Recognizing Emerging Environmental Problems: The Case of Chlorinated Solvents in Groundwater

Technology and Culture

Volumn 45, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 55-79

  Jackson, Richard E ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 1342267511     PISSN: 0040165X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/tech.2004.0022     Document Type: Review

References (133)

1. See Joel Tarr, The Search for the Ultimate Sink: Urban Pollution in Historical Perspective (Akron, Ohio, 1996), and Joel A. Tarr and Jeffrey K. Stine, "At the Intersection of Histories: Technology and the Environment," Technology and Culture 39 (1998): 601-40.
2. See Joel Tarr, The Search for the Ultimate Sink: Urban Pollution in Historical Perspective (Akron, Ohio, 1996), and Joel A. Tarr and Jeffrey K. Stine, "At the Intersection of Histories: Technology and the Environment," Technology and Culture 39 (1998): 601-40.
3. Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago, 1962).
4. Edmund Russell III has described one such case of delayed policy formulation involving DDT, a chlorinated pesticide, which was suspected by entomologists of being environmentally harmful when it was first marketed commercially in 1945; see "The Strange Career of DDT: Experts, Federal Capacity, and Environmentalism in World War II," Technology and Culture 40 (1999): 770-96. A lack of evidence concerning ecological damage and strong promotion by the chemical industry meant that federal regulations were not developed until 1972, by which time environmental damage was apparent. The ubiquity of chlorinated pesticides in ecosystems was measurable during the 1960s, thanks to the introduction of the electron-capture detector fitted to a gas Chromatograph; see James Lovelock, Homage to Gaia: The Life of an Independent Scientist (Oxford, 2000), chap. 7. In both the cases described in this article - the CPC/ozone and solvents-in-groundwater issues - scientific paradigms were created to explain potential or real problems. No paradigm shifts occurred because prior paradigms did not exist. In the words of Alexander Bird, "the immature science of competing schools is preceded by no paradigm at all, perhaps no science at all, for the phenomena of interest may previously have been unknown or ignored"; Thomas Kuhn (Princeton, N.J., 2000), 32.
5. Edmund Russell III has described one such case of delayed policy formulation involving DDT, a chlorinated pesticide, which was suspected by entomologists of being environmentally harmful when it was first marketed commercially in 1945; see "The Strange Career of DDT: Experts, Federal Capacity, and Environmentalism in World War II," Technology and Culture 40 (1999): 770-96. A lack of evidence concerning ecological damage and strong promotion by the chemical industry meant that federal regulations were not developed until 1972, by which time environmental damage was apparent. The ubiquity of chlorinated pesticides in ecosystems was measurable during the 1960s, thanks to the introduction of the electron-capture detector fitted to a gas Chromatograph; see James Lovelock, Homage to Gaia: The Life of an Independent Scientist (Oxford, 2000), chap. 7. In both the cases described in this article - the CPC/ozone and solvents-in-groundwater issues - scientific paradigms were created to explain potential or real problems. No paradigm shifts occurred because prior paradigms did not exist. In the words of Alexander Bird, "the immature science of competing schools is preceded by no paradigm at all, perhaps no science at all, for the phenomena of interest may previously have been unknown or ignored"; Thomas Kuhn (Princeton, N.J., 2000), 32.
6. Edmund Russell III has described one such case of delayed policy formulation involving DDT, a chlorinated pesticide, which was suspected by entomologists of being environmentally harmful when it was first marketed commercially in 1945; see "The Strange Career of DDT: Experts, Federal Capacity, and Environmentalism in World War II," Technology and Culture 40 (1999): 770-96. A lack of evidence concerning ecological damage and strong promotion by the chemical industry meant that federal regulations were not developed until 1972, by which time environmental damage was apparent. The ubiquity of chlorinated pesticides in ecosystems was measurable during the 1960s, thanks to the introduction of the electron-capture detector fitted to a gas Chromatograph; see James Lovelock, Homage to Gaia: The Life of an Independent Scientist (Oxford, 2000), chap. 7. In both the cases described in this article - the CPC/ozone and solvents-in-groundwater issues - scientific paradigms were created to explain potential or real problems. No paradigm shifts occurred because prior paradigms did not exist. In the words of Alexander Bird, "the immature science of competing schools is preceded by no paradigm at all, perhaps no science at all, for the phenomena of interest may previously have been unknown or ignored"; Thomas Kuhn (Princeton, N.J., 2000), 32.
7. Harvey Brooks, "Science Indicators and Science Priorities," Science, Technology and Human Values 7 (1982): 14-31. On page 28, he notes: "Several case examples from the past suggest that existing systems of research planning tend to undervalue systematic and well-planned monitoring, data collection, empirical testing, and localized environmental characterization." Groundwater contamination was one such case.
8. Richard E. Jackson, "Anticipating Ground-Water Contamination by New Technologies and Chemicals: The Case of Chlorinated Solvents in California," Environmental and Engineering Geoscience 5 (1999): 331-38.
9. Richard E. Jackson, "The Migration, Dissolution, and Fate of Chlorinated Solvents in the Urbanized Alluvial Valleys of the Southwestern USA," Hydrogeology Journal 6 (1998): 144-55.
10. Council on Environmental Quality, Contamination of Ground Water by Toxic Organic Chemicals (Washington, D.C., 1981), vi. On page iv, the council noted that "in the past 3 years, newspapers have carried stories of a new and insidious type of ground water contamination in many parts of the country. These incidents involve discoveries - some-times completely accidental - of high concentrations of synthetic organic chemicals in a community or private drinking water well. It is now evident that hundreds of drinking water wells affecting the water supplies of millions of people have been dosed because of the contamination by toxic organic chemicals."
11. Jackson, "Anticipating Ground-Water Contamination." "Hydrologists" here refers to those who identify themselves as groundwater hydrologists or hydrogeologists and who might be engineers or geoscientists by training.
12. Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (New York, 1962); see also Russell (n. 2 above).
13. Mack McFarland, "Chlorofluorocarbons and Ozone," Environmental Science and Technology 23 (1989): 1204-5. The policy commits DuPont to "determine that each product can be made and disposed of safely and consistent with appropriate safety, health and environmental quality criteria." McFarland states that this environmental policy was "adopted in the late 1930s."
14. Harvey Brooks, "Stratospheric Ozone, the Scientific Community, and Public Policy," in Stratospheric Ozone and Man, vol. 2, ed. Frank A. Bower and Richard B. Ward (Boca Raton, Fla., 1982). Richard C. I. Somerville, The Forgiving Air: Understanding Environmental Change (Berkeley, Calif., 1998). Edward A. Parson, Protecting the Ozone layer: Science and Strategy (Oxford, 2003).
15. Harvey Brooks, "Stratospheric Ozone, the Scientific Community, and Public Policy," in Stratospheric Ozone and Man, vol. 2, ed. Frank A. Bower and Richard B. Ward (Boca Raton, Fla., 1982). Richard C. I. Somerville, The Forgiving Air: Understanding Environmental Change (Berkeley, Calif., 1998). Edward A. Parson, Protecting the Ozone layer: Science and Strategy (Oxford, 2003).
16. Harvey Brooks, "Stratospheric Ozone, the Scientific Community, and Public Policy," in Stratospheric Ozone and Man, vol. 2, ed. Frank A. Bower and Richard B. Ward (Boca Raton, Fla., 1982). Richard C. I. Somerville, The Forgiving Air: Understanding Environmental Change (Berkeley, Calif., 1998). Edward A. Parson, Protecting the Ozone layer: Science and Strategy (Oxford, 2003).
17. A committee of the National Research Council reported that estimated spending on environmental remediation in 1996 was $9 billion. At least one half of this sum is due to cleanup of solvent-contaminated sites. National Research Council, Innovations in Ground Water and Soil Cleanup: From Concept to Commercialization (Washington, D.C., 1997).
18. Electrochemical Department, E. I. Du Pont de Nemours and Co., Chlorinated Hydrocarbons: Properties, Specifications and Uses (Wilmington, Del., 1944). A. L. Horvath, Halogenated Hydrocarbons: Solubility-Miscibility with Water (New York, 1982). W. W. Davidson, "Solvent Degreasing," Transactions of the Electrochemical Society 72 (1938): 413-27. Ralph A. Van Fossen, Vapor Degreasing: Questions and Answers - A Handbook for Engineers, Production Men and Students (Chicago, 1944). D. W. F. Hardie, "Trichloroethylene," Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 2d ed. (New York, 1964), 5:183-95.
19. Electrochemical Department, E. I. Du Pont de Nemours and Co., Chlorinated Hydrocarbons: Properties, Specifications and Uses (Wilmington, Del., 1944). A. L. Horvath, Halogenated Hydrocarbons: Solubility-Miscibility with Water (New York, 1982). W. W. Davidson, "Solvent Degreasing," Transactions of the Electrochemical Society 72 (1938): 413-27. Ralph A. Van Fossen, Vapor Degreasing: Questions and Answers - A Handbook for Engineers, Production Men and Students (Chicago, 1944). D. W. F. Hardie, "Trichloroethylene," Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 2d ed. (New York, 1964), 5:183-95.
20. Electrochemical Department, E. I. Du Pont de Nemours and Co., Chlorinated Hydrocarbons: Properties, Specifications and Uses (Wilmington, Del., 1944). A. L. Horvath, Halogenated Hydrocarbons: Solubility-Miscibility with Water (New York, 1982). W. W. Davidson, "Solvent Degreasing," Transactions of the Electrochemical Society 72 (1938): 413-27. Ralph A. Van Fossen, Vapor Degreasing: Questions and Answers - A Handbook for Engineers, Production Men and Students (Chicago, 1944). D. W. F. Hardie, "Trichloroethylene," Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 2d ed. (New York, 1964), 5:183-95.
21. Electrochemical Department, E. I. Du Pont de Nemours and Co., Chlorinated Hydrocarbons: Properties, Specifications and Uses (Wilmington, Del., 1944). A. L. Horvath, Halogenated Hydrocarbons: Solubility-Miscibility with Water (New York, 1982). W. W. Davidson, "Solvent Degreasing," Transactions of the Electrochemical Society 72 (1938): 413-27. Ralph A. Van Fossen, Vapor Degreasing: Questions and Answers - A Handbook for Engineers, Production Men and Students (Chicago, 1944). D. W. F. Hardie, "Trichloroethylene," Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 2d ed. (New York, 1964), 5:183-95.
22. Electrochemical Department, E. I. Du Pont de Nemours and Co., Chlorinated Hydrocarbons: Properties, Specifications and Uses (Wilmington, Del., 1944). A. L. Horvath, Halogenated Hydrocarbons: Solubility-Miscibility with Water (New York, 1982). W. W. Davidson, "Solvent Degreasing," Transactions of the Electrochemical Society 72 (1938): 413-27. Ralph A. Van Fossen, Vapor Degreasing: Questions and Answers - A Handbook for Engineers, Production Men and Students (Chicago, 1944). D. W. F. Hardie, "Trichloroethylene," Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 2d ed. (New York, 1964), 5:183-95.
23. Davidson, "Solvent Degreasing." Davidson was vice president of the Detroit Rex Company.
24. David A. Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, 1984), chap. 7.
25. Walt W. Rostow, The World Economy: History and Prospect (Austin, Tex., 1978).
26. The first U.S. patent for a "degreasing apparatus" may have been that granted to Maurice Hirst in March 1931 (U.S. patent 1,795,170). At least twelve other U.S. patents were awarded during the 1930s for "degreasing."
27. C. E. Kircher, "Solvent Degreasing - What Every User Should Know," ASTM Bulletin, January 1957, 44-49. L. Skory, J. Fulkerson, and D. Ritzema, "Vapor Degreasing Solvents: When Safe?" Products Finishing, February 1974, 64-71.
28. C. E. Kircher, "Solvent Degreasing - What Every User Should Know," ASTM Bulletin, January 1957, 44-49. L. Skory, J. Fulkerson, and D. Ritzema, "Vapor Degreasing Solvents: When Safe?" Products Finishing, February 1974, 64-71.
29. Louis J. Fuller, testimony regarding Rule 66, presented before the Air Pollution Control Board, Los Angeles, 28 July 1966, records of the Air Pollution Control District of the County of Los Angeles, South Coast Air Quality Management District, Diamond Bar, California.
30. R. G. Lunche, testimony regarding Rule 66, presented before the Air Pollution Control Board, Los Angeles, 28 July 1966. Lunche was director of engineering for the APCD. Air Pollution Control District, County of Los Angeles, Effectiveness of Organic Solvents in Photochemical Smog Formation: Solvent Project, Final Report (Los Angeles, 1966).
31. "Proposed Rule 66, Information concerning proposed rules 66, 66.1, and 66.2, Control of organic solvents," Louis J. Fuller to the Honorable Board of Supervisors of the County of Los Angeles, 28 June 1966, "Additions and Revisions to the Rules and Regulations of the Air Pollution Control District," records of the Air Pollution Control District of the County of Los Angeles.
32. Richard J. Seltzer, "Reactions Grow to Trichloroethylene Alert," Chemical and Engineering News, 19 May 1975, 41-43.
33. Skory, Fulkerson, and Ritzema (n. 18 above).
34. P. G. Simmonds, S. L. Kerrin, J. E. Lovelock, and F. H. Shair, "Distribution of Atmospheric Halocarbons in the Air over the Los Angeles Basin," Atmospheric Environment 8 (1974): 209-16. This team used Lovelock's newly developed electron-capture detector in a gas Chromatograph to measure PCE, TCA, and trichlorofluoromethane in quantifiable amounts, as opposed to TCE.
35. J. A. Mertens, "Trichloroethylene," in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 4th ed. (New York, 1993) 6:45-46. Wesley L. Archer, "Selection of a Proper Vapor Degreasing Solvent," in Cleaning Stainless Steel (Philadelphia, 1973), 54-64. G. M. Rekstad, "Upheaval in Vapor Degreasing," Factory, January 1974,27-32.
36. J. A. Mertens, "Trichloroethylene," in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 4th ed. (New York, 1993) 6:45-46. Wesley L. Archer, "Selection of a Proper Vapor Degreasing Solvent," in Cleaning Stainless Steel (Philadelphia, 1973), 54-64. G. M. Rekstad, "Upheaval in Vapor Degreasing," Factory, January 1974,27-32.
37. J. A. Mertens, "Trichloroethylene," in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 4th ed. (New York, 1993) 6:45-46. Wesley L. Archer, "Selection of a Proper Vapor Degreasing Solvent," in Cleaning Stainless Steel (Philadelphia, 1973), 54-64. G. M. Rekstad, "Upheaval in Vapor Degreasing," Factory, January 1974,27-32.
38. E. M. Waters, H. B. Gerstner, and J. E. Huff, "Trichloroethylene 1: An Overview," Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 2 (1977): 671-707.
39. E. W. McGovern, "Chlorohydrocarbon Solvents," Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 35 (1943): 1230-39. Morris B. Jacobs, The Analytical Chemistry of Industrial Poisons, Hazards and Solvents (New York, 1941).
40. E. W. McGovern, "Chlorohydrocarbon Solvents," Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 35 (1943): 1230-39. Morris B. Jacobs, The Analytical Chemistry of Industrial Poisons, Hazards and Solvents (New York, 1941).
41. Skory, Fulkerson, and Ritzema (n. 18 above).
42. Wesley L. Archer, "Chlorocarbons and Chlorohydrocarbons," in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 3rd ed. (New York, 1979), 5:669.
43. The banned chemicals, such as CFCs, TCA, and carbon tetrachloride, were ethanes and methanes but not ethenes like TCE and PCE.
44. F. S. Rowland and M. J. Molina, "Chlorofluoromethanes in the Environment," Reviews of Geophysics and Space Physics 13 (1975): 1-35.
45. Parson (n. 11 above), 84.
46. H. A. Swenson, "The Montebello Incident," pt. 2, Society for Water Treatment and Examination 11 (1962): 84-88.
47. F. A. Lyne and T. McLachlan, "Contamination of Water by Trichloroethylene," Analyst 74 (1949): 513. They used the 1914 Fujiwara colorimetric method, which has a detection limit of approximately 1 part per million (i.e., 1 milligram of TCE per liter of groundwater). This method was incapable of distinguishing one chlorinated solvent from another; F. D. Schaumburg, "Banning Trichloroethylene: Responsible Reaction or Overkill?" Environmental Science and Technology 24 (1990): 17-22. Lyne and McLachlan had been informed that TCE had been spilled at the two sites they tested, and the odor of the chemical was apparent. Such methods predated gas Chromatographic ones. This article appears to have been unknown in the United States until well into the 1990s; it was not cited, for example, by James F. Pankow, Stan Feenstra, John A. Cherry, and M. Cathryn Ryan, "Dense Chlorinated Solvents in Groundwater: Background and History of the Problem," chap. 1 of Dense Chlorinated Solvents and Other DNAPLs in Ground-water, ed. James F. Pankow and John A. Cherry (Portland, Ore., 1996).
48. F. A. Lyne and T. McLachlan, "Contamination of Water by Trichloroethylene," Analyst 74 (1949): 513. They used the 1914 Fujiwara colorimetric method, which has a detection limit of approximately 1 part per million (i.e., 1 milligram of TCE per liter of groundwater). This method was incapable of distinguishing one chlorinated solvent from another; F. D. Schaumburg, "Banning Trichloroethylene: Responsible Reaction or Overkill?" Environmental Science and Technology 24 (1990): 17-22. Lyne and McLachlan had been informed that TCE had been spilled at the two sites they tested, and the odor of the chemical was apparent. Such methods predated gas Chromatographic ones. This article appears to have been unknown in the United States until well into the 1990s; it was not cited, for example, by James F. Pankow, Stan Feenstra, John A. Cherry, and M. Cathryn Ryan, "Dense Chlorinated Solvents in Groundwater: Background and History of the Problem," chap. 1 of Dense Chlorinated Solvents and Other DNAPLs in Ground-water, ed. James F. Pankow and John A. Cherry (Portland, Ore., 1996).
49. F. A. Lyne and T. McLachlan, "Contamination of Water by Trichloroethylene," Analyst 74 (1949): 513. They used the 1914 Fujiwara colorimetric method, which has a detection limit of approximately 1 part per million (i.e., 1 milligram of TCE per liter of groundwater). This method was incapable of distinguishing one chlorinated solvent from another; F. D. Schaumburg, "Banning Trichloroethylene: Responsible Reaction or Overkill?" Environmental Science and Technology 24 (1990): 17-22. Lyne and McLachlan had been informed that TCE had been spilled at the two sites they tested, and the odor of the chemical was apparent. Such methods predated gas Chromatographic ones. This article appears to have been unknown in the United States until well into the 1990s; it was not cited, for example, by James F. Pankow, Stan Feenstra, John A. Cherry, and M. Cathryn Ryan, "Dense Chlorinated Solvents in Groundwater: Background and History of the Problem," chap. 1 of Dense Chlorinated Solvents and Other DNAPLs in Ground-water, ed. James F. Pankow and John A. Cherry (Portland, Ore., 1996).
50. M. Middleton and G. Walton, "Organic Chemical Contamination of Ground Water," in U.S. Public Health Service, Ground Water Contamination: Proceedings of the 1961 Symposium, Cincinnati, Ohio (Cincinnati, 1961), 50-56.
51. T. R. Walker, "Ground-Water Contamination in the Rocky Mountain Arsenal Area, Denver, Colorado," Geological Society of America Bulletin 72 (1961): 489-94. (2,4-D is 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid.)
52. Carson (n. 9 above), 42-44.
53. Walker, 491.
54. L. Konikow and D. W. Thompson, "Ground-water Contamination and Aquifer Reclamation at the Rocky Mountain Arsenal, Colorado," in National Research Council, Panel on Groundwater Contamination, Groundwater Contamination (Washington, D.C., 1984), chap. 6.
55. S. G. Robson, "Computer Simulation of Movement of DIMP-Contaminated Groundwater near the Rocky Mountain Arsenal, Colorado," in Permeability and Groundwater Contaminant Transport, ed. T. F. Zimmie and C. O. Riggs (Philadelphia, 1981), 209-20.
56. Council on Environmental Quality, Contamination of Ground Water by Toxic Organic Chemicals (n. 7 above).
57. Pankow et al., "Dense Chlorinated Solvents in Groundwater; Background and History of the Problem" (n. 34 above).
58. Schaumburg (n. 34 above). R. D. Mutch and W. W. Eckenfelder Jr., "Out of the Dusty Archives," Hazmat World, October 1993, 59-68. Pankow et al., "Dense Chlorinated Solvents in Groundwater: Background and History of the Problem."
59. Schaumburg (n. 34 above). R. D. Mutch and W. W. Eckenfelder Jr., "Out of the Dusty Archives," Hazmat World, October 1993, 59-68. Pankow et al., "Dense Chlorinated Solvents in Groundwater: Background and History of the Problem."
60. Jackson, "Anticipating Ground-Water Contamination" (n. 5 above).
61. American Chemical Society, Committee on Environmental Improvement, Cleaning Our Environment: A Chemical Perspective, 2nd ed. (Washington D.C., 1978), 336.
62. J. M. Symons et al., "National Organics Reconnaissance for Halogenated Organics," Journal of the American Water Works Association 67 (November 1975): 634-47.
63. Seltzer (n. 22 above). U.S. Public Health Service, Carcinogenesis Bioassay of Trichloroethykne (Washington, D.C., 1976).
64. J. Searles and H. A. McPhail, "Trichloroethylene," in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 1st ed. (New York, 1947), 3:788-94; T. C. Gregory, Uses and Applications of Chemicals and Related Materials (New York, 1939), 611-13; Schaumburg.
65. J. Searles and H. A. McPhail, "Trichloroethylene," in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 1st ed. (New York, 1947), 3:788-94; T. C. Gregory, Uses and Applications of Chemicals and Related Materials (New York, 1939), 611-13; Schaumburg.
66. S. R. Heller, J. M. McGuire, and W. L. Budde, "Trace Organics by GC/MS," Environmental Science and Technology 9 (1975): 210-13.
67. American Chemical Society, Cleaning Our Environment, 200-201.
68. J. P. Mieure, "Determining Volatile Organics in Water," Environmental Science and Technology 14 (1980): 930-35.
69. Council on Environmental Quality, Contamination of Ground Water by Toxic Organic Chemicals (n. 7 above).
70. "Chemical Contamination," working paper for the Water Quality Task Force of the Special Legislative Commission on Water Supply, prepared by the Department of Environmental Quality Engineering and U.S. EPA Region 1, Boston, 1979.
71. Ibid., 29.
72. Ibid., 27.
73. The South Brunswick Township well field has proven to be one of the more carefully studied cases of groundwater contamination by chlorinated hydrocarbons. See P. H. Roux and W. F. Althoff, "Investigation of Organic Contamination of Ground Water in South Brunswick Township, New Jersey," Ground Water 18 (1980): 464-71. Stan Feenstra and John A. Cherry, "Diagnosis and Assessment of DNAPL Sites," in Pankow and Cherry (n. 34 above), 462-69.
74. The South Brunswick Township well field has proven to be one of the more carefully studied cases of groundwater contamination by chlorinated hydrocarbons. See P. H. Roux and W. F. Althoff, "Investigation of Organic Contamination of Ground Water in South Brunswick Township, New Jersey," Ground Water 18 (1980): 464-71. Stan Feenstra and John A. Cherry, "Diagnosis and Assessment of DNAPL Sites," in Pankow and Cherry (n. 34 above), 462-69.
75. EPA Region 9 (San Francisco), San Gabriel Valley Superfund Sites, Fact Sheet Issue 3, September 1987, and Groundwater Cleanup Studies Continue in the San Fernando Valley Basin, Fact Sheet Number 5, July 1990. These are examples of public information documents, distributed to libraries in the neighborhood of hazardous waste sites, that recount administrative and technical progress toward cleanup of the sites. Also see Jackson, "Anticipating Ground-Water Contamination" (n. 5 above) and "Migration, Dissolution, and Fate" (n. 6 above).
76. EPA Region 9 (San Francisco), San Gabriel Valley Superfund Sites, Fact Sheet Issue 3, September 1987, and Groundwater Cleanup Studies Continue in the San Fernando Valley Basin, Fact Sheet Number 5, July 1990. These are examples of public information documents, distributed to libraries in the neighborhood of hazardous waste sites, that recount administrative and technical progress toward cleanup of the sites. Also see Jackson, "Anticipating Ground-Water Contamination" (n. 5 above) and "Migration, Dissolution, and Fate" (n. 6 above).
77. EPA Region 9 (San Francisco), San Gabriel Valley Superfund Sites, Fact Sheet Issue 3, September 1987, and Groundwater Cleanup Studies Continue in the San Fernando Valley Basin, Fact Sheet Number 5, July 1990. These are examples of public information documents, distributed to libraries in the neighborhood of hazardous waste sites, that recount administrative and technical progress toward cleanup of the sites. Also see Jackson, "Anticipating Ground-Water Contamination" (n. 5 above) and "Migration, Dissolution, and Fate" (n. 6 above).
78. EPA Region 9 (San Francisco), San Gabriel Valley Superfund Sites, Fact Sheet Issue 3, September 1987, and Groundwater Cleanup Studies Continue in the San Fernando Valley Basin, Fact Sheet Number 5, July 1990. These are examples of public information documents, distributed to libraries in the neighborhood of hazardous waste sites, that recount administrative and technical progress toward cleanup of the sites. Also see Jackson, "Anticipating Ground-Water Contamination" (n. 5 above) and "Migration, Dissolution, and Fate" (n. 6 above).
79. European Chemical Industry Federation, "The Occurrence of Chlorinated Solvents in the Environment," Chemistry and Industry (1986): 861-69.
80. Walter Giger and Eva Molnar-Kubica, "Tetrachloroethylene in Contaminated Ground and Drinking Waters," Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (1978): 475-80.
81. Pankow et al., "Dense Chlorinated Solvents in Ground-water: Background and History of the Problem" (n. 34 above).
82. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976 and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) of 1980 were the regulatory means by which the EPA investigated subsurface conditions at operating (RCRA) and abandoned (CERCLA) hazardous-waste sites. CERCLA, or "Superfund," in particular, was a response to the evidence of the health hazards of numerous waste-disposal sites, such as Love Canal, that were revealed in the late 1970s. RCRA was intended to ensure "cradle-to-grave" control of such hazardous substances as chlorinated solvents. The Federal Hazardous Waste and Solid Waste Amendments to RCRA of 1984 closed the loophole in the disposal of solvents.
83. Schaumburg (n. 34 above) and Pankow et al., "Dense Chlorinated Solvents in Groundwater: Background and History of the Problem," have both observed that no ordinances against solvent dumping existed. Rule 66, enacted in 1967, appears to have been the first such ordinance. Rule 66.2 on the Disposal and Evaporation of Solvents, prepared by the APCD of the County of Los Angeles in June 1966, provided advice to users on the disposal of solvents on the ground. It indicated (p. 10) "only l 1/2 gallons of organic solvents may be discarded in any one day in a manner which will allow the solvent to evaporate into the air." "Heat Treating, Cleaning and Finishing, " in Metals Handbook 8th ed. (Metals Park, Ohio, 1964), vol. 2. The American Insurance Association, in its Chemical Hazards Bulletin of March 1972, echoed this advice, and further recommended that after disposal on sand, ashes, or the like the waste be "cautiously ignited." Given the nonflammability of chlorinated degreasing solvents, this is a particularly ironic piece of advice from an insurance organization whose members have paid out billions of dollars in claims in recent years to industrial clients seeking compensation for mutimillion dollar remediation costs associated with groundwater contamination by chlorinated solvents and other toxic organic chemicals; see Mutch and Eckenfelder (n. 43 above).
84. Schaumburg (n. 34 above) and Pankow et al., "Dense Chlorinated Solvents in Groundwater: Background and History of the Problem," have both observed that no ordinances against solvent dumping existed. Rule 66, enacted in 1967, appears to have been the first such ordinance. Rule 66.2 on the Disposal and Evaporation of Solvents, prepared by the APCD of the County of Los Angeles in June 1966, provided advice to users on the disposal of solvents on the ground. It indicated (p. 10) "only l 1/2 gallons of organic solvents may be discarded in any one day in a manner which will allow the solvent to evaporate into the air." "Heat Treating, Cleaning and Finishing, " in Metals Handbook 8th ed. (Metals Park, Ohio, 1964), vol. 2. The American Insurance Association, in its Chemical Hazards Bulletin of March 1972, echoed this advice, and further recommended that after disposal on sand, ashes, or the like the waste be "cautiously ignited." Given the nonflammability of chlorinated degreasing solvents, this is a particularly ironic piece of advice from an insurance organization whose members have paid out billions of dollars in claims in recent years to industrial clients seeking compensation for mutimillion dollar remediation costs associated with groundwater contamination by chlorinated solvents and other toxic organic chemicals; see Mutch and Eckenfelder (n. 43 above).
85. Schaumburg (n. 34 above) and Pankow et al., "Dense Chlorinated Solvents in Groundwater: Background and History of the Problem," have both observed that no ordinances against solvent dumping existed. Rule 66, enacted in 1967, appears to have been the first such ordinance. Rule 66.2 on the Disposal and Evaporation of Solvents, prepared by the APCD of the County of Los Angeles in June 1966, provided advice to users on the disposal of solvents on the ground. It indicated (p. 10) "only l 1/2 gallons of organic solvents may be discarded in any one day in a manner which will allow the solvent to evaporate into the air." "Heat Treating, Cleaning and Finishing, " in Metals Handbook 8th ed. (Metals Park, Ohio, 1964), vol. 2. The American Insurance Association, in its Chemical Hazards Bulletin of March 1972, echoed this advice, and further recommended that after disposal on sand, ashes, or the like the waste be "cautiously ignited." Given the nonflammability of chlorinated degreasing solvents, this is a particularly ironic piece of advice from an insurance organization whose members have paid out billions of dollars in claims in recent years to industrial clients seeking compensation for mutimillion dollar remediation costs associated with groundwater contamination by chlorinated solvents and other toxic organic chemicals; see Mutch and Eckenfelder (n. 43 above).
86. Schaumburg (n. 34 above) and Pankow et al., "Dense Chlorinated Solvents in Groundwater: Background and History of the Problem," have both observed that no ordinances against solvent dumping existed. Rule 66, enacted in 1967, appears to have been the first such ordinance. Rule 66.2 on the Disposal and Evaporation of Solvents, prepared by the APCD of the County of Los Angeles in June 1966, provided advice to users on the disposal of solvents on the ground. It indicated (p. 10) "only l 1/2 gallons of organic solvents may be discarded in any one day in a manner which will allow the solvent to evaporate into the air." "Heat Treating, Cleaning and Finishing, " in Metals Handbook 8th ed. (Metals Park, Ohio, 1964), vol. 2. The American Insurance Association, in its Chemical Hazards Bulletin of March 1972, echoed this advice, and further recommended that after disposal on sand, ashes, or the like the waste be "cautiously ignited." Given the nonflammability of chlorinated degreasing solvents, this is a particularly ironic piece of advice from an insurance organization whose members have paid out billions of dollars in claims in recent years to industrial clients seeking compensation for mutimillion dollar remediation costs associated with groundwater contamination by chlorinated solvents and other toxic organic chemicals; see Mutch and Eckenfelder (n. 43 above).
87. J. J. McKetta, ed., Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design, vol. 8 (New York, 1979), 7.
88. J. W. Mercer and R. M. Cohen, "A Review of Immiscible Fluids in the Subsurface: Properties, Models, Characterization and Remediation," Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 6 (1990): 107-63.
89. Craig E. Colten has argued that industrial waste managers were aware before 1960 that the disposal of organic chemical wastes on the land surface would cause groundwater contamination over large distances; "Groundwater Contamination: Reconstructing Historical Knowledge for the Courts," Applied Geography 18 (1998): 259-73. The quoted advice of the American Society of Metals and, in particular, of the American Insurance Association contradicts Colten's argument. The insurance industry has paid billions of dollars to policyholders who followed the AIA's advice and were later identified as "potentially responsible parties" under CERCLA (Superfund) litigation. I have argued elsewhere that Colten's argument is incorrect; see Richard E. Jackson and Michael Bonchonski, review of The Road to Love Canal: Managing Industrial Waste before EPA, by Craig E. Colten and Peter N. Skinner, Ground Water 36 (1998): 393. My rebuttal is based upon the primitive state of analytical chemistry before 1960 and upon the absence of any stated perception at the time that immiscible wastes such as chlorinated solvents might be sufficiently soluble to be groundwater contaminants; see Jackson, "Anticipating Ground-Water Contamination" (n. 5 above).
90. Craig E. Colten has argued that industrial waste managers were aware before 1960 that the disposal of organic chemical wastes on the land surface would cause groundwater contamination over large distances; "Groundwater Contamination: Reconstructing Historical Knowledge for the Courts," Applied Geography 18 (1998): 259-73. The quoted advice of the American Society of Metals and, in particular, of the American Insurance Association contradicts Colten's argument. The insurance industry has paid billions of dollars to policyholders who followed the AIA's advice and were later identified as "potentially responsible parties" under CERCLA (Superfund) litigation. I have argued elsewhere that Colten's argument is incorrect; see Richard E. Jackson and Michael Bonchonski, review of The Road to Love Canal: Managing Industrial Waste before EPA, by Craig E. Colten and Peter N. Skinner, Ground Water 36 (1998): 393. My rebuttal is based upon the primitive state of analytical chemistry before 1960 and upon the absence of any stated perception at the time that immiscible wastes such as chlorinated solvents might be sufficiently soluble to be groundwater contaminants; see Jackson, "Anticipating Ground-Water Contamination" (n. 5 above).
91. Craig E. Colten has argued that industrial waste managers were aware before 1960 that the disposal of organic chemical wastes on the land surface would cause groundwater contamination over large distances; "Groundwater Contamination: Reconstructing Historical Knowledge for the Courts," Applied Geography 18 (1998): 259-73. The quoted advice of the American Society of Metals and, in particular, of the American Insurance Association contradicts Colten's argument. The insurance industry has paid billions of dollars to policyholders who followed the AIA's advice and were later identified as "potentially responsible parties" under CERCLA (Superfund) litigation. I have argued elsewhere that Colten's argument is incorrect; see Richard E. Jackson and Michael Bonchonski, review of The Road to Love Canal: Managing Industrial Waste before EPA, by Craig E. Colten and Peter N. Skinner, Ground Water 36 (1998): 393. My rebuttal is based upon the primitive state of analytical chemistry before 1960 and upon the absence of any stated perception at the time that immiscible wastes such as chlorinated solvents might be sufficiently soluble to be groundwater contaminants; see Jackson, "Anticipating Ground-Water Contamination" (n. 5 above).
92. Craig E. Colten has argued that industrial waste managers were aware before 1960 that the disposal of organic chemical wastes on the land surface would cause groundwater contamination over large distances; "Groundwater Contamination: Reconstructing Historical Knowledge for the Courts," Applied Geography 18 (1998): 259-73. The quoted advice of the American Society of Metals and, in particular, of the American Insurance Association contradicts Colten's argument. The insurance industry has paid billions of dollars to policyholders who followed the AIA's advice and were later identified as "potentially responsible parties" under CERCLA (Superfund) litigation. I have argued elsewhere that Colten's argument is incorrect; see Richard E. Jackson and Michael Bonchonski, review of The Road to Love Canal: Managing Industrial Waste before EPA, by Craig E. Colten and Peter N. Skinner, Ground Water 36 (1998): 393. My rebuttal is based upon the primitive state of analytical chemistry before 1960 and upon the absence of any stated perception at the time that immiscible wastes such as chlorinated solvents might be sufficiently soluble to be groundwater contaminants; see Jackson, "Anticipating Ground-Water Contamination" (n. 5 above).
93. Friedrich Schwille et al., Leichtfluchtige Chlorokohlenwasserstoffe in porösen und kluftigen medien: Modellversuche (Koblenz, 1984), translated into English by James F. Pankow as Dense Chlorinated Solvents in Porous and Fractured Media: Model Experiments (Chelsea, Mich., 1988). Schwille wrote: "On the other hand, investigations of spill situations seldom indicated the presence of the pure phase [i.e., DNAPL]. Rather, only the dissolved form was mainly found" (p. 1). Schwille presented his results in North America in June 1985 at the Second Canadian-American Hydrogeology Conference, Banff, Alberta. Elements of this paradigm appeared in English in Friedrich Schwille, "Groundwater Pollution in Porous Media by Fluids Immiscible with Water," The Science of the Total Environment 21 (1981): 173-85. A much more detailed synopsis was published by Schwille as "Migration of Organic Fluids Immiscible with Water in the Unsaturated Zone," in Pollutants in Porous Media: The Unsaturated Zone between Soil Surface and Groundwater, ed. B. Yaron, G. Dagan, and J. Goldshmid (Berlin, 1984), 27-48. Neither article has been cited frequently by hydrologists, although Pankow's 1988 translation has been widely read.
94. Friedrich Schwille et al., Leichtfluchtige Chlorokohlenwasserstoffe in porösen und kluftigen medien: Modellversuche (Koblenz, 1984), translated into English by James F. Pankow as Dense Chlorinated Solvents in Porous and Fractured Media: Model Experiments (Chelsea, Mich., 1988). Schwille wrote: "On the other hand, investigations of spill situations seldom indicated the presence of the pure phase [i.e., DNAPL]. Rather, only the dissolved form was mainly found" (p. 1). Schwille presented his results in North America in June 1985 at the Second Canadian-American Hydrogeology Conference, Banff, Alberta. Elements of this paradigm appeared in English in Friedrich Schwille, "Groundwater Pollution in Porous Media by Fluids Immiscible with Water," The Science of the Total Environment 21 (1981): 173-85. A much more detailed synopsis was published by Schwille as "Migration of Organic Fluids Immiscible with Water in the Unsaturated Zone," in Pollutants in Porous Media: The Unsaturated Zone between Soil Surface and Groundwater, ed. B. Yaron, G. Dagan, and J. Goldshmid (Berlin, 1984), 27-48. Neither article has been cited frequently by hydrologists, although Pankow's 1988 translation has been widely read.
95. Friedrich Schwille et al., Leichtfluchtige Chlorokohlenwasserstoffe in porösen und kluftigen medien: Modellversuche (Koblenz, 1984), translated into English by James F. Pankow as Dense Chlorinated Solvents in Porous and Fractured Media: Model Experiments (Chelsea, Mich., 1988). Schwille wrote: "On the other hand, investigations of spill situations seldom indicated the presence of the pure phase [i.e., DNAPL]. Rather, only the dissolved form was mainly found" (p. 1). Schwille presented his results in North America in June 1985 at the Second Canadian-American Hydrogeology Conference, Banff, Alberta. Elements of this paradigm appeared in English in Friedrich Schwille, "Groundwater Pollution in Porous Media by Fluids Immiscible with Water," The Science of the Total Environment 21 (1981): 173-85. A much more detailed synopsis was published by Schwille as "Migration of Organic Fluids Immiscible with Water in the Unsaturated Zone," in Pollutants in Porous Media: The Unsaturated Zone between Soil Surface and Groundwater, ed. B. Yaron, G. Dagan, and J. Goldshmid (Berlin, 1984), 27-48. Neither article has been cited frequently by hydrologists, although Pankow's 1988 translation has been widely read.
96. Friedrich Schwille et al., Leichtfluchtige Chlorokohlenwasserstoffe in porösen und kluftigen medien: Modellversuche (Koblenz, 1984), translated into English by James F. Pankow as Dense Chlorinated Solvents in Porous and Fractured Media: Model Experiments (Chelsea, Mich., 1988). Schwille wrote: "On the other hand, investigations of spill situations seldom indicated the presence of the pure phase [i.e., DNAPL]. Rather, only the dissolved form was mainly found" (p. 1). Schwille presented his results in North America in June 1985 at the Second Canadian-American Hydrogeology Conference, Banff, Alberta. Elements of this paradigm appeared in English in Friedrich Schwille, "Groundwater Pollution in Porous Media by Fluids Immiscible with Water," The Science of the Total Environment 21 (1981): 173-85. A much more detailed synopsis was published by Schwille as "Migration of Organic Fluids Immiscible with Water in the Unsaturated Zone," in Pollutants in Porous Media: The Unsaturated Zone between Soil Surface and Groundwater, ed. B. Yaron, G. Dagan, and J. Goldshmid (Berlin, 1984), 27-48. Neither article has been cited frequently by hydrologists, although Pankow's 1988 translation has been widely read.
97. Friedrich Schwille et al., Leichtfluchtige Chlorokohlenwasserstoffe in porösen und kluftigen medien: Modellversuche (Koblenz, 1984), translated into English by James F. Pankow as Dense Chlorinated Solvents in Porous and Fractured Media: Model Experiments (Chelsea, Mich., 1988). Schwille wrote: "On the other hand, investigations of spill situations seldom indicated the presence of the pure phase [i.e., DNAPL]. Rather, only the dissolved form was mainly found" (p. 1). Schwille presented his results in North America in June 1985 at the Second Canadian-American Hydrogeology Conference, Banff, Alberta. Elements of this paradigm appeared in English in Friedrich Schwille, "Groundwater Pollution in Porous Media by Fluids Immiscible with Water," The Science of the Total Environment 21 (1981): 173-85. A much more detailed synopsis was published by Schwille as "Migration of Organic Fluids Immiscible with Water in the Unsaturated Zone," in Pollutants in Porous Media: The Unsaturated Zone between Soil Surface and Groundwater, ed. B. Yaron, G. Dagan, and J. Goldshmid (Berlin, 1984), 27-48. Neither article has been cited frequently by hydrologists, although Pankow's 1988 translation has been widely read.
98. Patrick A. Domenico and Franklin W. Schwartz, Physical and Chemical Hydrogeology (New York, 1990). Increasingly explicit descriptions of the Schwille paradigm appeared in two reviews published in Environmental Science and Technology. The first acknowledged Schwille's finding that chlorinated degreasing solvents are retained in significant quantities in the subsurface and act as long-term subsurface sources of contamination; Douglas M. Mackay, Paul V. Roberts, and John A. Cherry, "Transport of Organic Contaminants in Groundwater," Environmental Science and Technology 19 (1985): 384-92. The second described the Schwille paradigm in much greater detail and how it negatively affected attempts to restore contaminated groundwater to pristine conditions by "pump-and-treat" methods, i.e., pumping contaminated groundwater to the surface for removal of the dissolved-phase contamination; Douglas M. Mackay and John A. Cherry, "Groundwater Contamination: Pump-and-Treat Remediation," Environmental Science and Technology 23 (1989): 630-36.
99. Patrick A. Domenico and Franklin W. Schwartz, Physical and Chemical Hydrogeology (New York, 1990). Increasingly explicit descriptions of the Schwille paradigm appeared in two reviews published in Environmental Science and Technology. The first acknowledged Schwille's finding that chlorinated degreasing solvents are retained in significant quantities in the subsurface and act as long-term subsurface sources of contamination; Douglas M. Mackay, Paul V. Roberts, and John A. Cherry, "Transport of Organic Contaminants in Groundwater," Environmental Science and Technology 19 (1985): 384-92. The second described the Schwille paradigm in much greater detail and how it negatively affected attempts to restore contaminated groundwater to pristine conditions by "pump-and-treat" methods, i.e., pumping contaminated groundwater to the surface for removal of the dissolved-phase contamination; Douglas M. Mackay and John A. Cherry, "Groundwater Contamination: Pump-and-Treat Remediation," Environmental Science and Technology 23 (1989): 630-36.
100. Patrick A. Domenico and Franklin W. Schwartz, Physical and Chemical Hydrogeology (New York, 1990). Increasingly explicit descriptions of the Schwille paradigm appeared in two reviews published in Environmental Science and Technology. The first acknowledged Schwille's finding that chlorinated degreasing solvents are retained in significant quantities in the subsurface and act as long-term subsurface sources of contamination; Douglas M. Mackay, Paul V. Roberts, and John A. Cherry, "Transport of Organic Contaminants in Groundwater," Environmental Science and Technology 19 (1985): 384-92. The second described the Schwille paradigm in much greater detail and how it negatively affected attempts to restore contaminated groundwater to pristine conditions by "pump-and-treat" methods, i.e., pumping contaminated groundwater to the surface for removal of the dissolved-phase contamination; Douglas M. Mackay and John A. Cherry, "Groundwater Contamination: Pump-and-Treat Remediation," Environmental Science and Technology 23 (1989): 630-36.
101. Council on Environmental Quality, Contamination of Ground Water by Toxic Organic Chemicals (n. 7 above).
102. The earliest paper in the journal of the National Ground Water Association (Ground Water) on chlorinated hydrocarbon contamination of water supply wells was that by Roux and Althoff (n. 56 above).
103. Patrick A. Domenico, Concepts and Models in Groundwater Hydrology (New York, 1972).
104. R. Allan Freeze and John A. Cherry, Groundwater (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1979), chap. 9.
105. McFarland (n. 10 above), 1204.
106. The primitive understanding that North American hydrologists had of the migration, dissolution, and fate of chlorinated degreasing solvents and other DNAPLs in the subsurface is evident in the published proceedings of two major conferences held in late 1981. David W. Miller, a leading consulting hydrologist, made reference to "the density of contaminated fluids" in "Chemical Contamination of Ground Water," in Ground Water Quality, ed. C. H. Ward, W. Giger, and P. L. McCarty (New York, 1985), 39-52, which is the proceedings of the First International Conference on Ground Water Quality Research, held at Rice University, Houston, Texas, in October 1981. Various chlorinated hydrocarbons were discussed in three papers at a meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco in December 1981. In one of these, groundwater hydrologists from the University of Waterloo discussed the behavior of dissolved organic contaminants in groundwater; John A. Cherry, Robert W. Gillham, and James F. Barker, "Contaminants in Groundwater: Chemical Processes," in National Research Council, Panel on Groundwater Contamination (n. 39 above), 46-64. However, only Miller's paper, presented at the Rice University conference, indicated an understanding that DNAPL might persist undissolved in the subsurface for a long time and act as a continuing source of ground-water contamination (Miller, 45 and fig. 4.7).
107. The primitive understanding that North American hydrologists had of the migration, dissolution, and fate of chlorinated degreasing solvents and other DNAPLs in the subsurface is evident in the published proceedings of two major conferences held in late 1981. David W. Miller, a leading consulting hydrologist, made reference to "the density of contaminated fluids" in "Chemical Contamination of Ground Water," in Ground Water Quality, ed. C. H. Ward, W. Giger, and P. L. McCarty (New York, 1985), 39-52, which is the proceedings of the First International Conference on Ground Water Quality Research, held at Rice University, Houston, Texas, in October 1981. Various chlorinated hydrocarbons were discussed in three papers at a meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco in December 1981. In one of these, groundwater hydrologists from the University of Waterloo discussed the behavior of dissolved organic contaminants in groundwater; John A. Cherry, Robert W. Gillham, and James F. Barker, "Contaminants in Groundwater: Chemical Processes," in National Research Council, Panel on Groundwater Contamination (n. 39 above), 46-64. However, only Miller's paper, presented at the Rice University conference, indicated an understanding that DNAPL might persist undissolved in the subsurface for a long time and act as a continuing source of ground-water contamination (Miller, 45 and fig. 4.7).
108. The migration of immiscible liquids was perceived by hydrologists as an issue of petroleum migration rather than groundwater contamination; see Roger J. M. De Wiest, Geohydrology (New York, 1965), 287-95, and Stanley N. Davis and Roger J. M. De Wiest, Hydrogeology (New York, 1966), 229-37.
109. The migration of immiscible liquids was perceived by hydrologists as an issue of petroleum migration rather than groundwater contamination; see Roger J. M. De Wiest, Geohydrology (New York, 1965), 287-95, and Stanley N. Davis and Roger J. M. De Wiest, Hydrogeology (New York, 1966), 229-37.
110. Donald F. Goerlitz, "A Review of Studies of Contaminated Groundwater Conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey Organics Project, Menlo Park, California, 1961-1990," in Groundwater Contamination and Analysis at Hazardous Waste Sites, ed. Suzanne Lesage and Richard E. Jackson (New York, 1992). The USGS did use the electron-capture detector to study chlorinated pesticides from a dump site in Tennessee in 1967, but it did not undertake a study of the subsurface migration and fate of chlorinated solvents. Goerlitz states that GC/MS was "not available at this time."
111. Simmonds et al. (n. 24 above).
112. Tekla S. Perry, "Cleaning Up," IEEE Spectrum, February 1993, 20-26. The USGS was not the only federal agency that failed to address the DNAPL problem of chlorinated degreasing solvents before 1981. The EPA did not release its first advisory documents on the matter until the early 1990s; Pankow et al., "Dense Chlorinated Solvents in Groundwater: Background and History of the Problem" (n. 34 above), 47. It is a matter of further concern that both agencies also failed to protect groundwater resources from contamination by the gasoline additive methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE), which came into widespread use following the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments.
113. Tekla S. Perry, "Cleaning Up," IEEE Spectrum, February 1993, 20-26. The USGS was not the only federal agency that failed to address the DNAPL problem of chlorinated degreasing solvents before 1981. The EPA did not release its first advisory documents on the matter until the early 1990s; Pankow et al., "Dense Chlorinated Solvents in Groundwater: Background and History of the Problem" (n. 34 above), 47. It is a matter of further concern that both agencies also failed to protect groundwater resources from contamination by the gasoline additive methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE), which came into widespread use following the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments. MTBE has proven to be an important groundwater contaminant; "MTBE Detected in Survey of Urban Groundwater," Environmental Science and Technology 29 (1995): 305A. Given the frequent problems that occurred with the leakage of gasoline from service station storage tanks - the journal Ground Water published an article on the topic as early as November/December 1971 - this is an environmental problem that could have been anticipated by both federal agencies.
114. Tekla S. Perry, "Cleaning Up," IEEE Spectrum, February 1993, 20-26. The USGS was not the only federal agency that failed to address the DNAPL problem of chlorinated degreasing solvents before 1981. The EPA did not release its first advisory documents on the matter until the early 1990s; Pankow et al., "Dense Chlorinated Solvents in Groundwater: Background and History of the Problem" (n. 34 above), 47. It is a matter of further concern that both agencies also failed to protect groundwater resources from contamination by the gasoline additive methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE), which came into widespread use following the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments. MTBE has proven to be an important groundwater contaminant; "MTBE Detected in Survey of Urban Groundwater," Environmental Science and Technology 29 (1995): 305A. Given the frequent problems that occurred with the leakage of gasoline from service station storage tanks - the journal Ground Water published an article on the topic as early as November/December 1971 - this is an environmental problem that could have been anticipated by both federal agencies.
115. James F. Pankow and John A. Cherry, foreword to Pankow's translation of Schwille et al. (n. 66 above).
116. Christopher Sellers, "Factory as Environment: Industrial Hygiene, Professional Collaboration, and the Modern Sciences of Pollution," Environmental History Review (spring 1994): 55-83. This issue of specialization by academic discipline and its inhibiting effects on problem resolution was noted by Schwille in his 1985 address to the Canadian-American Conference on Hydrogeology (n. 66 above), when he called on petroleum and chemical engineers to assist in interdisciplinary research into the DNAPL problem.
117. Harvey Brooks, in a letter to the author, 28 February 2000, noted that with regard to ozone depletion by CFCs and groundwater contamination by solvents, "the big difference [is] that the measurement tools necessary to bring the problem to closure were much more available in the stratospheric ozone case, thanks largely to the high political salience of the SST debate."
118. David Stipp, "Throwing Good Money at Bad Water Yields Scant Improvement," Wall Street Journal, 15 May 1991. The argument of the EPA's deputy director of Superfund contradicted the findings of not only Mackay and Cherry's 1989 article "Groundwater Contamination: Pump-and-Treat Remediation" (n. 67 above) but also EPA's own study of nineteen Superfund sites; Evaluation of Ground-Water Extraction Remedies, vol.2, EPA/540/2-89/054b (Washington, D.C., 1989), case studies 1-19. Schwille, Dense Chlorinated Solvents (n. 66 above), 112, clearly indicated that solvents might remain at the base of aquifers "for time periods ranging between several months to decades." This appears to be more of a case of an uninformed Washington official defending his agency, which had advocated large-scale pumping and treating of contaminated groundwater at Superfund sites, than an EPA official supporting industry. By this time, several chemical and manufacturing companies with significant numbers of Superfund sites (e.g., Dow Chemical, General Electric) were funding the "Solvents Consortium" of Pankow and Cherry to study the problem.
119. David Stipp, "Throwing Good Money at Bad Water Yields Scant Improvement," Wall Street Journal, 15 May 1991. The argument of the EPA's deputy director of Superfund contradicted the findings of not only Mackay and Cherry's 1989 article "Groundwater Contamination: Pump-and-Treat Remediation" (n. 67 above) but also EPA's own study of nineteen Superfund sites; Evaluation of Ground-Water Extraction Remedies, vol.2, EPA/540/2-89/054b (Washington, D.C., 1989), case studies 1-19. Schwille, Dense Chlorinated Solvents (n. 66 above), 112, clearly indicated that solvents might remain at the base of aquifers "for time periods ranging between several months to decades." This appears to be more of a case of an uninformed Washington official defending his agency, which had advocated large-scale pumping and treating of contaminated groundwater at Superfund sites, than an EPA official supporting industry. By this time, several chemical and manufacturing companies with significant numbers of Superfund sites (e.g., Dow Chemical, General Electric) were funding the "Solvents Consortium" of Pankow and Cherry to study the problem.
120. David Stipp, "Throwing Good Money at Bad Water Yields Scant Improvement," Wall Street Journal, 15 May 1991. The argument of the EPA's deputy director of Superfund contradicted the findings of not only Mackay and Cherry's 1989 article "Groundwater Contamination: Pump-and-Treat Remediation" (n. 67 above) but also EPA's own study of nineteen Superfund sites; Evaluation of Ground-Water Extraction Remedies, vol.2, EPA/540/2-89/054b (Washington, D.C., 1989), case studies 1-19. Schwille, Dense Chlorinated Solvents (n. 66 above), 112, clearly indicated that solvents might remain at the base of aquifers "for time periods ranging between several months to decades." This appears to be more of a case of an uninformed Washington official defending his agency, which had advocated large-scale pumping and treating of contaminated groundwater at Superfund sites, than an EPA official supporting industry. By this time, several chemical and manufacturing companies with significant numbers of Superfund sites (e.g., Dow Chemical, General Electric) were funding the "Solvents Consortium" of Pankow and Cherry to study the problem.
121. M. J. Molina and F. S. Rowland, "Stratospheric Sink for Chlorofluoromethanes: Chlorine Atom-Datalyzed Destruction of Ozone," Nature 249 (1974): 810-12.
122. James E. Lovelock, "Electron Absorption Detectors and Technique for Use in Quantitative and Qualitative Gas Chromatography," Analytical Chemistry 35 (1963): 474-81. A history of this device is presented by Lovelock in his autobiography, Homage to Gaia (n. 2 above).
123. James E. Lovelock, "Electron Absorption Detectors and Technique for Use in Quantitative and Qualitative Gas Chromatography," Analytical Chemistry 35 (1963): 474-81. A history of this device is presented by Lovelock in his autobiography, Homage to Gaia (n. 2 above).
124. McFarland (n. 10 above).
125. Brooks, letter to the author, 28 February 2000: "It is also interesting to note that, thanks to the British work (i.e., the discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole by the British Antarctic Survey in 1985), the political salience of the CFC problem seemed to be on the decline just before the ozone hole burst on the scene."
126. Somerville (n. 11 above) and Parson (n. 11 above).
127. W. H. Lambright, "NASA, Ozone, and Policy-Relevant Science," Research Policy 24 (1995): 747-60.
128. Michael B. A. Oldstone, Viruses, Plagues and History (Oxford, 1998). In Yellow Fever in the North (Madison, Wise., 1987), William Coleman describes the confusion over the appearance of yellow fever in European ports in the 1860s, some twenty years prior to the development of the germ theory of disease that eventually allowed the causal agent, disease-carrying mosquitoes from Caribbean forests, to be identified. T. D. Brock has written: "At all stages of its history, the science of microbiology has taken the greatest steps forward when better microscopes have been developed"; Biology of Microorganisms (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1970), 5. I am indebted to one of the T&C referees for pointing out this interesting analogy.
129. Michael B. A. Oldstone, Viruses, Plagues and History (Oxford, 1998). In Yellow Fever in the North (Madison, Wise., 1987), William Coleman describes the confusion over the appearance of yellow fever in European ports in the 1860s, some twenty years prior to the development of the germ theory of disease that eventually allowed the causal agent, disease-carrying mosquitoes from Caribbean forests, to be identified. T. D. Brock has written: "At all stages of its history, the science of microbiology has taken the greatest steps forward when better microscopes have been developed"; Biology of Microorganisms (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1970), 5. I am indebted to one of the T&C referees for pointing out this interesting analogy.
130. Michael B. A. Oldstone, Viruses, Plagues and History (Oxford, 1998). In Yellow Fever in the North (Madison, Wise., 1987), William Coleman describes the confusion over the appearance of yellow fever in European ports in the 1860s, some twenty years prior to the development of the germ theory of disease that eventually allowed the causal agent, disease-carrying mosquitoes from Caribbean forests, to be identified. T. D. Brock has written: "At all stages of its history, the science of microbiology has taken the greatest steps forward when better microscopes have been developed"; Biology of Microorganisms (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1970), 5. I am indebted to one of the T&C referees for pointing out this interesting analogy.
131. Parson, 24-25. In personal correspondence (28 February 2000), Harvey Brooks commented that there was a "high level of activity in stratospheric chemistry that had been generated by the SST debate in the early 1970s. Over 50 million dollars had already been spent, and numerous Congressional hearings had been held on the subject before there was any hint of the fluorocarbon problem."
132. Parson states the assessments were the critical element in achieving agreement.
133. The words are those of D. A. Hollinger: "Kuhn emphasized the power of preconceived ideas to control the observations of scientists, and insisted that without the focusing effect of these ideas investigators would not be able actually to see the phenomena the explanation of which was essential to the creating of new knowledge." "Paradigms Lost," New York Times Sunday Book Review, 28 May 2000, 28.