Machine politics and institutionalized electorates: A comparative analysis of six Duma elections in Bashkortostan

Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics

Volumn 15, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 70-110

  Hale, Henry E ^a  

^a HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COMPARATIVE STUDY; ELECTION; INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK; POLITICAL PROCESS;

BASHKORTOSTAN; RUSSIAN FEDERATION;

EID: 0033367042     PISSN: 13523279     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13523279908415421     Document Type: Article

References (96)

1. Timothy J. Colton and Jerry F. Hough 28eds.), Growing Pains (Washington, DC: Brookings, 1998); Robert G. Moser, 'Independents and Party Formation: Elite Partisanship as an Intervening Variable in Russian Politics', Comparative Politics, Vol.31, No.2 (1999), pp.147-66.
2. Timothy J. Colton and Jerry F. Hough 28eds.), Growing Pains (Washington, DC: Brookings, 1998); Robert G. Moser, 'Independents and Party Formation: Elite Partisanship as an Intervening Variable in Russian Politics', Comparative Politics, Vol.31, No.2 (1999), pp.147-66.
3. This article thus covers the same electoral contests as my chapter in the Colton and Hough volume: Henry Hale, 'Bashkortostan: The Logic of Ethnic Machine Politics and the Consolidation of Democracy', in Growing Pains, pp.599-636; however, it goes into much more depth on the different candidates and their strategies than the space limitations in the earlier volume allowed and expands the theoretical discussion of electoral patterns in the SMD contests.
4. In Hale, 'Bashkortostan', I also argue that ethnicity played a subtle role in influencing the kinds of individuals who decided to become candidates in Bashkortostan, but did not develop the argument in the direction taken here.
5. Colton and Hough, Growing Pains.
6. Data for this paragraph come from Hale, 'Bashkortostan', and from Michael McFaul and Nikolai Petrov, Politicheskii Almanakh Rossiiskoi Federatsii 1993-1997gg. (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment, 1998), p.82.
7. McFaul and Petrov, Politicheskii Almanakh, p.87; Hale, 'Bashkortostan'.
8. McFaul and Petrov, Politicheskii Almanakh, p.87; Hale, 'Bashkortostan'.
9. The Federation Council ceased to be directly elected from December 1995, but before that the top two vote-winners in the Federation Council contest in each republic or region of Russia automatically won seats in this body. At present, the leaders of the regional executive and legislative branches of power automatically get these seats.
10. Data are from the 1989 USSR census and reports from the republic statistical administration together with the Russian state committee on statistics for the first half of 1993.
11. Sovetskaya Bashkiriya, 8 Dec. 1993, p.2.
12. P. Tropinin, Vechernyaya Ufa, 10 Dec. 1993, p.3.
13. Leninets, No.54, 6-12 Dec. 1993, p.4.
14. Otechestvo, No.37, 8 Dec. 1993, p.1.
15. Interview with Aleksandr Arinin, 30 Nov. 1993.
16. Interview with a former leading regional PRES official, March 1999.
17. Interviews with Arinin and other observers who knew Arinin, including the political scientist Sergei Lavrentiev, 15 Dec. 1993.
18. Otechestvo, No.37 (8 Dec. 1993), p.2.
19. Campaign flier for Arsen Nuridzhanov.
20. Vechernyaya Ufa, 10 Dec. 1993, p.3.
21. Interview with Nuridzhanov, 1 Dec. 1993.
22. Interview with Nuridzhanov and his campaign manager, 1 Dec. 1993.
23. For example, see Shark TV, Bashkortostan, 21:40 Bashkortostan time, 9 Dec. 1993; Bashkortostan TV, 21:50 Bashkortostan time, 10 Dec. 1993.
24. R. Valeyev writing in Sovetskaya Bashkiriya, 9 Dec. 1993, p.2.
25. Insert 'Zelenyi dom', Sovetskaya Bashkiriya, 26 Nov. 1993, p.3.
26. Interview with Rashit Dayanov, 27 Nov. 1993.
27. Vechernyaya Ufa, 1 Dec. 1993, p.2.
28. For example, Bashkortostan TV, 21:50 Bashkortostan time, 10 Dec. 1993.
29. Leninets, No.53, 29 Nov.-5 Dec. 1993, p.14.
30. Interview with Viktor Rezyapov, 27 Nov. 1993.
31. Ibid.
32. Otechestvo, No.36, Dec. 1993, p.1.
33. Voskresnaya Gazeta, No.50, Dec. 1993, p.2.
34. Izvestiya Bashkortostana, 11 Dec. 1993, p.2.
35. Interview with Rais Asaev, 3 Dec. 1993.
36. Ibid.
37. Interview with Pavel Dmitriev, 1 Dec. 1993.
38. Vechernyaya Ufa, 9 Dec. 1993, p.1.
39. See, for example, Vechernyaya Ufa, 8 Dec. 1993, p.2.
40. Interview with Dmitriev.
41. Izvestiya Bashkortostana, 1 Dec. 1993, p.1.
42. Sovetskaya Bashkiriya, 4 Dec. 1993, p.2.
43. Otechestvo, No.36, Dec. 1993, p.3.
44. Interview with Sergei Lavrentiev, 25 Nov. 1993.
45. Vechernyaya Ufa, 2 Dec. 1993, p.2.
46. Interview with Fanis Rayanov, 30 Nov. 1993.
47. Ibid.
48. Vechernyaya Ufa, 10 Dec. 1993, p.4.
49. Interview with Radik Dayanov, 2 Dec. 1993.
50. See, for example, Bashkortostan TV, 21:55 Bashkortostan time, 8 Dec. 1993.
51. Interview with Nail Bakhtizin, 26 Nov. 1993.
52. His long TV advertisement broadcast on Tolpar TV, Bashkortostan, 18:15 Bashkortostan time, 10 Dec. 1993.
53. Round-table discussion for Kirovskii district No.5, Bashkortostan TV, 20:35 Bashkortostan time, 23 Nov. 1993.
54. Viktor Vyazovoy campaign flier.
55. Vechernyaya Ufa, 10 Dec. 1993, p.4.
56. Sovetskaya Bashkiriya, 1 Dec. 1993, p.2.
57. Interview with Boris Tsypyshev, 7 Dec. 1993.
58. Round-table discussion of candidates in Birskii Okrug No.5, Bashkortostan TV, 20:35 Bashkortostan time, 7 Dec. 1993.
59. Leaflet supporting Yuri Sharipov.
60. Izvestiya Bashkortostana, 1 Dec. 1993, p.3.
61. Sovetskaya Bashkiriya, 2 Dec. 1993, p.2.
62. Izvestiya Bashkortostana, 7 Dec. 1993, p.3.
63. District No.3 round-table discussion.
64. Interview with Robert Akhiyarov, 7 Dec. 1993.
65. Izvestiya Bashkortostana, 1 Dec. 1993, p.3.
66. Sovetskaya Bashkiriya, 2 Dec. 1993, p.2.
67. Interview with Malikov, 7 Dec. 1993, p.2.
68. Izvestiya Bashkortostana, 11 Dec. 1993, p.2.
69. Interview with Ildar Yunosov, campaign adviser to Alim Akhmadeyev, 9 Dec. 1993.
70. Ibid.
71. Serafim Vaysman, in Izvestiya Bashkortostana, 2 Dec. 1993, p.2.
72. Ibid.
73. Sovetskaya Bashkiriya, 9 Dec. 1993, p.3.
74. Interview with Gazim Shafikov, 26 Nov. 1993.
75. Round-table number two for bloc candidates, Bashkortostan TV.
76. Izvestiya Bashkortostana, 11 Dec. 1993, p.2.
77. Round-table for district No.2.
78. Ibid.
79. See, for example, the round-table.
80. For a good review of the historical institutionalist literature, see Kathleen Thelen and Sven Steinmo, 'Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Politics', in Thelen Steinmo and Frank Longsreth (eds.), Structuring Politics: Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Analysis (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp.1-32.
81. Perhaps the most famous work in this tradition is Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, rev. edn (New York: Verso, 1991).
82. Ronald Grigor Suny, The Revenge of the Past: Nationalism, Revolution, and the Collapse of the Soviet Union (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993); Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Refrained: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Philip G. Roeder, 'Soviet Federalism and Ethnic Mobilization', World Politics, Vol. 43, No. 2 (Jan. 1991), pp.196-232; Dmitry Gorenburg, 'Identity Change in Bashkortostan: Tatars into Bashkirs and Back', Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol.22, No.3 (May 1999), pp.554-80; Yuri Slezkine, 'How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism', Slavic Review, Vol.53, No.2 (Summer 1994), pp.414-52; James Critchlow, Nationalism in Uzbekistan: A Soviet Republic's Road to Sovereignty (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991).
83. Ronald Grigor Suny, The Revenge of the Past: Nationalism, Revolution, and the Collapse of the Soviet Union (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993); Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Refrained: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Philip G. Roeder, 'Soviet Federalism and Ethnic Mobilization', World Politics, Vol. 43, No. 2 (Jan. 1991), pp.196-232; Dmitry Gorenburg, 'Identity Change in Bashkortostan: Tatars into Bashkirs and Back', Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol.22, No.3 (May 1999), pp.554-80; Yuri Slezkine, 'How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism', Slavic Review, Vol.53, No.2 (Summer 1994), pp.414-52; James Critchlow, Nationalism in Uzbekistan: A Soviet Republic's Road to Sovereignty (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991).
84. Ronald Grigor Suny, The Revenge of the Past: Nationalism, Revolution, and the Collapse of the Soviet Union (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993); Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Refrained: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Philip G. Roeder, 'Soviet Federalism and Ethnic Mobilization', World Politics, Vol. 43, No. 2 (Jan. 1991), pp.196-232; Dmitry Gorenburg, 'Identity Change in Bashkortostan: Tatars into Bashkirs and Back', Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol.22, No.3 (May 1999), pp.554-80; Yuri Slezkine, 'How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism', Slavic Review, Vol.53, No.2 (Summer 1994), pp.414-52; James Critchlow, Nationalism in Uzbekistan: A Soviet Republic's Road to Sovereignty (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991).
85. Ronald Grigor Suny, The Revenge of the Past: Nationalism, Revolution, and the Collapse of the Soviet Union (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993); Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Refrained: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Philip G. Roeder, 'Soviet Federalism and Ethnic Mobilization', World Politics, Vol. 43, No. 2 (Jan. 1991), pp.196-232; Dmitry Gorenburg, 'Identity Change in Bashkortostan: Tatars into Bashkirs and Back', Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol.22, No.3 (May 1999), pp.554-80; Yuri Slezkine, 'How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism', Slavic Review, Vol.53, No.2 (Summer 1994), pp.414-52; James Critchlow, Nationalism in Uzbekistan: A Soviet Republic's Road to Sovereignty (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991).
86. Ronald Grigor Suny, The Revenge of the Past: Nationalism, Revolution, and the Collapse of the Soviet Union (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993); Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Refrained: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Philip G. Roeder, 'Soviet Federalism and Ethnic Mobilization', World Politics, Vol. 43, No. 2 (Jan. 1991), pp.196-232; Dmitry Gorenburg, 'Identity Change in Bashkortostan: Tatars into Bashkirs and Back', Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol.22, No.3 (May 1999), pp.554-80; Yuri Slezkine, 'How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism', Slavic Review, Vol.53, No.2 (Summer 1994), pp.414-52; James Critchlow, Nationalism in Uzbekistan: A Soviet Republic's Road to Sovereignty (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991).
87. Ronald Grigor Suny, The Revenge of the Past: Nationalism, Revolution, and the Collapse of the Soviet Union (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993); Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Refrained: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Philip G. Roeder, 'Soviet Federalism and Ethnic Mobilization', World Politics, Vol. 43, No. 2 (Jan. 1991), pp.196-232; Dmitry Gorenburg, 'Identity Change in Bashkortostan: Tatars into Bashkirs and Back', Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol.22, No.3 (May 1999), pp.554-80; Yuri Slezkine, 'How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism', Slavic Review, Vol.53, No.2 (Summer 1994), pp.414-52; James Critchlow, Nationalism in Uzbekistan: A Soviet Republic's Road to Sovereignty (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991).
88. The classic work on this subject is Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965). The 'resource mobilization' school contends that grievances in society can be manipulated and redefined for political purposes which have little to do with the particular interest involved: see John D. McCarthy and Mayer N. Zald, 'Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory', American Journal of Sociology, Vol.86, No.6 (1977), pp.1212-41.
89. The classic work on this subject is Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965). The 'resource mobilization' school contends that grievances in society can be manipulated and redefined for political purposes which have little to do with the particular interest involved: see John D. McCarthy and Mayer N. Zald, 'Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory', American Journal of Sociology, Vol.86, No.6 (1977), pp.1212-41.
90. For an excellent analysis of the importance of situational identity, see Anya Peterson Royce, Ethnic Identity: Strategies of Diversity (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1982).
91. Izvestiya Bashkortostana, 30 Nov. 1993, p.1.
92. Olson, The Logic of Collective Action, pp.22-36.
93. I do not mean to detract from the other issues on which Arinin campaigned and which undoubtedly gained him support, such as economic reform, but his views here did not differ greatly from those of his opponents, and the argument presented in this section fits the broad patterns observed in other parts of the republic.
94. For a more detailed description of the ethnic coalition-building activity of Rakhimov, see Hale, 'Bashkortostan'.
95. See McFaul and Petrov, Politicheskii Almanakh, pp.92-3.
96. Ibid.