Why not parties? Electoral markets, party substitutes, and stalled democratization in Russia

Comparative Politics

Volumn 37, Issue 2, 2005, Pages

  Hale, Henry E ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 13544263511     PISSN: 00104159     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/20072880     Document Type: Review

References (103)

1. John H. Aldrich, Why Parties? (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); Gary Cox, Making Votes Count (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Maurice Duverger, Political Parties (New York: Wiley, 1954); Herbert Kitschelt, "The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe," Politics and Society, 20 (March 1992), 7-50; Herbert Kitschelt et al., Post-Communist Party Systems (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999); Seymour Martin Lipset and Stein Rokkan, eds., Party Systems and Voter Alignments (New York: Free Press, 1967); Rein Taagepera and Matthew Soberg Shugart, Seats and Votes (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989).
2. John H. Aldrich, Why Parties? (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); Gary Cox, Making Votes Count (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Maurice Duverger, Political Parties (New York: Wiley, 1954); Herbert Kitschelt, "The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe," Politics and Society, 20 (March 1992), 7-50; Herbert Kitschelt et al., Post-Communist Party Systems (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999); Seymour Martin Lipset and Stein Rokkan, eds., Party Systems and Voter Alignments (New York: Free Press, 1967); Rein Taagepera and Matthew Soberg Shugart, Seats and Votes (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989).
3. John H. Aldrich, Why Parties? (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); Gary Cox, Making Votes Count (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Maurice Duverger, Political Parties (New York: Wiley, 1954); Herbert Kitschelt, "The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe," Politics and Society, 20 (March 1992), 7-50; Herbert Kitschelt et al., Post-Communist Party Systems (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999); Seymour Martin Lipset and Stein Rokkan, eds., Party Systems and Voter Alignments (New York: Free Press, 1967); Rein Taagepera and Matthew Soberg Shugart, Seats and Votes (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989).
4. John H. Aldrich, Why Parties? (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); Gary Cox, Making Votes Count (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Maurice Duverger, Political Parties (New York: Wiley, 1954); Herbert Kitschelt, "The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe," Politics and Society, 20 (March 1992), 7-50; Herbert Kitschelt et al., Post-Communist Party Systems (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999); Seymour Martin Lipset and Stein Rokkan, eds., Party Systems and Voter Alignments (New York: Free Press, 1967); Rein Taagepera and Matthew Soberg Shugart, Seats and Votes (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989).
5. John H. Aldrich, Why Parties? (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); Gary Cox, Making Votes Count (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Maurice Duverger, Political Parties (New York: Wiley, 1954); Herbert Kitschelt, "The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe," Politics and Society, 20 (March 1992), 7-50; Herbert Kitschelt et al., Post-Communist Party Systems (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999); Seymour Martin Lipset and Stein Rokkan, eds., Party Systems and Voter Alignments (New York: Free Press, 1967); Rein Taagepera and Matthew Soberg Shugart, Seats and Votes (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989).
6. John H. Aldrich, Why Parties? (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); Gary Cox, Making Votes Count (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Maurice Duverger, Political Parties (New York: Wiley, 1954); Herbert Kitschelt, "The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe," Politics and Society, 20 (March 1992), 7-50; Herbert Kitschelt et al., Post-Communist Party Systems (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999); Seymour Martin Lipset and Stein Rokkan, eds., Party Systems and Voter Alignments (New York: Free Press, 1967); Rein Taagepera and Matthew Soberg Shugart, Seats and Votes (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989).
7. John H. Aldrich, Why Parties? (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); Gary Cox, Making Votes Count (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Maurice Duverger, Political Parties (New York: Wiley, 1954); Herbert Kitschelt, "The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe," Politics and Society, 20 (March 1992), 7-50; Herbert Kitschelt et al., Post-Communist Party Systems (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999); Seymour Martin Lipset and Stein Rokkan, eds., Party Systems and Voter Alignments (New York: Free Press, 1967); Rein Taagepera and Matthew Soberg Shugart, Seats and Votes (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989).
8. Israel M. Kirzner, Competition and Entrepreneurship (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973); Paul A. Samuelson, Economics, 8th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970).
9. Israel M. Kirzner, Competition and Entrepreneurship (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973); Paul A. Samuelson, Economics, 8th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970).
10. Anthony Downs, An Economic Theory of Democracy (New York: Harper & Row, 1957).
11. See Regina Smyth, "The Political Implications of Mixed Electoral Systems" (draft, 1998); Cox, pp. 151-52.
12. Giovanni Sartori, Parties and Party Systems, vol. 1 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1976), pp. 58-64; E. E. Schattschneider, Party Government (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1970), pp. 35-37.
13. Giovanni Sartori, Parties and Party Systems, vol. 1 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1976), pp. 58-64; E. E. Schattschneider, Party Government (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1970), pp. 35-37.
14. Aldrich; Cox; Kitschelt et al.; and Smyth.
15. Samuelson, p. 59.
16. Aldrich; Cox; David M. Kreps, "Corporate Culture and Economic Theory," in James Alt and Kenneth Shepsle, eds., Perspectives in Political Economy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990). pp. 90-143; Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965); and Daniel S. Treisman, "Dollars and Democratization," Comparative Politics, 31 (October 1998), 1-22.
17. Aldrich; Cox; David M. Kreps, "Corporate Culture and Economic Theory," in James Alt and Kenneth Shepsle, eds., Perspectives in Political Economy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990). pp. 90-143; Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965); and Daniel S. Treisman, "Dollars and Democratization," Comparative Politics, 31 (October 1998), 1-22.
18. Aldrich; Cox; David M. Kreps, "Corporate Culture and Economic Theory," in James Alt and Kenneth Shepsle, eds., Perspectives in Political Economy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990). pp. 90-143; Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965); and Daniel S. Treisman, "Dollars and Democratization," Comparative Politics, 31 (October 1998), 1-22.
19. Smyth; Stephen E. Hanson, "Ideology, Uncertainty, and the Rise of Anti-System Parties in Post-Communist Russia," Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, 14 (March-June 1998), 98-127.
20. Kirzner, pp. 104-7; Samuelson, pp. 58, 409, 415-16.
21. Kirzner, pp. 104-7; Samuelson, pp. 58, 409, 415-16.
22. Henry E. Hale, "Explaining Machine Politics in Russia's Regions," Post-Soviet Affairs, 19 (July-September 2003), 228-63; Kitschelt et al.;
23. Herbert Kitschelt and Regina Smyth, "Programmatic Party Cohesion in Emerging Postcommunist Democracies," Comparative Political Studies, 35 (December 2002), 1228-56.
24. Operationally, what this study defines above as a "party" is formalized by the legal recognition of the ministry of justice of the right of the organization to nominate candidates officially in Duma elections.
25. Michael McFaul, "The Perils of a Protracted Transition," Journal of Democracy, 10 (April 1999), 4-18; Peter Reddaway, "Instability and Fragmentation," Journal of Democracy, 5 (April 1994), 13-19; Richard Rose, "Mobilizing Demobilized Voters in Post-Communist Society," Party Politics, 1 (January 1995), 549-63; Richard Rose, "A Supply Side View of Russia's Elections," East European Constitutional Review, 9 (Winter-Spring 2000), 53-59, reprinted in Archie Brown, ed., Contemporary Russian Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001); Peter Rutland, "Has Democracy Failed in Russia," The National Interest, 38 (December 1994), 3-12; Darrell Slider, "Russia's Governors and Party Formation, " in Brown, ed., pp. 224-34; Kathryn Stoner-Weiss, "Central Weakness and Provincial Autonomy," Post-Soviet Affairs, 15 (January-March 1999), 97-99;
26. Michael McFaul, "The Perils of a Protracted Transition," Journal of Democracy, 10 (April 1999), 4-18; Peter Reddaway, "Instability and Fragmentation," Journal of Democracy, 5 (April 1994), 13-19; Richard Rose, "Mobilizing Demobilized Voters in Post-Communist Society," Party Politics, 1 (January 1995), 549-63; Richard Rose, "A Supply Side View of Russia's Elections," East European Constitutional Review, 9 (Winter-Spring 2000), 53-59, reprinted in Archie Brown, ed., Contemporary Russian Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001); Peter Rutland, "Has Democracy Failed in Russia," The National Interest, 38 (December 1994), 3-12; Darrell Slider, "Russia's Governors and Party Formation, " in Brown, ed., pp. 224-34; Kathryn Stoner-Weiss, "Central Weakness and Provincial Autonomy," Post-Soviet Affairs, 15 (January-March 1999), 97-99;
27. Michael McFaul, "The Perils of a Protracted Transition," Journal of Democracy, 10 (April 1999), 4-18; Peter Reddaway, "Instability and Fragmentation," Journal of Democracy, 5 (April 1994), 13-19; Richard Rose, "Mobilizing Demobilized Voters in Post-Communist Society," Party Politics, 1 (January 1995), 549-63; Richard Rose, "A Supply Side View of Russia's Elections," East European Constitutional Review, 9 (Winter-Spring 2000), 53-59, reprinted in Archie Brown, ed., Contemporary Russian Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001); Peter Rutland, "Has Democracy Failed in Russia," The National Interest, 38 (December 1994), 3-12; Darrell Slider, "Russia's Governors and Party Formation, " in Brown, ed., pp. 224-34; Kathryn Stoner-Weiss, "Central Weakness and Provincial Autonomy," Post-Soviet Affairs, 15 (January-March 1999), 97-99;
28. Michael McFaul, "The Perils of a Protracted Transition," Journal of Democracy, 10 (April 1999), 4-18; Peter Reddaway, "Instability and Fragmentation," Journal of Democracy, 5 (April 1994), 13-19; Richard Rose, "Mobilizing Demobilized Voters in Post-Communist Society," Party Politics, 1 (January 1995), 549-63; Richard Rose, "A Supply Side View of Russia's Elections," East European Constitutional Review, 9 (Winter-Spring 2000), 53-59, reprinted in Archie Brown, ed., Contemporary Russian Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001); Peter Rutland, "Has Democracy Failed in Russia," The National Interest, 38 (December 1994), 3-12; Darrell Slider, "Russia's Governors and Party Formation, " in Brown, ed., pp. 224-34; Kathryn Stoner-Weiss, "Central Weakness and Provincial Autonomy," Post-Soviet Affairs, 15 (January-March 1999), 97-99;
29. Michael McFaul, "The Perils of a Protracted Transition," Journal of Democracy, 10 (April 1999), 4-18; Peter Reddaway, "Instability and Fragmentation," Journal of Democracy, 5 (April 1994), 13-19; Richard Rose, "Mobilizing Demobilized Voters in Post-Communist Society," Party Politics, 1 (January 1995), 549-63; Richard Rose, "A Supply Side View of Russia's Elections," East European Constitutional Review, 9 (Winter-Spring 2000), 53-59, reprinted in Archie Brown, ed., Contemporary Russian Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001); Peter Rutland, "Has Democracy Failed in Russia," The National Interest, 38 (December 1994), 3-12; Darrell Slider, "Russia's Governors and Party Formation, " in Brown, ed., pp. 224-34; Kathryn Stoner-Weiss, "Central Weakness and Provincial Autonomy," Post-Soviet Affairs, 15 (January-March 1999), 97-99;
30. Michael McFaul, "The Perils of a Protracted Transition," Journal of Democracy, 10 (April 1999), 4-18; Peter Reddaway, "Instability and Fragmentation," Journal of Democracy, 5 (April 1994), 13-19; Richard Rose, "Mobilizing Demobilized Voters in Post-Communist Society," Party Politics, 1 (January 1995), 549-63; Richard Rose, "A Supply Side View of Russia's Elections," East European Constitutional Review, 9 (Winter-Spring 2000), 53-59, reprinted in Archie Brown, ed., Contemporary Russian Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001); Peter Rutland, "Has Democracy Failed in Russia," The National Interest, 38 (December 1994), 3-12; Darrell Slider, "Russia's Governors and Party Formation, " in Brown, ed., pp. 224-34; Kathryn Stoner-Weiss, "Central Weakness and Provincial Autonomy," Post-Soviet Affairs, 15 (January-March 1999), 97-99;
31. Michael McFaul, "The Perils of a Protracted Transition," Journal of Democracy, 10 (April 1999), 4-18; Peter Reddaway, "Instability and Fragmentation," Journal of Democracy, 5 (April 1994), 13-19; Richard Rose, "Mobilizing Demobilized Voters in Post-Communist Society," Party Politics, 1 (January 1995), 549-63; Richard Rose, "A Supply Side View of Russia's Elections," East European Constitutional Review, 9 (Winter-Spring 2000), 53-59, reprinted in Archie Brown, ed., Contemporary Russian Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001); Peter Rutland, "Has Democracy Failed in Russia," The National Interest, 38 (December 1994), 3-12; Darrell Slider, "Russia's Governors and Party Formation, " in Brown, ed., pp. 224-34; Kathryn Stoner-Weiss, "Central Weakness and Provincial Autonomy," Post-Soviet Affairs, 15 (January-March 1999), 97-99;
32. Michael McFaul, "The Perils of a Protracted Transition," Journal of Democracy, 10 (April 1999), 4-18; Peter Reddaway, "Instability and Fragmentation," Journal of Democracy, 5 (April 1994), 13-19; Richard Rose, "Mobilizing Demobilized Voters in Post-Communist Society," Party Politics, 1 (January 1995), 549-63; Richard Rose, "A Supply Side View of Russia's Elections," East European Constitutional Review, 9 (Winter-Spring 2000), 53-59, reprinted in Archie Brown, ed., Contemporary Russian Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001); Peter Rutland, "Has Democracy Failed in Russia," The National Interest, 38 (December 1994), 3-12; Darrell Slider, "Russia's Governors and Party Formation, " in Brown, ed., pp. 224-34; Kathryn Stoner-Weiss, "Central Weakness and Provincial Autonomy," Post-Soviet Affairs, 15 (January-March 1999), 97-99;
33. Kathryn Stoner-Weiss, "The Limited Reach of Russia's Party System," Politics and Society, 29 (September 2001).
34. Central Election Commission of the Russian Federation, Vybory Glav Ispolnitel'noi Vlasti Sub"ektov Rossiiskoi Federatsii 1995-97 (Moscow: Ves' Mir, 1997); Vybory v Organy Gosudarstvennoi Vlasti Sub"ektov Rossiiskoi Federatsii 1997-2000, vols. 1, 2 (Moscow: Ves' Mir, 2001).
35. Central Election Commission of the Russian Federation, Vybory Glav Ispolnitel'noi Vlasti Sub"ektov Rossiiskoi Federatsii 1995-97 (Moscow: Ves' Mir, 1997); Vybory v Organy Gosudarstvennoi Vlasti Sub"ektov Rossiiskoi Federatsii 1997-2000, vols. 1, 2 (Moscow: Ves' Mir, 2001).
36. Kitschelt et al.; Kitschelt and Smyth; Rose, "A Supply Side View"; Richard Rose and Neil Munro, Elections without Order (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
37. Kitschelt et al.; Kitschelt and Smyth; Rose, "A Supply Side View"; Richard Rose and Neil Munro, Elections without Order (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
38. Kitschelt et al.; Kitschelt and Smyth; Rose, "A Supply Side View"; Richard Rose and Neil Munro, Elections without Order (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
39. Jerry F. Hough, "The Failure of Party Formation and the Future of Russian Democracy," in Timothy J. Colton and Hough, eds., Growing Pains (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1998), pp. 685-88; Michael McFaul, Russia's Unfinished Revolution (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001), p. 315; Richard Sakwa, "The Development of the Russian Party System," in Peter Lentini, ed., Elections and Political Order in Russia (New York: Central European University Press, 1995), p. 184.
40. Jerry F. Hough, "The Failure of Party Formation and the Future of Russian Democracy," in Timothy J. Colton and Hough, eds., Growing Pains (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1998), pp. 685-88; Michael McFaul, Russia's Unfinished Revolution (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001), p. 315; Richard Sakwa, "The Development of the Russian Party System," in Peter Lentini, ed., Elections and Political Order in Russia (New York: Central European University Press, 1995), p. 184.
41. Jerry F. Hough, "The Failure of Party Formation and the Future of Russian Democracy," in Timothy J. Colton and Hough, eds., Growing Pains (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1998), pp. 685-88; Michael McFaul, Russia's Unfinished Revolution (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001), p. 315; Richard Sakwa, "The Development of the Russian Party System," in Peter Lentini, ed., Elections and Political Order in Russia (New York: Central European University Press, 1995), p. 184.
42. Hough, "The Failure of Party Formation and the Future of Russian Democracy," pp. 688, 696; McFaul, Russia's Unfinished Revolution, p. 316; Sakwa, pp. 191-92.
43. Hough, "The Failure of Party Formation and the Future of Russian Democracy," pp. 688, 696; McFaul, Russia's Unfinished Revolution, p. 316; Sakwa, pp. 191-92.
44. Hough, "The Failure of Party Formation and the Future of Russian Democracy," pp. 688, 696; McFaul, Russia's Unfinished Revolution, p. 316; Sakwa, pp. 191-92.
45. Hough, "The Failure of Party Formation and the Future of Russian Democracy," p. 691; John T. Ishiyama, "Political Integration and Political Parties in Post-Soviet Russian Politics," Demokratizatsiya, 1 (Spring 1999), 200; Sakwa, p. 169; Smyth.
46. Hough, "The Failure of Party Formation and the Future of Russian Democracy," p. 691; John T. Ishiyama, "Political Integration and Political Parties in Post-Soviet Russian Politics," Demokratizatsiya, 1 (Spring 1999), 200; Sakwa, p. 169; Smyth.
47. Hough, "The Failure of Party Formation and the Future of Russian Democracy," p. 691; John T. Ishiyama, "Political Integration and Political Parties in Post-Soviet Russian Politics," Demokratizatsiya, 1 (Spring 1999), 200; Sakwa, p. 169; Smyth.
48. Ishiyama, p. 200.
49. Sakwa, p. 190.
50. Slider; Stoner-Weiss, "The Limited Reach of Russia's Party System."
51. Kelly M. McMann, "The Personal Risks of Party Development," in Joel C. Moses, ed., Dilemmas of Transition in Post-Soviet Countries (Chicago: Burnham Publishers, 2002).
52. Hough, "The Failure of Party Formation and the Future of Russian Democracy," pp. 699-700; McFaul, Russia's Unfinished Revolution, pp. 315-17.
53. Hough, "The Failure of Party Formation and the Future of Russian Democracy," pp. 699-700; McFaul, Russia's Unfinished Revolution, pp. 315-17.
54. McFaul, Russia's Unfinished Revolution, pp. 317-19.
55. Aldrich; Cox; Duverger; Lipset and Rokkan; Taagepera and Shugart.
56. Ted Brader and Joshua A. Tucker, "The Emergence of Mass Partisanship in Russia, 1993-1996," American Journal of Political Science, 45 (January 2001); Thomas F. Klobucar and Arthur H. Miller, "Party Activists and Party Development in Post Soviet Democracies," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Boston, August 28-September 1, 2002; Stephen White, Richard Rose, and Ian McAllister, How Russia Votes (Chatham: Chatham House, 1997).
57. Ted Brader and Joshua A. Tucker, "The Emergence of Mass Partisanship in Russia, 1993-1996," American Journal of Political Science, 45 (January 2001); Thomas F. Klobucar and Arthur H. Miller, "Party Activists and Party Development in Post Soviet Democracies," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Boston, August 28-September 1, 2002; Stephen White, Richard Rose, and Ian McAllister, How Russia Votes (Chatham: Chatham House, 1997).
58. Ted Brader and Joshua A. Tucker, "The Emergence of Mass Partisanship in Russia, 1993-1996," American Journal of Political Science, 45 (January 2001); Thomas F. Klobucar and Arthur H. Miller, "Party Activists and Party Development in Post Soviet Democracies," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Boston, August 28-September 1, 2002; Stephen White, Richard Rose, and Ian McAllister, How Russia Votes (Chatham: Chatham House, 1997).
59. Miller et al.; White, Rose, and McAllister.
60. Stephen Whitefield and Geoffrey Evans, "Class, Markets and Partisanship in Post-Soviet Russia: 1993-96," Electoral Studies, 18 (1999), 155-78; Whitefield, "Partisan and Party Divisions in Post-Communist Russia," in Brown, ed., pp. 235-43.
61. Stephen Whitefield and Geoffrey Evans, "Class, Markets and Partisanship in Post-Soviet Russia: 1993-96," Electoral Studies, 18 (1999), 155-78; Whitefield, "Partisan and Party Divisions in Post-Communist Russia," in Brown, ed., pp. 235-43.
62. Brader and Tucker; Timothy J. Colton, Transitional Citizens (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000), pp. 112-15; Arthur H. Miller et al., "Emerging Party Systems in Post-Soviet Societies," Journal of Politics, 62 (May 2000), 455-90; Arthur H. Miller and Thomas F. Klobucar, "The Development of Party Identification in Post-Soviet Societies," American Journal of Political Science, 44 (October 2000).
63. Brader and Tucker; Timothy J. Colton, Transitional Citizens (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000), pp. 112-15; Arthur H. Miller et al., "Emerging Party Systems in Post-Soviet Societies," Journal of Politics, 62 (May 2000), 455-90; Arthur H. Miller and Thomas F. Klobucar, "The Development of Party Identification in Post-Soviet Societies," American Journal of Political Science, 44 (October 2000).
64. Brader and Tucker; Timothy J. Colton, Transitional Citizens (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000), pp. 112-15; Arthur H. Miller et al., "Emerging Party Systems in Post-Soviet Societies," Journal of Politics, 62 (May 2000), 455-90; Arthur H. Miller and Thomas F. Klobucar, "The Development of Party Identification in Post-Soviet Societies," American Journal of Political Science, 44 (October 2000).
65. Colton.
66. Klobucar and Miller.
67. Thomas F. Remington, "Political Conflict and Institutional Design," Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, 14 (March-June 1998), 201-23; Steven S. Smith and Thomas Remington, The Politics of Institutional Choice (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001).
68. Thomas F. Remington, "Political Conflict and Institutional Design," Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, 14 (March-June 1998), 201-23; Steven S. Smith and Thomas Remington, The Politics of Institutional Choice (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001).
69. On these elections, see Yitzhak Brudny, "Continuity or Change in Russian Electoral Patterns?," in Brown, ed., pp. 154-78.
70. Colton; Miller et al.; Miller and Klobucar; Brader and Tucker.
71. Robert Moser, "Independents and Party Formation," Comparative Politics, 31 (1999), 148.
72. Not all regional leaders have this formal title, but it is used here for convenience. Hale, "Explaining Machine Politics in Russia's Regions"; Steven L. Solnick, "Russia's 'Transition,'" Social Research, 66 (Fall 1999), 789-824; Stoner-Weiss, "Central Weakness and Provincial Autonomy"; Daniel Treisman, After the Deluge (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999).
73. Not all regional leaders have this formal title, but it is used here for convenience. Hale, "Explaining Machine Politics in Russia's Regions"; Steven L. Solnick, "Russia's 'Transition,'" Social Research, 66 (Fall 1999), 789-824; Stoner-Weiss, "Central Weakness and Provincial Autonomy"; Daniel Treisman, After the Deluge (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999).
74. Not all regional leaders have this formal title, but it is used here for convenience. Hale, "Explaining Machine Politics in Russia's Regions"; Steven L. Solnick, "Russia's 'Transition,'" Social Research, 66 (Fall 1999), 789-824; Stoner-Weiss, "Central Weakness and Provincial Autonomy"; Daniel Treisman, After the Deluge (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999).
75. Not all regional leaders have this formal title, but it is used here for convenience. Hale, "Explaining Machine Politics in Russia's Regions"; Steven L. Solnick, "Russia's 'Transition,'" Social Research, 66 (Fall 1999), 789-824; Stoner-Weiss, "Central Weakness and Provincial Autonomy"; Daniel Treisman, After the Deluge (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999).
76. Henry E. Hale, "Machine Politics and Institutionalized Electorates," Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, 15 (December 1999), 70-110; Henry E. Hale, "Bashkortostan," in Colton and Hough, eds.; and Stoner-Weiss, "The Limited Reach of Russia's Party System."
77. Henry E. Hale, "Machine Politics and Institutionalized Electorates," Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, 15 (December 1999), 70-110; Henry E. Hale, "Bashkortostan," in Colton and Hough, eds.; and Stoner-Weiss, "The Limited Reach of Russia's Party System."
78. Henry E. Hale, "Machine Politics and Institutionalized Electorates," Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, 15 (December 1999), 70-110; Henry E. Hale, "Bashkortostan," in Colton and Hough, eds.; and Stoner-Weiss, "The Limited Reach of Russia's Party System."
79. Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968); Seymour Martin Lipset, "The Indispensability of Political Parties," Journal of Democracy, 11 (January 2000), 48-55; Mair.
80. Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968); Seymour Martin Lipset, "The Indispensability of Political Parties," Journal of Democracy, 11 (January 2000), 48-55; Mair.
81. Observers were given only the general instruction, not specific criteria by which to make their assessments.
82. Radio Svoboda transcripts can be obtained at http://www.svoboda.org/archive/elections99.
83. Cases for which all three sources gave no indication were coded as "governor supports no one." Cases where only one source covered the district and where that source gave only an indication (not a definitive statement) of a gubernatorial endorsement were coded as gubernatorial support. A regression applying stricter coding criteria (dropping the kinds of cases mentioned in this note) obtained essentially the same findings as those reported here.
84. The eighty-ninth region, Chechnya, and its district (the 225th) are excluded.
85. Colton and Hough; Juliet Johnson, A Fistful of Rubles (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2000); Treisman, "Dollars and Democratization."
86. Colton and Hough; Juliet Johnson, A Fistful of Rubles (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2000); Treisman, "Dollars and Democratization."
87. These sources were supplemented by reports in The Moscow Times, Dec. 21, 1999, ISI Emerging Markets; Nezavisimaia Gazeta, Oct. 19, 1999, ISI Emerging Markets; and anonymous regional analysts in personal communication with the author.
88. These sources were supplemented by reports in The Moscow Times, Dec. 21, 1999, ISI Emerging Markets; Nezavisimaia Gazeta, Oct. 19, 1999, ISI Emerging Markets; and anonymous regional analysts in personal communication with the author.
89. In the author's judgment. A separate category for business representatives was included as a control.
90. If there is any bias resulting from this coding process, it is likely to be in the direction of underesti mating the impact of politicized financial-industrial groups. There are three likely reasons for overlooking a politicized financial-industrial group candidate. The politicized financial-industrial group was very effective in keeping its secret; support was not large; and the district is remote. Candidates of the first type can be expected to be more effective than average since the reason for secrecy is that public suspicion of corruption is seen to be a negative. Instances of the second type do not affect the argument since it concentrates theoretically on cases of major support. As for the third, anecdotal evidence suggests that politicized financial-industrial groups operating in remote areas are more effective than elsewhere because there is less local money to put up resistance and because, if they do identify themselves, they can credibly promise to increase the region's wealth.
91. Nineteen of the 2,226 candidates are dropped in this study because some values are missing.
92. On the importance of personal candidate resources, see Smyth and Moser.
93. PFIG is the abbreviation for politicized financial-industrial group.
94. On tobit and why the coefficients it estimates can, with this particular kind of data, be read the same way as OLS coefficients, see Lee Sigelman and Langche Zeng, Political Analysis, 8 (Spring 2000), 167-82.
95. These zero values also rule out the use of log ratios as done above.
96. Naturally, since governors' candidates are party nominees in the other 104 districts, the shares of the vote for "governors' candidates" and for "party nominees" will vary together there. Only nineteen governors consistently backed the same party in such instances, though. When joint candidate totals are not counted as evidence of party strength but only of governors' strength, the correlation of course remains strongly negative. The very important question why governors support party candidates in some regions but not others is beyond the scope of this article but is treated by the author elsewhere. This article is interested in what happens in the majority of cases, where governors do not back party candidates.
97. Aldrich; Richard P. McCormick, The Second American Party System (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1966); Myron Weiner, Party-Building in a New Nation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967).
98. Aldrich; Richard P. McCormick, The Second American Party System (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1966); Myron Weiner, Party-Building in a New Nation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967).
99. Jonathan N. Katz and Gary King, "A Statistical Model for Multiparty Electoral Data," American Political Science Review, 93 (March 1999), 15-32;
100. Michael Tomz, Joshua Tucker, and Jason Wittenberg, "An Easy and Accurate Regression Model for Multiparty Electoral Data," Political Analysis, 10 (Winter 2002), 66-83.
101. See the Stata.7 software manual, [U] 23.11, "obtaining robust variance estimates." The command used is cluster ( ). The cost of this method is a small loss of efficiency, expected to be negligible in this case given the large number of observations examined.
102. Gary King, Michael Tomz, and Jason Wittenberg, "Making the Most of Statistical Analyses," American Journal of Political Science, 44 (April 2000), 347-61; Michael Tomz, Jason Wittenberg, and Gary King, CLARIFY: Software for Interpreting and Presenting Statistical Results, Version 2.1, Stanford University, University of Wisconsin, and Harvard University, 2001, available at http://gking.harvard.edu.
103. Gary King, Michael Tomz, and Jason Wittenberg, "Making the Most of Statistical Analyses," American Journal of Political Science, 44 (April 2000), 347-61; Michael Tomz, Jason Wittenberg, and Gary King, CLARIFY: Software for Interpreting and Presenting Statistical Results, Version 2.1, Stanford University, University of Wisconsin, and Harvard University, 2001, available at http://gking.harvard.edu.