion to the history of modern science (London, 1990), 980-9; Jan Golinski, Making natural knowledge: Constructivism and the history of science (Cambridge, 1998), see especially "The disciplinary mold", 67-68. For recent specialist studies see ref. 22 below.
    • (1972) Science and Society 1600-1900 , pp. 111-116
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    • Gentlemen and geology: The emergence of a scientific career, 1660-1920
    • Roy MacLeod, "Resources of science in Victorian England: The endowment of science movement, 1868-1900", in Peter Mathias (ed.), Science and society 1600-1900 (Cambridge, 1972), 111-16, pp. 111-12; Roy Porter, "Gentlemen and geology: The emergence of a scientific career, 1660-1920", Historical journal, xxi (1978), 809-36, p. 809; Jack Morrell, "Professionalisation", in Robert Olby et al. (eds), Companion to the history of modern science (London, 1990), 980-9; Jan Golinski, Making natural knowledge: Constructivism and the history of science (Cambridge, 1998), see especially "The disciplinary mold", 67-68. For recent specialist studies see ref. 22 below.
    • (1978) Historical Journal , vol.21 , pp. 809-836
    • Porter, R.1
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    • Professionalisation
    • Robert Olby et al. (eds) (London)
    • Roy MacLeod, "Resources of science in Victorian England: The endowment of science movement, 1868-1900", in Peter Mathias (ed.), Science and society 1600-1900 (Cambridge, 1972), 111-16, pp. 111-12; Roy Porter, "Gentlemen and geology: The emergence of a scientific career, 1660-1920", Historical journal, xxi (1978), 809-36, p. 809; Jack Morrell, "Professionalisation", in Robert Olby et al. (eds), Companion to the history of modern science (London, 1990), 980-9; Jan Golinski, Making natural knowledge: Constructivism and the history of science (Cambridge, 1998), see especially "The disciplinary mold", 67-68. For recent specialist studies see ref. 22 below.
    • (1990) Companion to the History of Modern Science , pp. 980-989
    • Morrell, J.1
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    • (Cambridge), see especially "The disciplinary mold". For recent specialist studies see ref. 22 below
    • Roy MacLeod, "Resources of science in Victorian England: The endowment of science movement, 1868-1900", in Peter Mathias (ed.), Science and society 1600-1900 (Cambridge, 1972), 111-16, pp. 111-12; Roy Porter, "Gentlemen and geology: The emergence of a scientific career, 1660-1920", Historical journal, xxi (1978), 809-36, p. 809; Jack Morrell, "Professionalisation", in Robert Olby et al. (eds), Companion to the history of modern science (London, 1990), 980-9; Jan Golinski, Making natural knowledge: Constructivism and the history of science (Cambridge, 1998), see especially "The disciplinary mold", 67-68. For recent specialist studies see ref. 22 below.
    • (1998) Making Natural Knowledge: Constructivism and the History of Science , pp. 67-68
    • Golinski, J.1
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    • ref. 8
    • Morrell, "Professionalisation" (ref. 8), 981. Morrell's model of studying professionalization as an occupational strategy is the classic study by A. M. Carr-Saunders and P. A. Wilson, The professions (London, 1934).
    • Professionalisation , pp. 981
    • Morrell1
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    • Morrell's model of studying professionalization as an occupational strategy is the classic study by A. M. Carr-Saunders and P. A. Wilson
    • London
    • Morrell, "Professionalisation" (ref. 8), 981. Morrell's model of studying professionalization as an occupational strategy is the classic study by A. M. Carr-Saunders and P. A. Wilson, The professions (London, 1934).
    • (1934) The Professions
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    • (ref. 8), 982-4, italics mine, 986-8 on alternatives
    • Morrell, "Professionalisation" (ref. 8), 982-4, italics mine, 986-8 on alternatives; Golinski, Making natural knowledge (ref. 8), 68.
    • Professionalisation
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    • ref. 8
    • Morrell, "Professionalisation" (ref. 8), 982-4, italics mine, 986-8 on alternatives; Golinski, Making natural knowledge (ref. 8), 68.
    • Making Natural Knowledge , pp. 68
    • Golinski1
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    • The Geological Survey of Great Britain as a research school, 1839-1855
    • James A. Secord, "The Geological Survey of Great Britain as a research school, 1839-1855", History of science, xxiv (1986), 223-75, esp. pp. 241-58.
    • (1986) History of Science , vol.24 , pp. 223-275
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    • ref. 8
    • Porter, "Gentlemen and geology" (ref. 8), 830. Morrell, "Professionalisation" (ref. 8), 988, gives examples of amateur associations which flourished even as professionalism increased.
    • Gentlemen and Geology , pp. 830
    • Porter1
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    • ref. 8
    • Porter, "Gentlemen and geology" (ref. 8), 830. Morrell, "Professionalisation" (ref. 8), 988, gives examples of amateur associations which flourished even as professionalism increased.
    • Professionalisation , pp. 988
    • Morrell1
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    • History of science and its sociological reconstructions
    • For example, Steven Shapin, "History of science and its sociological reconstructions", History of science, xx (1982), 157-211, pp. 171-2; David C. Lindberg and Ronald L. Numbers, "Beyond war and peace: A reappraisal of the encounter between Christianity and science", Church history, lv (1986), 338-54, pp. 351-2; Adrian Desmond and James Moore, Darwin (London, 1991); Desmond, Huxley (ref. 5). But see Desmond's reinterpretation in "Redefining the X axis" (ref. 2).
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    • Beyond war and peace: A reappraisal of the encounter between Christianity and science
    • For example, Steven Shapin, "History of science and its sociological reconstructions", History of science, xx (1982), 157-211, pp. 171-2; David C. Lindberg and Ronald L. Numbers, "Beyond war and peace: A reappraisal of the encounter between Christianity and science", Church history, lv (1986), 338-54, pp. 351-2; Adrian Desmond and James Moore, Darwin (London, 1991); Desmond, Huxley (ref. 5). But see Desmond's reinterpretation in "Redefining the X axis" (ref. 2).
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    • For example, Steven Shapin, "History of science and its sociological reconstructions", History of science, xx (1982), 157-211, pp. 171-2; David C. Lindberg and Ronald L. Numbers, "Beyond war and peace: A reappraisal of the encounter between Christianity and science", Church history, lv (1986), 338-54, pp. 351-2; Adrian Desmond and James Moore, Darwin (London, 1991); Desmond, Huxley (ref. 5). But see Desmond's reinterpretation in "Redefining the X axis" (ref. 2).
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    • Desmond, A.1    Moore, J.2
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    • ref. 5
    • For example, Steven Shapin, "History of science and its sociological reconstructions", History of science, xx (1982), 157-211, pp. 171-2; David C. Lindberg and Ronald L. Numbers, "Beyond war and peace: A reappraisal of the encounter between Christianity and science", Church history, lv (1986), 338-54, pp. 351-2; Adrian Desmond and James Moore, Darwin (London, 1991); Desmond, Huxley (ref. 5). But see Desmond's reinterpretation in "Redefining the X axis" (ref. 2).
    • Huxley
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    • Definitions and speculations: The professionalization of science in America in the nineteenth century
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    • Nathan Reingold, "Definitions and speculations: The professionalization of science in America in the nineteenth century", in Alexandra Oleson and Sanborn C. Brown (eds), The pursuit of knowledge in the early American Republic (Baltimore, 1976), 33-69, pp. 43, 50.
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    • Science, the university, and the state in nineteenth-century France
    • Gerald L. Geison (ed.) (Philadelphia)
    • Dorinda Outram, Georges Cuvier: Vocation, science and authority in post-evolutionary France (Manchester, 1984) and Robert Fox, "Science, the university, and the state in nineteenth-century France", in Gerald L. Geison (ed.), Professions and the French state, 1700-1900 (Philadelphia, 1984), 66-145.
    • (1984) Professions and the French State, 1700-1900 , pp. 66-145
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    • ref. 3
    • Barton, "The X Club and Royal Society politics" (ref. 3), 65-66, 68-69; Barton, "Professionals and gentlemen" (ref. 3).
    • Professionals and Gentlemen
    • Barton1
  • 38
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    • Joseph Hooker's ideals for a professional man of science
    • Richard Bellon, "Joseph Hooker's ideals for a professional man of science"; John C. Waller, "Gentlemanly men of science: Sir Francis Galton and the professionalization of the British life-sciences"; Samuel J. J. Alberti, "Amateurs and professionals in one county: Biology and natural history in late Victorian Yorkshire"; Adrian Desmond, "Redefining the X axis: 'professionals,' 'amateurs' and the making of mid-Victorian biology"; all in Journal of the history of biology, xxxiv (2001), 51-82, 83-114, 115-47, 3-50 (p. 4). Many of the same issues are addressed by James Endersby, "Putting plants in their place: Joseph Hooker's philosophical botany, 1838-1865" (PhD dissertation, Cambridge University, 2002), ch. 1.
    • Journal of the History of Biology
    • Bellon, R.1
  • 39
    • 85039517831 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Gentlemanly men of science: Sir Francis Galton and the professionalization of the British life-sciences
    • Richard Bellon, "Joseph Hooker's ideals for a professional man of science"; John C. Waller, "Gentlemanly men of science: Sir Francis Galton and the professionalization of the British life-sciences"; Samuel J. J. Alberti, "Amateurs and professionals in one county: Biology and natural history in late Victorian Yorkshire"; Adrian Desmond, "Redefining the X axis: 'professionals,' 'amateurs' and the making of mid-Victorian biology"; all in Journal of the history of biology, xxxiv (2001), 51-82, 83-114, 115-47, 3-50 (p. 4). Many of the same issues are addressed by James Endersby, "Putting plants in their place: Joseph Hooker's philosophical botany, 1838-1865" (PhD dissertation, Cambridge University, 2002), ch. 1.
    • Journal of the History of Biology
    • Waller, J.C.1
  • 40
    • 85039514798 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Amateurs and professionals in one county: Biology and natural history in late Victorian Yorkshire
    • Richard Bellon, "Joseph Hooker's ideals for a professional man of science"; John C. Waller, "Gentlemanly men of science: Sir Francis Galton and the professionalization of the British life-sciences"; Samuel J. J. Alberti, "Amateurs and professionals in one county: Biology and natural history in late Victorian Yorkshire"; Adrian Desmond, "Redefining the X axis: 'professionals,' 'amateurs' and the making of mid-Victorian biology"; all in Journal of the history of biology, xxxiv (2001), 51-82, 83-114, 115-47, 3-50 (p. 4). Many of the same issues are addressed by James Endersby, "Putting plants in their place: Joseph Hooker's philosophical botany, 1838-1865" (PhD dissertation, Cambridge University, 2002), ch. 1.
    • Journal of the History of Biology
    • Alberti, S.J.J.1
  • 41
    • 0034941807 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Redefining the X axis: 'Professionals,' 'amateurs' and the making of mid-Victorian biology
    • Richard Bellon, "Joseph Hooker's ideals for a professional man of science"; John C. Waller, "Gentlemanly men of science: Sir Francis Galton and the professionalization of the British life-sciences"; Samuel J. J. Alberti, "Amateurs and professionals in one county: Biology and natural history in late Victorian Yorkshire"; Adrian Desmond, "Redefining the X axis: 'professionals,' 'amateurs' and the making of mid-Victorian biology"; all in Journal of the history of biology, xxxiv (2001), 51-82, 83-114, 115-47, 3-50 (p. 4). Many of the same issues are addressed by James Endersby, "Putting plants in their place: Joseph Hooker's philosophical botany, 1838-1865" (PhD dissertation, Cambridge University, 2002), ch. 1.
    • (2001) Journal of the History of Biology , vol.34 , pp. 51-82
    • Desmond, A.1
  • 42
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    • (PhD dissertation, Cambridge University), ch. 1
    • Richard Bellon, "Joseph Hooker's ideals for a professional man of science"; John C. Waller, "Gentlemanly men of science: Sir Francis Galton and the professionalization of the British life-sciences"; Samuel J. J. Alberti, "Amateurs and professionals in one county: Biology and natural history in late Victorian Yorkshire"; Adrian Desmond, "Redefining the X axis: 'professionals,' 'amateurs' and the making of mid-Victorian biology"; all in Journal of the history of biology, xxxiv (2001), 51-82, 83-114, 115-47, 3-50 (p. 4). Many of the same issues are addressed by James Endersby, "Putting plants in their place: Joseph Hooker's philosophical botany, 1838-1865" (PhD dissertation, Cambridge University, 2002), ch. 1.
    • (2002) Putting Plants in Their Place: Joseph Hooker's Philosophical Botany, 1838-1865
    • Endersby, J.1
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    • (Milton Keynes), ch. vii and viii, italics mine
    • Colin A. Russell, Chemists by profession: The origins and rise of the Royal Institute of Chemistry (Milton Keynes, 1977), ch. vii and viii, p. 123, italics mine. Other competing organizations for chemists are discussed by Robert Bud and Gerrylynn K. Roberts, Science versus practice: Chemistry in Victorian Britain (Manchester, 1984), 159-63.
    • (1977) Chemists by Profession: The Origins and Rise of the Royal Institute of Chemistry , pp. 123
    • Russell, C.A.1
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    • Manchester
    • Colin A. Russell, Chemists by profession: The origins and rise of the Royal Institute of Chemistry (Milton Keynes, 1977), ch. vii and viii, p. 123, italics mine. Other competing organizations for chemists are discussed by Robert Bud and Gerrylynn K. Roberts, Science versus practice: Chemistry in Victorian Britain (Manchester, 1984), 159-63.
    • (1984) Science Versus Practice: Chemistry in Victorian Britain , pp. 159-163
    • Bud, R.1    Roberts, G.K.2
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    • Tadpoles and frogs: Some aspects of the professionalization of British physics, 1870-1939
    • Russell Moseley, "Tadpoles and frogs: Some aspects of the professionalization of British physics, 1870-1939", Social studies of science, vii (1977), 423-46, pp. 423-30; Desmond, "Redefining the X axis" (ref. 2), 27-34.
    • (1977) Social Studies of Science , vol.7 , pp. 423-446
    • Moseley, R.1
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    • ref. 2
    • Russell Moseley, "Tadpoles and frogs: Some aspects of the professionalization of British physics, 1870-1939", Social studies of science, vii (1977), 423-46, pp. 423-30; Desmond, "Redefining the X axis" (ref. 2), 27-34.
    • Redefining the X Axis , pp. 27-34
    • Desmond1
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    • ref. 8
    • Porter, "Gentlemen and geology" (ref. 8), 810. H. Byerley Thomson's mid-Victorian advice book, The choice of a profession (London, 1857), identified only two scientific professions, the civil engineer and actuary.
    • Gentlemen and Geology , pp. 810
    • Porter1
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    • H. Byerley Thomson's mid-Victorian advice book
    • London
    • Porter, "Gentlemen and geology" (ref. 8), 810. H. Byerley Thomson's mid-Victorian advice book, The choice of a profession (London, 1857), identified only two scientific professions, the civil engineer and actuary.
    • (1857) The Choice of a Profession
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    • ref. 16
    • Excluding the army and navy, the largest employer of scientific experts in mid-century was probably the Geological Survey of Great Britain and the associated Museum of Practical Geology. Together they had a scientific and technical staff of about twenty-five of whom about half were geologists. Working-class members stayed at working-class rates of pay; lower middle-class recruits with prior training could hope for promotion, but not to the top. See Secord, "The Geological Survey" (ref. 16), 228-9, 235-7.
    • The Geological Survey , pp. 228-229
    • Secord1
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    • Cambridge
    • Paul White, Thomas Huxley: Making the "man of science " (Cambridge, 2003). This book appeared just as I was making final revisions to this article and I have therefore not been able to incorporate its insights into my analysis. White and I share two central emphases, the significance of the term 'man of science' and the interpretive understanding to be gained from the concept of self-fashioning. White's analysis is more explanatory in that it identifies the cultural resources from which Huxley drew his images. My more synchronic analysis offers a background against which to assess the ways in which Huxley was unique or representative.
    • (2003) Thomas Huxley: Making the "Man of Science "
    • White, P.1
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    • Principal scientific contributions of John William Strutt, third Baron Rayleigh
    • Rutherford Aris et al. (eds) (Minneapolis)
    • Lord Rayleigh left the Cavendish Chair at Cambridge in 1884 to return to "private studies" in his home laboratory. See John N. Howard, "Principal scientific contributions of John William Strutt, third Baron Rayleigh", in Rutherford Aris et al. (eds), Springs of scientific creativity: Essays on founders of modern science (Minneapolis, 1983), 163-87, p. 175. Grant Allen, a writer of fiction and of essays on numerous topics, including scientific topics, was described in the Dictionary of national biography (vol. xxii, "Supplement") as a "man of letters and man of science". Gunther would probably have classed him as a 'dabbler'.
    • (1983) Springs of Scientific Creativity: Essays on Founders of Modern Science , pp. 163-187
    • Howard, J.N.1
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    • 0002058610 scopus 로고
    • Scientist: The story of a word
    • Sydney Ross, "Scientist: The story of a word", Annals of science, xviii (1962), 65-85, pp. 76-78. The earliest use of 'scientist' in the British Association presidential addresses was by William Siemens, inventor and engineer. The Association, said Siemens, "draws together scientists from all parts of the country" ("Address by the President", BAAS report, 1882, 1-33, p. 1).
    • (1962) Annals of Science , vol.18 , pp. 65-85
    • Ross, S.1
  • 57
    • 0002058610 scopus 로고
    • Address by the President
    • Sydney Ross, "Scientist: The story of a word", Annals of science, xviii (1962), 65-85, pp. 76-78. The earliest use of 'scientist' in the British Association presidential addresses was by William Siemens, inventor and engineer. The Association, said Siemens, "draws together scientists from all parts of the country" ("Address by the President", BAAS report, 1882, 1-33, p. 1).
    • (1882) BAAS Report , pp. 1-33
  • 58
    • 84888095048 scopus 로고
    • Oxford
    • 'Gentlemen of science' has been much used by historians of science, following Jack Morrell and Arnold Thackray, Gentlemen of science: Early years of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (Oxford, 1981). It correctly emphasizes the gentlemanly status of the leaders of Victorian science, but it was not a common self-description. I have one example. When Mary Somerville was made an honorary member of the Bristol Philosophical and Literary Society in 1835, W. D. Conybeare wrote to her: You are now "entitled to claim a nominal connection with many of the most distinguished Scientific gentlemen of the Country" (Elizabeth Patterson, Mary Somerville and the cultivation of science, 1815-1840 (The Hague, 1983), 164). Men of science were assumed to be gentlemen, as is illustrated by the juxtaposition in Huxley's address to the Royal Society in 1883: "Gentlemen, as men of science..." ("President's address", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, xxxvi (1883-84), 60-73, p. 73).
    • (1981) Gentlemen of Science: Early Years of the British Association for the Advancement of Science
    • Morrell, J.1    Thackray, A.2
  • 59
    • 0002256874 scopus 로고
    • The Hague
    • 'Gentlemen of science' has been much used by historians of science, following Jack Morrell and Arnold Thackray, Gentlemen of science: Early years of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (Oxford, 1981). It correctly emphasizes the gentlemanly status of the leaders of Victorian science, but it was not a common self-description. I have one example. When Mary Somerville was made an honorary member of the Bristol Philosophical and Literary Society in 1835, W. D. Conybeare wrote to her: You are now "entitled to claim a nominal connection with many of the most distinguished Scientific gentlemen of the Country" (Elizabeth Patterson, Mary Somerville and the cultivation of science, 1815-1840 (The Hague, 1983), 164). Men of science were assumed to be gentlemen, as is illustrated by the juxtaposition in Huxley's address to the Royal Society in 1883: "Gentlemen, as men of science..." ("President's address", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, xxxvi (1883-84), 60-73, p. 73).
    • (1983) Mary Somerville and the Cultivation of Science, 1815-1840 , pp. 164
    • Patterson, E.1
  • 60
    • 2442636960 scopus 로고
    • President's address
    • 'Gentlemen of science' has been much used by historians of science, following Jack Morrell and Arnold Thackray, Gentlemen of science: Early years of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (Oxford, 1981). It correctly emphasizes the gentlemanly status of the leaders of Victorian science, but it was not a common self-description. I have one example. When Mary Somerville was made an honorary member of the Bristol Philosophical and Literary Society in 1835, W. D. Conybeare wrote to her: You are now "entitled to claim a nominal connection with many of the most distinguished Scientific gentlemen of the Country" (Elizabeth Patterson, Mary Somerville and the cultivation of science, 1815-1840 (The Hague, 1983), 164). Men of science were assumed to be gentlemen, as is illustrated by the juxtaposition in Huxley's address to the Royal Society in 1883: "Gentlemen, as men of science..." ("President's address", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, xxxvi (1883-84), 60-73, p. 73).
    • (1883) Proceedings of the Royal Society of London , vol.36 , pp. 60-73
  • 61
    • 2442698201 scopus 로고
    • Address by the President
    • "Address by the President", BAAS report, 1852, pp. xli-lxiii, pp. xlii, xlvii. These examples, which are a selection only, are representative of the variety of speakers and terminologies. Capitalization of 'science' varied, even within an individual speech.
    • (1852) BAAS Report
  • 63
    • 2442707054 scopus 로고
    • Address by the President
    • "Address by the President", BAAS report, 1856, pp. xlviii-lxxii, pp. xliv, lv, lxviii.
    • (1856) BAAS Report
  • 64
  • 66
    • 2442652013 scopus 로고
    • Address by the President
    • "Address by the President", BAAS report, 1859, pp. lix-lxix, pp. lx, lxii.
    • (1859) BAAS Report
  • 67
    • 2442672084 scopus 로고
    • Obituary notices of deceased fellows
    • "Obituary notices of deceased Fellows", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, x (1859-60), pp. i-xliii, p. xiv. In earlier years obituary notices were read at the Anniversary meeting, at first by the President, and later by the Secretary. They were not necessarily written by the reader.
    • (1859) Proceedings of the Royal Society of London , vol.10
  • 68
    • 2442660784 scopus 로고
    • Address by the President
    • "Address by the President", BAAS report, 1864, pp. lx-lxxv, p. lx. In both this and the following quotation, 'physical science' is the complement of 'moral science' rather than 'biological science'.
    • (1864) BAAS Report
  • 69
    • 2442708289 scopus 로고
    • Address by the President
    • "Address by the President", BAAS report, 1866, pp. liii-lxxx, pp. liv, lv.
    • (1866) BAAS Report
  • 70
    • 2442690866 scopus 로고
    • Address by the President
    • "Address by the President", BAAS report, 1869, pp. lxxxix-cv, pp. xci, c.
    • (1869) BAAS Report
  • 72
    • 2442659591 scopus 로고
    • President's address
    • "President's address", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, xxiv (1875-76), 72-91, pp. 76-77. Hooker went on to specify other categories of membership: "promoters of scientific research and men of signal eminence in statesmanship, art, or letters".
    • (1875) Proceedings of the Royal Society of London , vol.24 , pp. 72-91
  • 74
    • 0039434059 scopus 로고
    • On the connexion of the physical sciences. By Mrs. Somerville
    • [William Whewell], "On the connexion of the physical sciences. By Mrs. Somerville", Quarterly review, li (1834), 54-68, p. 59.
    • (1834) Quarterly Review , vol.51 , pp. 54-68
    • Whewell, W.1
  • 75
    • 85039520132 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 48
    • Whewell, "Connexion" (ref. 48), 58; and [Anon.], "Personal recollections of Mrs Somerville. By her daughter, Martha Somerville. London, 1873", Quarterly review, Jan. 1874, 74-103, p. 93 for Holland and p. 95 for Joanna Baillie. See also Section 4 below for references to Somerville as an 'astronomer'.
    • Connexion , pp. 58
    • Whewell1
  • 76
    • 2442654533 scopus 로고
    • Personal recollections of Mrs Somerville. By her daughter, Martha Somerville. London, 1873
    • Jan.
    • Whewell, "Connexion" (ref. 48), 58; and [Anon.], "Personal recollections of Mrs Somerville. By her daughter, Martha Somerville. London, 1873", Quarterly review, Jan. 1874, 74-103, p. 93 for Holland and p. 95 for Joanna Baillie. See also Section 4 below for references to Somerville as an 'astronomer'.
    • (1874) Quarterly Review , pp. 74-103
  • 77
    • 2442662055 scopus 로고
    • London
    • Huxley to Sir Charles Lyell, 17 March 1860, in Leonard Huxley, Life and letters of Thomas Henry Huxley (2 vols, London, 1900), i, 211. Lyell had hoped to counter the influence of organized religion among women (see Evelleen Richards, "Huxley and woman's place in science: The 'woman question' and the control of Victorian anthropology", in James R. Moore (ed.), History, humanity and evolution: Essays for John C. Greene (Cambridge, 1989), 253-84, p. 256).
    • (1900) Life and Letters of Thomas Henry Huxley , vol.2
    • Huxley, L.1
  • 78
    • 1542627460 scopus 로고
    • Huxley and woman's place in science: The 'woman question' and the control of Victorian anthropology
    • James R. Moore (ed.) (Cambridge)
    • Huxley to Sir Charles Lyell, 17 March 1860, in Leonard Huxley, Life and letters of Thomas Henry Huxley (2 vols, London, 1900), i, 211. Lyell had hoped to counter the influence of organized religion among women (see Evelleen Richards, "Huxley and woman's place in science: The 'woman question' and the control of Victorian anthropology", in James R. Moore (ed.), History, humanity and evolution: Essays for John C. Greene (Cambridge, 1989), 253-84, p. 256).
    • (1989) History, Humanity and Evolution: Essays for John C. Greene , pp. 253-284
    • Richards, E.1
  • 79
    • 85039526932 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For example, Sir Charles Lyell was losing his sight; Lyon Playfair, who had been in Parliament since 1868, was influential but not active in science; and Sir Edward Sabine's declining power is illustrated by his reluctant resignation of the Presidency of the Royal Society in 1871 at age 83 (see Dictionary of scientific biography for all). Sir Roderick Murchison had died in 1871
  • 80
    • 84862362351 scopus 로고
    • "Science, politics and religion" (lead article)
    • [Anon.], "Science, politics and religion" (lead article), Quarterly journal of science, ii (1865), 187-98, p. 189. The journal is discussed in Ruth Barton, "Just before Nature: The purposes of science and the purposes of popularization in some English popular science journals of the 1860s", Annals of science, lv (1998), 1-33.
    • (1865) Quarterly Journal of Science , vol.2 , pp. 187-198
  • 81
    • 0031614697 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Just before Nature: The purposes of science and the purposes of popularization in some English popular science journals of the 1860s
    • [Anon.], "Science, politics and religion" (lead article), Quarterly journal of science, ii (1865), 187-98, p. 189. The journal is discussed in Ruth Barton, "Just before Nature: The purposes of science and the purposes of popularization in some English popular science journals of the 1860s", Annals of science, lv (1998), 1-33.
    • (1998) Annals of Science , vol.55 , pp. 1-33
    • Barton, R.1
  • 82
    • 85039535973 scopus 로고
    • Dean Close on science
    • 29 Sept.
    • [Henry Lawson], "Dean Close on science", Scientific opinion, 29 Sept. 1869, 365. On the journal see Barton, "Just before Nature" (ref. 52).
    • (1869) Scientific Opinion , pp. 365
    • Lawson, H.1
  • 83
    • 0042101798 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 52
    • [Henry Lawson], "Dean Close on science", Scientific opinion, 29 Sept. 1869, 365. On the journal see Barton, "Just before Nature" (ref. 52).
    • Just before Nature
    • Barton1
  • 84
    • 85046382411 scopus 로고
    • Protoplasm at the antipodes
    • 4 Nov
    • [Anon.], "Protoplasm at the Antipodes", Nature, 4 Nov. 1869, 13.
    • (1869) Nature , pp. 13
  • 85
    • 85039531348 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Houghton to Lubbock, 28 Feb. 1870
    • British Library, Add. MSS 49643 f. 69. The Rev. William Houghton was Rector of Preston
    • Houghton to Lubbock, 28 Feb. 1870, Avebury Papers, British Library, Add. MSS 49643 f. 69. The Rev. William Houghton was Rector of Preston.
    • Avebury Papers
  • 86
    • 85039538517 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hooker to Huxley, [July 1872]
    • College Archives, Imperial College of Science, Technology, and Medicine, London, f. 158
    • Hooker to Huxley, [July 1872], Huxley Papers, College Archives, Imperial College of Science, Technology, and Medicine, London, vol. iii, f. 158.
    • Huxley Papers , vol.3
  • 87
    • 2442695773 scopus 로고
    • Scientific worthies V: G. G. Stokes
    • 15 July
    • P. G. Tait, "Scientific worthies V: G. G. Stokes", Nature, 15 July 1875, 201-3, p. 201.
    • (1875) Nature , pp. 201-203
    • Tait, P.G.1
  • 88
    • 2442685968 scopus 로고
    • "Lord Derby on the endowment of scientific research" (lead article)
    • 23 Dec
    • [Anon.], "Lord Derby on the endowment of scientific research" (lead article), Nature, 23 Dec. 1875, 141-2, p. 142.
    • (1875) Nature , pp. 141-142
  • 89
    • 85039523313 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 58
    • "Lord Derby" (ref. 58), 142.
    • Lord Derby , pp. 142
  • 90
    • 2442653256 scopus 로고
    • Loan collection of scientific instruments at South Kensington
    • "Loan Collection of scientific instruments at South Kensington", Quarterly journal of science, xiii (1876), 370-80, p. 370. William Crookes, the editor, probably wrote this unsigned article.
    • (1876) Quarterly Journal of Science , vol.13 , pp. 370-380
  • 91
    • 85039519145 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Smith to Huxley, 5 May 1878
    • (ref. 56), f. 112
    • Smith to Huxley, 5 May 1878, Huxley Papers (ref. 56), vol. xxvi, f. 112.
    • Huxley Papers , vol.26
  • 92
    • 2442682191 scopus 로고
    • Lighthouse illumination, the Board of Trade 1866-86
    • Cited by Roy MacLeod, "Science and government in Victorian England: Lighthouse illumination and the Board of Trade, 1866-86", Isis, lx (1969), 5-38, p. 32.
    • (1969) Isis , vol.60 , pp. 5-38
    • MacLeod, R.1
  • 93
    • 85039523516 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Lord Derby, as reported in Nature (ref. 58), did not use "scientific men". It seems then that the newspapers chose the term, which confirms that 'scientific men' was in wide general use.
  • 98
    • 2442644480 scopus 로고
    • Address by the President
    • "Address by the President", BAAS report, 1854, lv-lxxi, p. lv. Compare Spottiswoode who, in an extreme statement in his working men's lecture at the British Association in 1872, identified with his audience as "us outsiders of science" ("Mr. Spottiswoode's lecture to working men on sunlight, sea, and sky", Nature, 22 Aug. 1872, 333-6, p. 333). I interpret this as a rhetorical strategy to establish an identification with his audience and therefore do not attempt to incorporate it in my analysis of the scientific community. In 1872 Spottiswoode had published over forty mathematical articles (see Royal Society catalogue of scientific papers).
    • (1854) BAAS Report
  • 99
    • 2442682192 scopus 로고
    • Mr. Spottiswoode's lecture to working men on sunlight, sea, and sky
    • 22 Aug
    • "Address by the President", BAAS report, 1854, lv-lxxi, p. lv. Compare Spottiswoode who, in an extreme statement in his working men's lecture at the British Association in 1872, identified with his audience as "us outsiders of science" ("Mr. Spottiswoode's lecture to working men on sunlight, sea, and sky", Nature, 22 Aug. 1872, 333-6, p. 333). I interpret this as a rhetorical strategy to establish an identification with his audience and therefore do not attempt to incorporate it in my analysis of the scientific community. In 1872 Spottiswoode had published over forty mathematical articles (see Royal Society catalogue of scientific papers).
    • (1872) Nature , pp. 333-336
  • 100
    • 85039526979 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 14
    • Quoted by Berman, "Hegemony" (ref. 14), 37.
    • Hegemony , pp. 37
    • Berman1
  • 102
    • 0003557953 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 70
    • Galton, English men of science (ref. 70), 3-6. Although the title specifies "English" men of science, and the criteria of selection disadvantaged those living at a distance from London, Galton included some Scots and Irish and claimed that his results represented Britain (p. 6).
    • English Men of Science , pp. 3-6
    • Galton1
  • 103
    • 85039526979 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 4
    • Berman, "Hegemony" (ref. 14), 37.
    • Hegemony , pp. 37
    • Berman1
  • 104
    • 2442672086 scopus 로고
    • Professor Tyndall and the scientific movement
    • 7 July
    • [Anon.], "Professor Tyndall and the scientific movement" (lead article), Nature, 7 July 1887, 217-18, p. 217.
    • (1887) Nature , pp. 217-218
  • 105
    • 2442683413 scopus 로고
    • On the causes which operate to create scientific men
    • Francis Galton, "On the causes which operate to create scientific men", Fortnightly review, n.s., xiii (1873), 345-51, p. 349.
    • (1873) Fortnightly Review , vol.13 , pp. 345-351
    • Galton, F.1
  • 106
    • 2442638193 scopus 로고
    • Tyndall and Forbes
    • 11 Sept
    • P. G. Tait, "Tyndall and Forbes" (Letters to the editor), Nature, 11 Sept. 1873, 381-2, p. 382; Barton, "Controversy in Nature" (ref. 6). Richard Proctor defended Tyndall and commended popular writing as a source of income for serious science workers in Wages and wants of science-workers (London, 1876), 6-9, 30-31.
    • (1873) Nature , pp. 381-382
    • Tait, P.G.1
  • 107
    • 85039531286 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 6
    • P. G. Tait, "Tyndall and Forbes" (Letters to the editor), Nature, 11 Sept. 1873, 381-2, p. 382; Barton, "Controversy in Nature" (ref. 6). Richard Proctor defended Tyndall and commended popular writing as a source of income for serious science workers in Wages and wants of science-workers (London, 1876), 6-9, 30-31.
    • Controversy in Nature
    • Barton1
  • 108
    • 2442695775 scopus 로고
    • Religion and science
    • P. G. Tait, "Religion and science", The Scots observer (1888), reprinted in C. G. Knott, The life and scientific work of Peter Guthrie Tait (Cambridge, 1911), 293-5. An early use of 'scientists' should be noted here: Tait used scientific men/man six times and scientists once.
    • (1888) The Scots Observer
    • Tait, P.G.1
  • 109
    • 0003950920 scopus 로고
    • Cambridge
    • P. G. Tait, "Religion and science", The Scots observer (1888), reprinted in C. G. Knott, The life and scientific work of Peter Guthrie Tait (Cambridge, 1911), 293-5. An early use of 'scientists' should be noted here: Tait used scientific men/man six times and scientists once.
    • (1911) The Life and Scientific Work of Peter Guthrie Tait , pp. 293-295
    • Knott, C.G.1
  • 110
    • 2442718181 scopus 로고
    • Obituary notices of Fellows deceased
    • "Obituary notices of Fellows deceased", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, xlviii (1891), pp. xii-xv, p. xiii. Perry's obituary was by A. A. C. On such images of heroism see Naomi Oreskes, "Objectivity or heroism? On the invisibility of women in science", Osiris, xi (Science in the field, 1996), 87-113.
    • (1891) Proceedings of the Royal Society of London , vol.48
  • 111
    • 84860454062 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Objectivity or heroism? On the invisibility of women in science
    • Science in the field
    • "Obituary notices of Fellows deceased", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, xlviii (1891), pp. xii-xv, p. xiii. Perry's obituary was by A. A. C. On such images of heroism see Naomi Oreskes, "Objectivity or heroism? On the invisibility of women in science", Osiris, xi (Science in the field, 1996), 87-113.
    • (1996) Osiris , vol.11 , pp. 87-113
    • Oreskes, N.1
  • 113
    • 2442657070 scopus 로고
    • Obituary notices of Fellows deceased
    • "Obituary notices of Fellows deceased", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, xlvii (1890), pp. ix-xii for Berkeley's obituary, which was written by J. D. Hooker.
    • (1890) Proceedings of the Royal Society of London , vol.47
  • 115
    • 2442690863 scopus 로고
    • Vestiges of the natural history of creation...
    • [Adam Sedgwick], "Vestiges of the natural history of creation...", Edinburgh review, lxxxii (1845), 1-85, pp. 2-4.
    • (1845) Edinburgh Review , vol.82 , pp. 1-85
    • Sedgwick, A.1
  • 116
  • 117
    • 85039518199 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 22
    • Bellon's close analysis of Hooker comes to a very similar conclusion. Hooker believed that his disinterested and selfless service to the nation gave him personal moral authority and imposed an obligation on the nation to support his science: Bellon, "Joseph Hooker's ideals" (ref. 22), 59, 64.
    • Joseph Hooker's Ideals , pp. 59
    • Bellon1
  • 118
    • 1542732704 scopus 로고
    • Strenuous idleness: Thomas Carlyle and the man of letters as hero
    • Michael Roper and John Tosh (eds) (London)
    • Useful references include Norma Clarke, "Strenuous idleness: Thomas Carlyle and the man of letters as hero", in Michael Roper and John Tosh (eds), Manful assertions: Masculinities in Britain since 1800 (London, 1991), 25-43; Boyd Hilton, "Manliness, masculinity and the mid-Victorian temperament", in Lawrence Goldman (ed.), The blind Victorian: Henry Fawcett and British Liberalism (Cambridge, 1989), 60-70; Oreskes, "Objectivity or heroism?" (ref. 77); and, most recently, White, Thomas Huxley (ref. 31).
    • (1991) Manful Assertions: Masculinities in Britain since 1800 , pp. 25-43
    • Clarke, N.1
  • 119
    • 1542418009 scopus 로고
    • Manliness, masculinity and the mid-Victorian temperament
    • Lawrence Goldman (ed.) (Cambridge)
    • Useful references include Norma Clarke, "Strenuous idleness: Thomas Carlyle and the man of letters as hero", in Michael Roper and John Tosh (eds), Manful assertions: Masculinities in Britain since 1800 (London, 1991), 25-43; Boyd Hilton, "Manliness, masculinity and the mid-Victorian temperament", in Lawrence Goldman (ed.), The blind Victorian: Henry Fawcett and British Liberalism (Cambridge, 1989), 60-70; Oreskes, "Objectivity or heroism?" (ref. 77); and, most recently, White, Thomas Huxley (ref. 31).
    • (1989) The Blind Victorian: Henry Fawcett and British Liberalism , pp. 60-70
    • Hilton, B.1
  • 120
    • 85039524386 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 77
    • Useful references include Norma Clarke, "Strenuous idleness: Thomas Carlyle and the man of letters as hero", in Michael Roper and John Tosh (eds), Manful assertions: Masculinities in Britain since 1800 (London, 1991), 25-43; Boyd Hilton, "Manliness, masculinity and the mid-Victorian temperament", in Lawrence Goldman (ed.), The blind Victorian: Henry Fawcett and British Liberalism (Cambridge, 1989), 60-70; Oreskes, "Objectivity or heroism?" (ref. 77); and, most recently, White, Thomas Huxley (ref. 31).
    • Objectivity or Heroism?
    • Oreskes1
  • 121
    • 85039512259 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 31
    • Useful references include Norma Clarke, "Strenuous idleness: Thomas Carlyle and the man of letters as hero", in Michael Roper and John Tosh (eds), Manful assertions: Masculinities in Britain since 1800 (London, 1991), 25-43; Boyd Hilton, "Manliness, masculinity and the mid-Victorian temperament", in Lawrence Goldman (ed.), The blind Victorian: Henry Fawcett and British Liberalism (Cambridge, 1989), 60-70; Oreskes, "Objectivity or heroism?" (ref. 77); and, most recently, White, Thomas Huxley (ref. 31).
    • Thomas Huxley
    • White1
  • 123
    • 2442710716 scopus 로고
    • President's address
    • "President's address", BAAS Report, 1850, pp. xxxi-xliv, p. xliii.
    • (1850) BAAS Report
  • 124
    • 2442658351 scopus 로고
    • Obituary notices of deceased fellows
    • "Obituary notices of deceased Fellows", Abstracts of papers delivered before the Royal Society of London, vi (1850-54), 244-66, pp. 250-1. In this period the obituary notices were read by the President as part of the presidential address, but they may have been written by the secretaries. See similar quotations below in List 3 (1864) and List 4 (1852).
    • (1850) Abstracts of Papers Delivered before the Royal Society of London , vol.9 , pp. 244-266
  • 126
    • 2442644480 scopus 로고
    • Address by the President
    • Lord Wrottesley, "Address by the President", BAAS report, 1860, pp. lv-lxxv, p. lx. Wrottesley was himself a private astronomer with a large private observatory. See David Layton, "Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S., pioneer statesman of science", Notes and records of the Royal Society of London, xxiii (1968), 230-46.
    • (1860) BAAS Report
    • Lord Wrottesley1
  • 127
    • 2442680855 scopus 로고
    • Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S., pioneer statesman of science
    • Lord Wrottesley, "Address by the President", BAAS report, 1860, pp. lv-lxxv, p. lx. Wrottesley was himself a private astronomer with a large private observatory. See David Layton, "Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S., pioneer statesman of science", Notes and records of the Royal Society of London, xxiii (1968), 230-46.
    • (1968) Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London , vol.23 , pp. 230-246
    • Layton, D.1
  • 128
    • 2442710715 scopus 로고
    • Botanical museums
    • 3 Oct
    • William Carruthers, "Botanical museums", Nature, 3 Oct. 1872, 449-52, pp. 450-1. Carruthers's larger argument was that both herbaria be maintained separately.
    • (1872) Nature , pp. 449-452
    • Carruthers, W.1
  • 129
    • 85039526495 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hooker to Huxley, [17 Apr. 1861]
    • J. D. Hooker Correspondence, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, f. 75
    • Hooker to Huxley, [17 Apr. 1861], J. D. Hooker Correspondence, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, "Letters from J. D. Hooker: Huxley 1851-94", f. 75. The Oxford English dictionary records the same use of 'scientific' as a noun by Lyell in 1830 and Augustus de Morgan in 1853.
    • Letters from J. D. Hooker: Huxley 1851-94
  • 130
    • 85039514247 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hooker to Asa Gray, 26 July 1858
    • discussed by Bellon, (ref. 22)
    • Although Hooker seemed to deny any difference in scientific standing, in another context he differentiated his and Bentham's motives. Bentham was motivated by his love of science, whereas Hooker considered that a professional botanist should be motivated by a more public-spirited commitment to the good of science. (Hooker to Asa Gray, 26 July 1858, discussed by Bellon, "Hooker's ideals" (ref. 22), 62.)
    • Hooker's Ideals , pp. 62
  • 131
    • 2442694594 scopus 로고
    • Botanical museums
    • 23 July
    • [George Bentham], "Botanical museums", Nature, 23 July 1871, 401-2, p. 401. Authorship was identified by Carruthers (ref. 90). Carruthers disputed Bentham's claim that palaeontologists, in Bentham's second rank, needed a lesser herbarium, but that is another story.
    • (1871) Nature , pp. 401-402
    • Bentham, G.1
  • 132
    • 85039517012 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • "Professional", adjective, meaning 4.a, Oxford English dictionary. For the restricted sense of "learned" profession, see "Profession", 6.a and "Professional", adjective, 3.
  • 133
    • 85039525041 scopus 로고
    • Definitions and speculations
    • (ref. 19), on America, and Robert Kargon, on Manchester (Manchester)
    • Reingold, "Definitions and speculations" (ref. 19), on America, and Robert Kargon, on Manchester (Science in Victorian Manchester: Enterprise and expertise (Manchester, 1977)) have proposed labels (researcher, practitioner, cultivator, devotee) which would make more useful discriminations than the blunt professional and amateur. Although these proposals are not consistently based on Victorian usage, they do point to the kind of discriminations that need to be made.
    • (1977) Science in Victorian Manchester: Enterprise and Expertise
    • Reingold1
  • 134
    • 85039517721 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • In the Oxford English dictionary this meaning is "Professional" , adjective, 4.e: "Reaching a standard or having the quality expected of a professional person or his work; competent in the manner of a professional." The earliest quotation under this meaning is 1926.
  • 135
    • 85039518489 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hooker to Huxley [4 Jan. 1861]
    • (ref. 56), ff. 83-84
    • Hooker to Huxley [4 Jan. 1861], Huxley Papers (ref. 56), vol iii, ff. 83-84.
    • Huxley Papers , vol.3
  • 136
    • 85039539736 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 22
    • Bellon, "Hooker's ideals" (ref. 22), 59-64. Similarly, Endersby, in "Putting plants in their place" (ref. 22), shows that in the 1840s and '50s Hooker's preferred self-description was "professed botanist", alluding not to his occupational status but to his commitment to botany as a vocation. As other people professed various religious commitments (the primary meaning of the word), Hooker professed his commitment to botany. However, although other botanists styled themselves 'professed', this did not always imply a high level of personal commitment. For example, in 1856 Charles Daubeny described himself as a professed botanist, by virtue of his position as Professor of Botany; but he identified chemistry as the subject with which he was most familiar, showing that 'professed', for him, meant public position rather than private commitment ("Address by the President" (ref. 37), pp. lxiv, xlix).
    • Hooker's Ideals , pp. 59-64
    • Bellon1
  • 137
    • 85038729331 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 37
    • Bellon, "Hooker's ideals" (ref. 22), 59-64. Similarly, Endersby, in "Putting plants in their place" (ref. 22), shows that in the 1840s and '50s Hooker's preferred self-description was "professed botanist", alluding not to his occupational status but to his commitment to botany as a vocation. As other people professed various religious commitments (the primary meaning of the word), Hooker professed his commitment to botany. However, although other botanists styled themselves 'professed', this did not always imply a high level of personal commitment. For example, in 1856 Charles Daubeny described himself as a professed botanist, by virtue of his position as Professor of Botany; but he identified chemistry as the subject with which he was most familiar, showing that 'professed', for him, meant public position rather than private commitment ("Address by the President" (ref. 37), pp. lxiv, xlix).
    • Address by the President
  • 139
    • 2442646987 scopus 로고
    • Literature
    • 4 Jan
    • [G. H. Lewes], "Literature", The leader, 4 Jan. 1854, 40-41, p. 40. Lewes may have learned the identity of his critic through Marian Evans who was the assistant editor of the Westminster.
    • (1854) The Leader , pp. 40-41
    • Lewes, G.H.1
  • 141
    • 2442680854 scopus 로고
    • Sea-side studies. Part III
    • [G. H. Lewes], "Sea-side studies. Part III", Blackwood's Edinburgh magazine, lxxx (1856), 472-85, pp. 480, 484. This critical allusion to professors and the first (but not the second) self-description as 'amateur' were removed from the collected essays.
    • (1856) Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine , vol.80 , pp. 472-485
    • Lewes, G.H.1
  • 142
    • 79952203722 scopus 로고
    • New sea-side studies. No. III - Jersey
    • [G. H. Lewes], "New sea-side studies. No. III - Jersey", Blackwood's Edinburgh magazine, lxxxii (1857), 222-39, p. 236.
    • (1857) Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine , vol.82 , pp. 222-239
    • Lewes, G.H.1
  • 144
    • 85039541521 scopus 로고
    • Our address
    • 11 Nov
    • [Henry Lawson], "Our address", Scientific opinion, 11 Nov. 1868, 1.
    • (1868) Scientific Opinion , pp. 1
  • 145
    • 84985455795 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 52
    • Scientific opinion was a weekly of similar format to Nature (see Barton, "Just before Nature" (ref. 52)). On Lawson's position as a defender of spontaneous generation against T. H. Huxley and John Tyndall see James Strick, Sparks of life: Darwinism and the Victorian debates over spontaneous generation (Cambridge, Mass., 2000). Roy MacLeod interpreted Nature as representing professionalizing science: "Science in Grub Street", "Macmillan and the scientists", "Seeds of competition", "Macmillan and the young guard", and "The new journal", Nature, ccxxiv, issue of 1 Nov. 1969, 423-39. For alternative emphases see David A. Roos, "The aims and intentions of Nature", in James Paradis and Thomas Postlewait (eds), Victorian science and Victorian values: Literary perspectives (New York, 1981), 159-80, and Barton, "Controversy in Nature" (ref. 6).
    • Just before Nature
    • Barton1
  • 146
    • 84985455795 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cambridge, Mass.
    • Scientific opinion was a weekly of similar format to Nature (see Barton, "Just before Nature" (ref. 52)). On Lawson's position as a defender of spontaneous generation against T. H. Huxley and John Tyndall see James Strick, Sparks of life: Darwinism and the Victorian debates over spontaneous generation (Cambridge, Mass., 2000). Roy MacLeod interpreted Nature as representing professionalizing science: "Science in Grub Street", "Macmillan and the scientists", "Seeds of competition", "Macmillan and the young guard", and "The new journal", Nature, ccxxiv, issue of 1 Nov. 1969, 423-39. For alternative emphases see David A. Roos, "The aims and intentions of Nature", in James Paradis and Thomas Postlewait (eds), Victorian science and Victorian values: Literary perspectives (New York, 1981), 159-80, and Barton, "Controversy in Nature" (ref. 6).
    • (2000) Sparks of Life: Darwinism and the Victorian Debates over Spontaneous Generation
    • Strick, J.1
  • 147
    • 84985455795 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Science in Grub street
    • Scientific opinion was a weekly of similar format to Nature (see Barton, "Just before Nature" (ref. 52)). On Lawson's position as a defender of spontaneous generation against T. H. Huxley and John Tyndall see James Strick, Sparks of life: Darwinism and the Victorian debates over spontaneous generation (Cambridge, Mass., 2000). Roy MacLeod interpreted Nature as representing professionalizing science: "Science in Grub Street", "Macmillan and the scientists", "Seeds of competition", "Macmillan and the young guard", and "The new journal", Nature, ccxxiv, issue of 1 Nov. 1969, 423-39. For alternative emphases see David A. Roos, "The aims and intentions of Nature", in James Paradis and Thomas Postlewait (eds), Victorian science and Victorian values: Literary perspectives (New York, 1981), 159-80, and Barton, "Controversy in Nature" (ref. 6).
    • Nature
  • 148
    • 84985455795 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Macmillan and the scientists
    • Scientific opinion was a weekly of similar format to Nature (see Barton, "Just before Nature" (ref. 52)). On Lawson's position as a defender of spontaneous generation against T. H. Huxley and John Tyndall see James Strick, Sparks of life: Darwinism and the Victorian debates over spontaneous generation (Cambridge, Mass., 2000). Roy MacLeod interpreted Nature as representing professionalizing science: "Science in Grub Street", "Macmillan and the scientists", "Seeds of competition", "Macmillan and the young guard", and "The new journal", Nature, ccxxiv, issue of 1 Nov. 1969, 423-39. For alternative emphases see David A. Roos, "The aims and intentions of Nature", in James Paradis and Thomas Postlewait (eds), Victorian science and Victorian values: Literary perspectives (New York, 1981), 159-80, and Barton, "Controversy in Nature" (ref. 6).
    • Nature
  • 149
    • 84985455795 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Seeds of competition
    • Scientific opinion was a weekly of similar format to Nature (see Barton, "Just before Nature" (ref. 52)). On Lawson's position as a defender of spontaneous generation against T. H. Huxley and John Tyndall see James Strick, Sparks of life: Darwinism and the Victorian debates over spontaneous generation (Cambridge, Mass., 2000). Roy MacLeod interpreted Nature as representing professionalizing science: "Science in Grub Street", "Macmillan and the scientists", "Seeds of competition", "Macmillan and the young guard", and "The new journal", Nature, ccxxiv, issue of 1 Nov. 1969, 423-39. For alternative emphases see David A. Roos, "The aims and intentions of Nature", in James Paradis and Thomas Postlewait (eds), Victorian science and Victorian values: Literary perspectives (New York, 1981), 159-80, and Barton, "Controversy in Nature" (ref. 6).
    • Nature
  • 150
    • 84985455795 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Macmillan and the young guard
    • Scientific opinion was a weekly of similar format to Nature (see Barton, "Just before Nature" (ref. 52)). On Lawson's position as a defender of spontaneous generation against T. H. Huxley and John Tyndall see James Strick, Sparks of life: Darwinism and the Victorian debates over spontaneous generation (Cambridge, Mass., 2000). Roy MacLeod interpreted Nature as representing professionalizing science: "Science in Grub Street", "Macmillan and the scientists", "Seeds of competition", "Macmillan and the young guard", and "The new journal", Nature, ccxxiv, issue of 1 Nov. 1969, 423-39. For alternative emphases see David A. Roos, "The aims and intentions of Nature", in James Paradis and Thomas Postlewait (eds), Victorian science and Victorian values: Literary perspectives (New York, 1981), 159-80, and Barton, "Controversy in Nature" (ref. 6).
    • Nature
  • 151
    • 2442683409 scopus 로고
    • The new journal
    • issue of 1 Nov.
    • Scientific opinion was a weekly of similar format to Nature (see Barton, "Just before Nature" (ref. 52)). On Lawson's position as a defender of spontaneous generation against T. H. Huxley and John Tyndall see James Strick, Sparks of life: Darwinism and the Victorian debates over spontaneous generation (Cambridge, Mass., 2000). Roy MacLeod interpreted Nature as representing professionalizing science: "Science in Grub Street", "Macmillan and the scientists", "Seeds of competition", "Macmillan and the young guard", and "The new journal", Nature, ccxxiv, issue of 1 Nov. 1969, 423-39. For alternative emphases see David A. Roos, "The aims and intentions of Nature", in James Paradis and Thomas Postlewait (eds), Victorian science and Victorian values: Literary perspectives (New York, 1981), 159-80, and Barton, "Controversy in Nature" (ref. 6).
    • (1969) Nature , vol.224 , pp. 423-439
  • 152
    • 84985455795 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The aims and intentions of Nature
    • James Paradis and Thomas Postlewait (eds) (New York)
    • Scientific opinion was a weekly of similar format to Nature (see Barton, "Just before Nature" (ref. 52)). On Lawson's position as a defender of spontaneous generation against T. H. Huxley and John Tyndall see James Strick, Sparks of life: Darwinism and the Victorian debates over spontaneous generation (Cambridge, Mass., 2000). Roy MacLeod interpreted Nature as representing professionalizing science: "Science in Grub Street", "Macmillan and the scientists", "Seeds of competition", "Macmillan and the young guard", and "The new journal", Nature, ccxxiv, issue of 1 Nov. 1969, 423-39. For alternative emphases see David A. Roos, "The aims and intentions of Nature", in James Paradis and Thomas Postlewait (eds), Victorian science and Victorian values: Literary perspectives (New York, 1981), 159-80, and Barton, "Controversy in Nature" (ref. 6).
    • (1981) Victorian Science and Victorian Values: Literary Perspectives , pp. 159-180
    • Roos, D.A.1
  • 156
    • 85039526979 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 14
    • Berman, "Hegemony" (ref. 14), 39.
    • Hegemony , pp. 39
    • Berman1
  • 157
    • 85039542037 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hooker to John Tyndall, 19 Sept. 1888
    • Royal Institution of Great Britain, London, 12/F8.91
    • Hooker to John Tyndall, 19 Sept. 1888, Tyndall Papers, Royal Institution of Great Britain, London, 12/F8.91; Sir Frederick Bramwell, "Address by the President", BAAS report, 1888, 3-23. Similarly, Porter has recorded that leading geologists did not like the authoritarianism and monopolism of the traditional learned professions (see "Gentlemen and geology" (ref. 8), 823).
    • Tyndall Papers
  • 158
    • 2442713176 scopus 로고
    • Address by the President
    • Hooker to John Tyndall, 19 Sept. 1888, Tyndall Papers, Royal Institution of Great Britain, London, 12/F8.91; Sir Frederick Bramwell, "Address by the President", BAAS report, 1888, 3-23. Similarly, Porter has recorded that leading geologists did not like the authoritarianism and monopolism of the traditional learned professions (see "Gentlemen and geology" (ref. 8), 823).
    • (1888) BAAS Report , pp. 3-23
    • Bramwell, F.1
  • 159
    • 0042379834 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 8
    • Hooker to John Tyndall, 19 Sept. 1888, Tyndall Papers, Royal Institution of Great Britain, London, 12/F8.91; Sir Frederick Bramwell, "Address by the President", BAAS report, 1888, 3-23. Similarly, Porter has recorded that leading geologists did not like the authoritarianism and monopolism of the traditional learned professions (see "Gentlemen and geology" (ref. 8), 823).
    • Gentlemen and Geology , pp. 823
  • 160
    • 0012858331 scopus 로고
    • Macmillan
    • A. J. Meadows describes the relaxed atmosphere and the six-hour day in the Civil Service of the 1860s (Science and controversy: A biography of Sir Norman Lockyer (Macmillan, 1972), 6-7). The young John Lubbock, beginning work in the family bank, did not expect to attend on two consecutive days ("Diary, 1853-63", entries for Jan. 1853, Avebury Papers (ref. 55), Add. MSS 62679, ff. 2-3).
    • (1972) Science and Controversy: A Biography of Sir Norman Lockyer , pp. 6-7
  • 161
    • 85039541556 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • "Diary, 1853-63", entries for Jan. 1853
    • (ref. 55), Add. MSS 62679, ff. 2-3
    • A. J. Meadows describes the relaxed atmosphere and the six-hour day in the Civil Service of the 1860s (Science and controversy: A biography of Sir Norman Lockyer (Macmillan, 1972), 6-7). The young John Lubbock, beginning work in the family bank, did not expect to attend on two consecutive days ("Diary, 1853-63", entries for Jan. 1853, Avebury Papers (ref. 55), Add. MSS 62679, ff. 2-3).
    • Avebury Papers
  • 165
    • 2442684681 scopus 로고
    • Address by the President
    • "Address by the President", BAAS report, 1868, pp. lviii-lxxv, p. lix.
    • (1868) BAAS Report
  • 167
    • 0003557953 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 70
    • Galton, English men of science (ref. 70), 105. These groups make up 40-45% of Galton's sample, leaving professors, leisured amateurs, lawyers, and Members of Parliament among the other 55-60%.
    • English Men of Science , pp. 105
    • Galton1
  • 168
    • 85039536368 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Lord Derby
    • ref. 58
    • Cited in "Lord Derby", Nature (ref. 58), 142.
    • Nature , pp. 142
  • 169
    • 85039532762 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The Secretaries in 1858 were William Sharpey, Professor of Anatomy and Physiology at University College, London, and G. G. Stokes, Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge. Sharpey's predecessor, Thomas Bell, held the positions of both dental surgeon at Guy's Hospital and Professor of Zoology at King's College while he was Secretary (1848-53).
  • 171
    • 85039514869 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 87
    • "Obituary notices of deceased Fellows" (ref. 87), 250-4. This extract extends the above quotation about Dalrymple.
    • Obituary Notices of Deceased Fellows , pp. 250-254
  • 173
    • 2442636971 scopus 로고
    • Address by the President
    • "Address by the President", BAAS report, 1858, pp. xlix-cx, p. lxxix.
    • (1858) BAAS Report
  • 175
    • 85038729331 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref 42
    • "Address by the President" (ref 42), p. lx. Compare with the above quote, selected for a different emphasis.
    • Address by the President
  • 176
    • 85039526981 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 46
    • "President's address" (ref. 46), 72. Although, by this period, obituaries were no longer read at anniversary meetings, the President often referred briefly to deceased Fellows in his address.
    • President's Address , pp. 72
  • 177
    • 2442696977 scopus 로고
    • Address by the President
    • "Address by the President", BAAS report, 1879, 1-30, p. 1.
    • (1879) BAAS Report , pp. 1-30
  • 178
    • 2442672080 scopus 로고
    • Anniversary address
    • "Anniversary address", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, xxxvii (1884), 428-47, p. 429. In the absence of the President, T. H. Huxley, the address was given by the Treasurer, John Evans.
    • (1884) Proceedings of the Royal Society of London , vol.37 , pp. 428-447
  • 181
    • 84942137020 scopus 로고
    • George James Allman, 1812-1898
    • "George James Allman, 1812-1898", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, lxxv (1904-5), 25-27.
    • (1904) Proceedings of the Royal Society of London , vol.75 , pp. 25-27
  • 182
    • 2442673312 scopus 로고
    • President's address
    • "President's address", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, xxiii (1874-75), 50-73, p. 59. Hooker's wife had died only two weeks previously and the address was read by the Treasurer, William Spottiswoode, "for the President" (p. 50). I interpret this as meaning that Hooker had written the address.
    • (1874) Proceedings of the Royal Society of London , vol.23 , pp. 50-73
  • 183
    • 85039526981 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 122
    • The Earl of Rosse, "President's address" (ref. 122), 262. Medal citations were read by the President but were probably derived from the recommendations of the nominators.
    • President's Address , pp. 262
  • 184
    • 85039533676 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See at refs 66 and 67
    • See at refs 66 and 67.
  • 186
    • 2442687191 scopus 로고
    • Mary Somerville
    • Two examples are recorded in [Anon.], "Mary Somerville", Atlantic monthly, v (1860), 568-71: Francis Jeffrey, first editor of the Edinburgh review and later Lord Advocate for Scotland; and an unnamed London lady. Dates are not specified but are probably c. 1830-35.
    • (1860) Atlantic Monthly , vol.5 , pp. 568-571
  • 187
    • 84972102033 scopus 로고
    • Mary Anning (1799-1847) of Lyme; 'the greatest fossilist the world ever knew'
    • The labels come from: a local newspaper (1823), a Bristol collector (1823), and an antiquary (1847) for "fossilist"; Gideon Mantell, geologist, for "geological Lioness"; Ludwig Leichardt, explorer, for "Princess of palaeontology". See Hugh Torrens, "Mary Anning (1799-1847) of Lyme; 'the greatest fossilist the world ever knew'", The British journal for the history of science, xxviii (1995), 257-84, pp. 262-3, 268-9.
    • (1995) The British Journal for the History of Science , vol.28 , pp. 257-284
    • Torrens, H.1
  • 188
    • 0040817490 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Artisan botany
    • N. Jardine, J. A. Secord, and E. C. Spary (eds), (Cambridge)
    • Anne Secord, "Artisan botany", in N. Jardine, J. A. Secord, and E. C. Spary (eds), Cultures of natural history (Cambridge, 1996), 378-93, pp. 385, 387 for examples.
    • (1996) Cultures of Natural History , pp. 378-393
    • Secord, A.1
  • 190
    • 85039534793 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hooker to Asa Gray, 10 Dec. 1856
    • cited by Bellon, (ref. 22)
    • Hooker to Asa Gray, 10 Dec. 1856, cited by Bellon, "Hooker's ideals" (ref. 22), 71; Huxley to Hooker, 29 Jan. 1859, Huxley Papers (ref. 56), vol. ii, f. 53. Endersby, "Putting plants in their place" (ref. 22), also discusses the status of botany in mid-century.
    • Hooker's Ideals , pp. 71
  • 191
    • 85039524596 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Huxley to Hooker, 29 Jan. 1859
    • (ref. 56), f. 53
    • Hooker to Asa Gray, 10 Dec. 1856, cited by Bellon, "Hooker's ideals" (ref. 22), 71; Huxley to Hooker, 29 Jan. 1859, Huxley Papers (ref. 56), vol. ii, f. 53. Endersby, "Putting plants in their place" (ref. 22), also discusses the status of botany in mid-century.
    • Huxley Papers , vol.2
  • 192
    • 85039533515 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (ref. 22), also discusses the status of botany in mid-century
    • Hooker to Asa Gray, 10 Dec. 1856, cited by Bellon, "Hooker's ideals" (ref. 22), 71; Huxley to Hooker, 29 Jan. 1859, Huxley Papers (ref. 56), vol. ii, f. 53. Endersby, "Putting plants in their place" (ref. 22), also discusses the status of botany in mid-century.
    • Putting Plants in Their Place
    • Endersby1
  • 193
    • 0032185004 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 123
    • "Address by the President" (ref. 123), p. lxxix. When Allman chose to describe himself as "a worker in only the biological sciences" (List 4, 1879) rather than a 'naturalist' it may be that he was judging 'naturalist' to represent a lesser person. But also, he might have preferred the tone of 'worker', or he might have been trying not to take sides in the growing tensions between naturalists and biologists (see David Allen, "On parallel lines: Natural history and biology from the late Victorian period", Annals of natural history, xxv (1998), 361-71).
    • Address by the President
  • 194
    • 0032185004 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On parallel lines: Natural history and biology from the late Victorian period
    • "Address by the President" (ref. 123), p. lxxix. When Allman chose to describe himself as "a worker in only the biological sciences" (List 4, 1879) rather than a 'naturalist' it may be that he was judging 'naturalist' to represent a lesser person. But also, he might have preferred the tone of 'worker', or he might have been trying not to take sides in the growing tensions between naturalists and biologists (see David Allen, "On parallel lines: Natural history and biology from the late Victorian period", Annals of natural history, xxv (1998), 361-71).
    • (1998) Annals of Natural History , vol.25 , pp. 361-371
    • Allen, D.1
  • 195
    • 85039540931 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hooker to J. D. de la Touche, 24 Dec. 1893
    • ref. 91
    • Hooker to J. D. de la Touche, 24 Dec. 1893, Hooker Correspondence (ref. 91), "Letters from J. D. Hooker", vol. x, f. 49.
    • Hooker Correspondence
  • 196
    • 85039522355 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • f. 49
    • Hooker to J. D. de la Touche, 24 Dec. 1893, Hooker Correspondence (ref. 91), "Letters from J. D. Hooker", vol. x, f. 49.
    • Letters from J. D. Hooker , vol.10
  • 198
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    • The award of the Copley Medal to Charles Darwin
    • For examples see M. J. Bartholomew, "The award of the Copley Medal to Charles Darwin", Notes and records of the Royal Society of London, xxx (1975), 209-17; and J. S. Rowlinson, "The theory of glaciers", Notes and records of the Royal Society of London, xxvi (1971), 189-204, pp. 196-7.
    • (1975) Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London , vol.30 , pp. 209-217
    • Bartholomew, M.J.1
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    • The theory of glaciers
    • For examples see M. J. Bartholomew, "The award of the Copley Medal to Charles Darwin", Notes and records of the Royal Society of London, xxx (1975), 209-17; and J. S. Rowlinson, "The theory of glaciers", Notes and records of the Royal Society of London, xxvi (1971), 189-204, pp. 196-7.
    • (1971) Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London , vol.26 , pp. 189-204
    • Rowlinson, J.S.1
  • 201
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    • President's address
    • written by Brodie but read in his absence by Sabine
    • "President's address" (written by Brodie but read in his absence by Sabine), Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, xi (1860-62), 8-14, pp. 8-9.
    • (1860) Proceedings of the Royal Society of London , vol.11 , pp. 8-14
  • 202
  • 203
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    • President's address
    • italics mine
    • "President's address", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, xxvi (1877), 427-46, p. 431, italics mine.
    • (1877) Proceedings of the Royal Society of London , vol.26 , pp. 427-446
  • 205
    • 85039513664 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Edward Frankland to J. D. Hooker, 8 Dec. [1876]
    • ref. 91
    • Edward Frankland to J. D. Hooker, 8 Dec. [1876], Hooker Correspondence (ref. 91), "Letters to J. D. Hooker - Dinners, receptions etc; Exhibition of Scientific Instrus.; Government Grant; Greenwich Observatory; Vivisection Bill", ff. 351-2.
    • Hooker Correspondence
  • 209
    • 2442687192 scopus 로고
    • The endowment of research
    • 26 June, italics mine
    • "The endowment of research", Nature, 26 June 1873, 157-8, p. 157, italics mine. Attributed to Norman Lockyer by D. S. L. Cardwell, The organisation of science in England, rev. edn (London, 1972), 151.
    • (1873) Nature , pp. 157-158
  • 212
    • 85039526979 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 14
    • Berman, "Hegemony" (ref. 14) demonstrates that a wide variety of leading researchers had little interest in establishing specialist education.
    • Hegemony
    • Berman1
  • 214
    • 85039531920 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hooker to John Tyndall, 14 Nov. 1891
    • (ref. 110), 12/F10.104
    • Hooker to John Tyndall, 14 Nov. 1891, Tyndall Papers (ref. 110), 12/F10.104. Hooker went on to class surveyors as geographers whose work duties were "practical", implying that geography was not a science.
    • Tyndall Papers
  • 215
    • 0000425023 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Green gold: The riches of Baron Ferdinand von Mueller
    • For example, see James R. Moore, "Green gold: The riches of Baron Ferdinand von Mueller", Historical records of Australian science, xi (1997), 371-88.
    • (1997) Historical Records of Australian Science , vol.11 , pp. 371-388
    • Moore, J.R.1
  • 216
    • 85039524386 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 77
    • On the gap between rhetoric and reality and the exclusionary power of rhetoric, although in another time and place, see Oreskes, "Objectivity or heroism?" (ref. 77).
    • Objectivity or Heroism?
    • Oreskes1


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.