The strange career of DDT: Experts, federal capacity, and environmentalism in World War II

Technology and Culture

Volumn 40, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 770-796

  Russell III, Edmund P ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CHLORPHENOTANE;

ARTICLE; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; HISTORY; HUMAN; INTOXICATION; LAW; UNITED STATES; WAR;

DDT; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; LEGISLATION, PHARMACY; POISONING; UNITED STATES; WAR;

EID: 0033205083     PISSN: 0040165X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/tech.1999.0192     Document Type: Article

References (126)

1. James S. Simmons, "How Magic is DDT?" Saturday Evening Post, 6 January 1945, esp. 86; "War on Insects," Time, 27 August 1945, 65; Bernard S. Schlessinger and June H. Schlessinger, eds., The Who's Who of Nobel Prize Winners 1901-1905, 3rd ed. (Phoenix, Ariz., 1996), 110-11.
2. James S. Simmons, "How Magic is DDT?" Saturday Evening Post, 6 January 1945, esp. 86; "War on Insects," Time, 27 August 1945, 65; Bernard S. Schlessinger and June H. Schlessinger, eds., The Who's Who of Nobel Prize Winners 1901-1905, 3rd ed. (Phoenix, Ariz., 1996), 110-11.
3. James S. Simmons, "How Magic is DDT?" Saturday Evening Post, 6 January 1945, esp. 86; "War on Insects," Time, 27 August 1945, 65; Bernard S. Schlessinger and June H. Schlessinger, eds., The Who's Who of Nobel Prize Winners 1901-1905, 3rd ed. (Phoenix, Ariz., 1996), 110-11.
4. Thomas R. Dunlap, DDT: Scientists, Citizens, and Public Policy (Princeton, N.J., 1981); Margaret Humphreys, "Kicking a Dying Dog: DDT and the Demise of Malaria in the American South, 1942-1950," Isis 87 (March 1996): 1-17; Paolo Palladino, Entomology, Ecology, and Agriculture: The Making of Scientific Careen in North America, 1885-1985 (Amsterdam, 1996); John H. Perkins, "Reshaping Technology in Wartime: The Effect of Military Goals on Entomological Research and Insect-Control Practices," Technology and Culture 19 (1978): 169-86, and Insects, Experts, and the Insecticide Crisis: The Quest for New Pest Management Strategies (New York, 1982); Edmund P. Russell III, "'Speaking of Annihilation': Mobilizing for War against Human and Insect Enemies, 1914-1945," Journal of American History 82 (March 1996): 1505-29; Richard C. Sawyer, To Make A Spotless Orange: Biological Control in California (Ames, Iowa, 1996); and Merritt Roe Smith and Gregory Clancey, eds., Major Problems in the History of American Technology (Boston, 1998), 384-426.
5. Thomas R. Dunlap, DDT: Scientists, Citizens, and Public Policy (Princeton, N.J., 1981); Margaret Humphreys, "Kicking a Dying Dog: DDT and the Demise of Malaria in the American South, 1942-1950," Isis 87 (March 1996): 1-17; Paolo Palladino, Entomology, Ecology, and Agriculture: The Making of Scientific Careen in North America, 1885-1985 (Amsterdam, 1996); John H. Perkins, "Reshaping Technology in Wartime: The Effect of Military Goals on Entomological Research and Insect-Control Practices," Technology and Culture 19 (1978): 169-86, and Insects, Experts, and the Insecticide Crisis: The Quest for New Pest Management Strategies (New York, 1982); Edmund P. Russell III, "'Speaking of Annihilation': Mobilizing for War against Human and Insect Enemies, 1914-1945," Journal of American History 82 (March 1996): 1505-29; Richard C. Sawyer, To Make A Spotless Orange: Biological Control in California (Ames, Iowa, 1996); and Merritt Roe Smith and Gregory Clancey, eds., Major Problems in the History of American Technology (Boston, 1998), 384-426.
6. Thomas R. Dunlap, DDT: Scientists, Citizens, and Public Policy (Princeton, N.J., 1981); Margaret Humphreys, "Kicking a Dying Dog: DDT and the Demise of Malaria in the American South, 1942-1950," Isis 87 (March 1996): 1-17; Paolo Palladino, Entomology, Ecology, and Agriculture: The Making of Scientific Careen in North America, 1885-1985 (Amsterdam, 1996); John H. Perkins, "Reshaping Technology in Wartime: The Effect of Military Goals on Entomological Research and Insect-Control Practices," Technology and Culture 19 (1978): 169-86, and Insects, Experts, and the Insecticide Crisis: The Quest for New Pest Management Strategies (New York, 1982); Edmund P. Russell III, "'Speaking of Annihilation': Mobilizing for War against Human and Insect Enemies, 1914-1945," Journal of American History 82 (March 1996): 1505-29; Richard C. Sawyer, To Make A Spotless Orange: Biological Control in California (Ames, Iowa, 1996); and Merritt Roe Smith and Gregory Clancey, eds., Major Problems in the History of American Technology (Boston, 1998), 384-426.
7. Thomas R. Dunlap, DDT: Scientists, Citizens, and Public Policy (Princeton, N.J., 1981); Margaret Humphreys, "Kicking a Dying Dog: DDT and the Demise of Malaria in the American South, 1942-1950," Isis 87 (March 1996): 1-17; Paolo Palladino, Entomology, Ecology, and Agriculture: The Making of Scientific Careen in North America, 1885-1985 (Amsterdam, 1996); John H. Perkins, "Reshaping Technology in Wartime: The Effect of Military Goals on Entomological Research and Insect-Control Practices," Technology and Culture 19 (1978): 169-86, and Insects, Experts, and the Insecticide Crisis: The Quest for New Pest Management Strategies (New York, 1982); Edmund P. Russell III, "'Speaking of Annihilation': Mobilizing for War against Human and Insect Enemies, 1914-1945," Journal of American History 82 (March 1996): 1505-29; Richard C. Sawyer, To Make A Spotless Orange: Biological Control in California (Ames, Iowa, 1996); and Merritt Roe Smith and Gregory Clancey, eds., Major Problems in the History of American Technology (Boston, 1998), 384-426.
8. Thomas R. Dunlap, DDT: Scientists, Citizens, and Public Policy (Princeton, N.J., 1981); Margaret Humphreys, "Kicking a Dying Dog: DDT and the Demise of Malaria in the American South, 1942-1950," Isis 87 (March 1996): 1-17; Paolo Palladino, Entomology, Ecology, and Agriculture: The Making of Scientific Careen in North America, 1885-1985 (Amsterdam, 1996); John H. Perkins, "Reshaping Technology in Wartime: The Effect of Military Goals on Entomological Research and Insect-Control Practices," Technology and Culture 19 (1978): 169-86, and Insects, Experts, and the Insecticide Crisis: The Quest for New Pest Management Strategies (New York, 1982); Edmund P. Russell III, "'Speaking of Annihilation': Mobilizing for War against Human and Insect Enemies, 1914-1945," Journal of American History 82 (March 1996): 1505-29; Richard C. Sawyer, To Make A Spotless Orange: Biological Control in California (Ames, Iowa, 1996); and Merritt Roe Smith and Gregory Clancey, eds., Major Problems in the History of American Technology (Boston, 1998), 384-426.
9. Thomas R. Dunlap, DDT: Scientists, Citizens, and Public Policy (Princeton, N.J., 1981); Margaret Humphreys, "Kicking a Dying Dog: DDT and the Demise of Malaria in the American South, 1942-1950," Isis 87 (March 1996): 1-17; Paolo Palladino, Entomology, Ecology, and Agriculture: The Making of Scientific Careen in North America, 1885-1985 (Amsterdam, 1996); John H. Perkins, "Reshaping Technology in Wartime: The Effect of Military Goals on Entomological Research and Insect-Control Practices," Technology and Culture 19 (1978): 169-86, and Insects, Experts, and the Insecticide Crisis: The Quest for New Pest Management Strategies (New York, 1982); Edmund P. Russell III, "'Speaking of Annihilation': Mobilizing for War against Human and Insect Enemies, 1914-1945," Journal of American History 82 (March 1996): 1505-29; Richard C. Sawyer, To Make A Spotless Orange: Biological Control in California (Ames, Iowa, 1996); and Merritt Roe Smith and Gregory Clancey, eds., Major Problems in the History of American Technology (Boston, 1998), 384-426.
10. Thomas R. Dunlap, DDT: Scientists, Citizens, and Public Policy (Princeton, N.J., 1981); Margaret Humphreys, "Kicking a Dying Dog: DDT and the Demise of Malaria in the American South, 1942-1950," Isis 87 (March 1996): 1-17; Paolo Palladino, Entomology, Ecology, and Agriculture: The Making of Scientific Careen in North America, 1885-1985 (Amsterdam, 1996); John H. Perkins, "Reshaping Technology in Wartime: The Effect of Military Goals on Entomological Research and Insect-Control Practices," Technology and Culture 19 (1978): 169-86, and Insects, Experts, and the Insecticide Crisis: The Quest for New Pest Management Strategies (New York, 1982); Edmund P. Russell III, "'Speaking of Annihilation': Mobilizing for War against Human and Insect Enemies, 1914-1945," Journal of American History 82 (March 1996): 1505-29; Richard C. Sawyer, To Make A Spotless Orange: Biological Control in California (Ames, Iowa, 1996); and Merritt Roe Smith and Gregory Clancey, eds., Major Problems in the History of American Technology (Boston, 1998), 384-426.
11. Thomas R. Dunlap, DDT: Scientists, Citizens, and Public Policy (Princeton, N.J., 1981); Margaret Humphreys, "Kicking a Dying Dog: DDT and the Demise of Malaria in the American South, 1942-1950," Isis 87 (March 1996): 1-17; Paolo Palladino, Entomology, Ecology, and Agriculture: The Making of Scientific Careen in North America, 1885-1985 (Amsterdam, 1996); John H. Perkins, "Reshaping Technology in Wartime: The Effect of Military Goals on Entomological Research and Insect-Control Practices," Technology and Culture 19 (1978): 169-86, and Insects, Experts, and the Insecticide Crisis: The Quest for New Pest Management Strategies (New York, 1982); Edmund P. Russell III, "'Speaking of Annihilation': Mobilizing for War against Human and Insect Enemies, 1914-1945," Journal of American History 82 (March 1996): 1505-29; Richard C. Sawyer, To Make A Spotless Orange: Biological Control in California (Ames, Iowa, 1996); and Merritt Roe Smith and Gregory Clancey, eds., Major Problems in the History of American Technology (Boston, 1998), 384-426.
12. Samuel P. Hays, Beauty, Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955-1985 (New York, 1987), 3, 174; Angus A. Maclntyre stressed the unforeseen nature of DDT problems when he wrote that during World War II DDT's developers focused on "acute, short-term toxicity to persons directly exposed. . . . We simply did not understand the chronic adverse impacts of DDT"; "Why Pesticides Received Extensive Use in America: A Political Economy of Agricultural Pest Management to 1970," Natural Resources Journal 27 (1987): 533-78.
13. Samuel P. Hays, Beauty, Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955-1985 (New York, 1987), 3, 174; Angus A. Maclntyre stressed the unforeseen nature of DDT problems when he wrote that during World War II DDT's developers focused on "acute, short-term toxicity to persons directly exposed. . . . We simply did not understand the chronic adverse impacts of DDT"; "Why Pesticides Received Extensive Use in America: A Political Economy of Agricultural Pest Management to 1970," Natural Resources Journal 27 (1987): 533-78.
14. Hays, 3, 173-77; Dunlap, 234-45.
15. Terrence R. Fehner and F. G. Gosling, "Coming in From the Cold: Regulating U.S. Department of Energy Nuclear Facilities, 1942-1996," Environmental History 1 (April 1996): 5-33; Barton C. Hacker, Elements of Controversy: The Atomic Energy Commission and Radiation Safety in Nuclear Weapons Testing, 1947-1974 (Berkeley, 1994); Seth Shulman, The Threat at Home: Confronting the Toxic Legacy of the U.S. Military (Boston, 1992); Mark Obmascik, "Arsenal Billions Away from Being Picnic Site," Denver Post, 14 February 1987; "Pine Bluff Arsenal," Armed Forces Chemical Journal 4 (April 1951): 22-25.
16. Terrence R. Fehner and F. G. Gosling, "Coming in From the Cold: Regulating U.S. Department of Energy Nuclear Facilities, 1942-1996," Environmental History 1 (April 1996): 5-33; Barton C. Hacker, Elements of Controversy: The Atomic Energy Commission and Radiation Safety in Nuclear Weapons Testing, 1947-1974 (Berkeley, 1994); Seth Shulman, The Threat at Home: Confronting the Toxic Legacy of the U.S. Military (Boston, 1992); Mark Obmascik, "Arsenal Billions Away from Being Picnic Site," Denver Post, 14 February 1987; "Pine Bluff Arsenal," Armed Forces Chemical Journal 4 (April 1951): 22-25.
17. Terrence R. Fehner and F. G. Gosling, "Coming in From the Cold: Regulating U.S. Department of Energy Nuclear Facilities, 1942-1996," Environmental History 1 (April 1996): 5-33; Barton C. Hacker, Elements of Controversy: The Atomic Energy Commission and Radiation Safety in Nuclear Weapons Testing, 1947-1974 (Berkeley, 1994); Seth Shulman, The Threat at Home: Confronting the Toxic Legacy of the U.S. Military (Boston, 1992); Mark Obmascik, "Arsenal Billions Away from Being Picnic Site," Denver Post, 14 February 1987; "Pine Bluff Arsenal," Armed Forces Chemical Journal 4 (April 1951): 22-25.
18. Terrence R. Fehner and F. G. Gosling, "Coming in From the Cold: Regulating U.S. Department of Energy Nuclear Facilities, 1942-1996," Environmental History 1 (April 1996): 5-33; Barton C. Hacker, Elements of Controversy: The Atomic Energy Commission and Radiation Safety in Nuclear Weapons Testing, 1947-1974 (Berkeley, 1994); Seth Shulman, The Threat at Home: Confronting the Toxic Legacy of the U.S. Military (Boston, 1992); Mark Obmascik, "Arsenal Billions Away from Being Picnic Site," Denver Post, 14 February 1987; "Pine Bluff Arsenal," Armed Forces Chemical Journal 4 (April 1951): 22-25.
19. Terrence R. Fehner and F. G. Gosling, "Coming in From the Cold: Regulating U.S. Department of Energy Nuclear Facilities, 1942-1996," Environmental History 1 (April 1996): 5-33; Barton C. Hacker, Elements of Controversy: The Atomic Energy Commission and Radiation Safety in Nuclear Weapons Testing, 1947-1974 (Berkeley, 1994); Seth Shulman, The Threat at Home: Confronting the Toxic Legacy of the U.S. Military (Boston, 1992); Mark Obmascik, "Arsenal Billions Away from Being Picnic Site," Denver Post, 14 February 1987; "Pine Bluff Arsenal," Armed Forces Chemical Journal 4 (April 1951): 22-25.
20. "Use of DDT for Mosquito Control in the United States, A Joint Statement of Policy by the U.S. Army and the U.S. Public Health Service," attached to C. L. Williams to the Surgeon General, U.S. Army, 20 April 1945, 725.11 Prevention and Restriction 1945, General Subject File, Record Group 112: Office of the Surgeon General, United States Army, Washington National Records Center, Suitland, Maryland (hereafter cited as RG 112); Robert C. Dunn to Paul A. Neal, 23 August 1944, M. I. Smith and R. D. Lillie to P. A. Neal, 22 August 1944, and H. F. Fraser to Norman T. Kirk, 24 August 1944, 441 (DDT) July-December 1944, General Subject File 1943-44, RG 112; Geoffrey Woodard, Ruth R. Ofner, and Charles M. Montgomery, "Accumulation of DDT in the Body Fat and Its Appearance in the Milk of Dogs," Science, 27 July 1945, 177-78; A. L. Ahnfeldt to the Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service, 7 July 1945, Ahnfeldt to P. H. Annand, 7 July 1945, Ahnfeldt to Ira N. Gabrielson, 7 July 1945, O. R. McCoy and Thomas A. Hart to Frederick C. Lincoln, 8 August 1945, 334 (Committees) January-June 1946 [discrepant dates in original], General Subject File, RG 112.
21. Scientists in 1945 did not predict all the harmful effects of DDT that were known by 1972, such as its potential to reduce bird populations by weakening eggshells. But the discovery of new effects did not create apprehension; it added to existing concerns. See Dunlap.
22. Hays, 2; Dunlap, 241; Christopher J. Bosso, Pesticides and Politics: The Life Cycle of a Public Issue (Pittsburgh, 1987).
23. Brian Balogh, "Reorganizing the Organizational Synthesis: Federal-Professional Relations in Modern America," Studies in American Political Development 5 (spring 1991): 119-72, and Chain Reaction: Expert Debate and Public Participation in American Commercial Nuclear Power, 1945-1975 (New York, 1991); Stephen Skowronek, Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities, 1877-1920 (New York, 1982), viii-ix, 287; Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol, eds., Bringing the State Back In (New York, 1985); Robert Higgs, Crisis and Leviathan: Critical Episodes in the Growth of American Government (New York, 1987); and Ira Katznelson and Bruce Pietrykowski, "Rebuilding the American State: Evidence from the 1940s," Studies in American Political Development 5 (fall 1991): 301-39.
24. Brian Balogh, "Reorganizing the Organizational Synthesis: Federal-Professional Relations in Modern America," Studies in American Political Development 5 (spring 1991): 119-72, and Chain Reaction: Expert Debate and Public Participation in American Commercial Nuclear Power, 1945-1975 (New York, 1991); Stephen Skowronek, Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities, 1877-1920 (New York, 1982), viii-ix, 287; Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol, eds., Bringing the State Back In (New York, 1985); Robert Higgs, Crisis and Leviathan: Critical Episodes in the Growth of American Government (New York, 1987); and Ira Katznelson and Bruce Pietrykowski, "Rebuilding the American State: Evidence from the 1940s," Studies in American Political Development 5 (fall 1991): 301-39.
25. Brian Balogh, "Reorganizing the Organizational Synthesis: Federal-Professional Relations in Modern America," Studies in American Political Development 5 (spring 1991): 119-72, and Chain Reaction: Expert Debate and Public Participation in American Commercial Nuclear Power, 1945-1975 (New York, 1991); Stephen Skowronek, Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities, 1877-1920 (New York, 1982), viii-ix, 287; Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol, eds., Bringing the State Back In (New York, 1985); Robert Higgs, Crisis and Leviathan: Critical Episodes in the Growth of American Government (New York, 1987); and Ira Katznelson and Bruce Pietrykowski, "Rebuilding the American State: Evidence from the 1940s," Studies in American Political Development 5 (fall 1991): 301-39.
26. Brian Balogh, "Reorganizing the Organizational Synthesis: Federal-Professional Relations in Modern America," Studies in American Political Development 5 (spring 1991): 119-72, and Chain Reaction: Expert Debate and Public Participation in American Commercial Nuclear Power, 1945-1975 (New York, 1991); Stephen Skowronek, Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities, 1877-1920 (New York, 1982), viii-ix, 287; Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol, eds., Bringing the State Back In (New York, 1985); Robert Higgs, Crisis and Leviathan: Critical Episodes in the Growth of American Government (New York, 1987); and Ira Katznelson and Bruce Pietrykowski, "Rebuilding the American State: Evidence from the 1940s," Studies in American Political Development 5 (fall 1991): 301-39.
27. Brian Balogh, "Reorganizing the Organizational Synthesis: Federal-Professional Relations in Modern America," Studies in American Political Development 5 (spring 1991): 119-72, and Chain Reaction: Expert Debate and Public Participation in American Commercial Nuclear Power, 1945-1975 (New York, 1991); Stephen Skowronek, Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities, 1877-1920 (New York, 1982), viii-ix, 287; Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol, eds., Bringing the State Back In (New York, 1985); Robert Higgs, Crisis and Leviathan: Critical Episodes in the Growth of American Government (New York, 1987); and Ira Katznelson and Bruce Pietrykowski, "Rebuilding the American State: Evidence from the 1940s," Studies in American Political Development 5 (fall 1991): 301-39.
28. Brian Balogh, "Reorganizing the Organizational Synthesis: Federal-Professional Relations in Modern America," Studies in American Political Development 5 (spring 1991): 119-72, and Chain Reaction: Expert Debate and Public Participation in American Commercial Nuclear Power, 1945-1975 (New York, 1991); Stephen Skowronek, Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities, 1877-1920 (New York, 1982), viii-ix, 287; Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol, eds., Bringing the State Back In (New York, 1985); Robert Higgs, Crisis and Leviathan: Critical Episodes in the Growth of American Government (New York, 1987); and Ira Katznelson and Bruce Pietrykowski, "Rebuilding the American State: Evidence from the 1940s," Studies in American Political Development 5 (fall 1991): 301-39.
29. Federal regulations required manufacturers to label their products accurately and prohibited farmers from marketing products that carried pesticide residues exceeding specified levels; neither of these enforcement mechanisms kept products off the market. Dunlap (n. 2 above), 39-55, 63; James Whorton, Before Silent Spring: Pesticides and Public Health in Pre-DDT America (Princeton, N.J., 1974).
30. Dunlap, 59-245.
31. James Phinney Baxter III, Scientists Against Time (Boston, 1946), 301-4; Stanhope Bayne-Jones, "Typhus Fevers," in Communicable Diseases: Arthropodborne Diseases Other Than Malaria, vol. 7 of Preventive Medicine in World War II, U.S. Army Medical Service (Washington, D.C., 1964), 175-274, esp. 181-82.
32. James Phinney Baxter III, Scientists Against Time (Boston, 1946), 301-4; Stanhope Bayne-Jones, "Typhus Fevers," in Communicable Diseases: Arthropodborne Diseases Other Than Malaria, vol. 7 of Preventive Medicine in World War II, U.S. Army Medical Service (Washington, D.C., 1964), 175-274, esp. 181-82.
33. Perkins, "Reshaping Technology" (n. 2 above).
34. Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, "Investigations on the Control of Insects and Other Arthropods of Importance to the Armed Forces Conducted by the Orlando, Fla., Research Laboratory, April, 1942 to October, 1945," National Research Council Insect Control Committee Report No. 158, Final Report, 1-8, OSRD Insect Control Committee Reports - Numbered - Volume III, Committees on Military Medicine, Minutes (Bulletins) and Reports, Division of Medical Sciences 1940-1945, National Research Council, National Academy of Sciences Archives, Washington, D.C. (hereafter cited as NRC).
35. George C. Dunham, Military Preventive Medicine (Carlisle Barracks, Pa., 1930), chap. 22; E. C. Cushing, History of Entomology in World War II (Washington, D.C., 1957), 23.
36. George C. Dunham, Military Preventive Medicine (Carlisle Barracks, Pa., 1930), chap. 22; E. C. Cushing, History of Entomology in World War II (Washington, D.C., 1957), 23.
37. Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, "Investigations on the Control of Insects."
38. Ibid., 26; L. C. McAlister Jr., G. H. Culpepper, and N. B. Carson, "Treatment of Research Subjects with Introduced Infestation of Body Lice in a Camp Dormitory, Orlando, Florida, Monthly Report, September 1942," Insect Repellents no. 2, September-December 1942, Correspondence, Committees on Military Medicine, Division of Medical Sciences, NRC.
39. Ibid., 26; L. C. McAlister Jr., G. H. Culpepper, and N. B. Carson, "Treatment of Research Subjects with Introduced Infestation of Body Lice in a Camp Dormitory, Orlando, Florida, Monthly Report, September 1942," Insect Repellents no. 2, September-December 1942, Correspondence, Committees on Military Medicine, Division of Medical Sciences, NRC.
40. Edward F. Knipling, "Insect Control Investigations of the Orlando, Fla., Laboratory During World War II," in Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, 1948 (Washington, D.C., 1948), 331-48, esp. 335.
41. H. O. Calvery to W. G. Campbell, 11 August 1942, 1, Insect Repellents no. 1, September 1940-August 1942, Correspondence, Committees on Military Medicine, Division of Medical Sciences 1940-1945, NRC.
42. Paul A. Harper et al., "New Hebrides, Solomon Islands, Saint Matthias Group, and Ryukyu Islands," in Communicable Diseases: Malaria, vol. 6 of Preventive Medicine in World War II, U.S. Army Medical Service (Washington, D.C., 1963), 399-496, esp. 426-34; Mary Ellen Condon-Rall, "Allied Cooperation in Malaria Prevention and Control: The World War II Southwest Pacific Experience," Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 46 (1991): 493-513; Knipling, 337; Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, "Insecticides and Insect Repellents Developed for the Armed Forces at the Orlando, Fla., Laboratory," revision of Tropical Diseases Report No. 19, Report No. 100, 1 July 1945, 22, OSRD Insect Control Committee Reports - Numbered - Volume II, Committees on Military Medicine, Minutes (Bulletins) and Reports, Division of Medical Sciences 1940-1945, NRC.
43. Paul A. Harper et al., "New Hebrides, Solomon Islands, Saint Matthias Group, and Ryukyu Islands," in Communicable Diseases: Malaria, vol. 6 of Preventive Medicine in World War II, U.S. Army Medical Service (Washington, U.C., 1963), 399-496, esp. 426-34; Mary Ellen Condon-Rall, "Allied Cooperation in Malaria Prevention and Control: The World War II Southwest Pacific Experience," Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 46 (1991): 493-513; Knipling, 337; Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, "Insecticides and Insect Repellents Developed for the Armed Forces at the Orlando, Fla., Laboratory," revision of Tropical Diseases Report No. 19, Report No. 100, 1 July 1945, 22, OSRD Insect Control Committee Reports - Numbered - Volume II, Committees on Military Medicine, Minutes (Bulletins) and Reports, Division of Medical Sciences 1940-1945, NRC.
44. Paul A. Harper et al., "New Hebrides, Solomon Islands, Saint Matthias Group, and Ryukyu Islands," in Communicable Diseases: Malaria, vol. 6 of Preventive Medicine in World War II, U.S. Army Medical Service (Washington, U.C., 1963), 399-496, esp. 426-34; Mary Ellen Condon-Rall, "Allied Cooperation in Malaria Prevention and Control: The World War II Southwest Pacific Experience," Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 46 (1991): 493-513; Knipling, 337; Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, "Insecticides and Insect Repellents Developed for the Armed Forces at the Orlando, Fla., Laboratory," revision of Tropical Diseases Report No. 19, Report No. 100, 1 July 1945, 22, OSRD Insect Control Committee Reports - Numbered - Volume II, Committees on Military Medicine, Minutes (Bulletins) and Reports, Division of Medical Sciences 1940-1945, NRC.
45. Paul A. Harper et al., "New Hebrides, Solomon Islands, Saint Matthias Group, and Ryukyu Islands," in Communicable Diseases: Malaria, vol. 6 of Preventive Medicine in World War II, U.S. Army Medical Service (Washington, U.C., 1963), 399-496, esp. 426-34; Mary Ellen Condon-Rall, "Allied Cooperation in Malaria Prevention and Control: The World War II Southwest Pacific Experience," Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 46 (1991): 493-513; Knipling, 337; Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, "Insecticides and Insect Repellents Developed for the Armed Forces at the Orlando, Fla., Laboratory," revision of Tropical Diseases Report No. 19, Report No. 100, 1 July 1945, 22, OSRD Insect Control Committee Reports - Numbered - Volume II, Committees on Military Medicine, Minutes (Bulletins) and Reports, Division of Medical Sciences 1940-1945, NRC.
46. Oliver R. McCoy, "War Department Provisions for Malaria Control," in Communicable Diseases: Malaria, U.S. Army Medical Service, 11-60, esp. 40.
47. Minutes of the Fourth Conference on Insect Repellents, 14 July 1943, 1, Committees on Military Medicine, Division of Medical Sciences, NRC.
48. Victor Froelicher, "The Story of DDT," Soap and Sanitary Chemicals, July 1944, esp. 117; R. C. Roark to P. N. Annand, 6 January 1945, History of Development - Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine - World War 2 1945, History of Defense and War Activities 1941-50, Correspondence and Reports, Record Group 7: Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, Washington National Records Center, Suitland, Maryland (hereafter cited as RG 7).
49. Simmons, "How Magic is DDT?" (n. 1 above); Baxter (n. 12 above), 370; lames S. Simmons to Guy Denit, 7 April 1944, 441 (DDT) July-December 1944, Security Classified General Subject File, RG 112; Roark to Annand, 6 January 1945; Froelicher, 117.
50. Simmons, "How Magic is DDT?" 85; Pyrethrum Mission, "Summary 1, Neocid," 11 May 1943, HD725 Insect Control Malaria - Repellents and Insecticides 1943-1945, Southwest Pacific Area, RG 112; James S. Simmons to D. T. Richardson, May 12, 1944, 441.-1, DDT, Southwest Pacific Area, RG 112.
51. Pyrethrum Mission, "Summary 1, Neocid," and "Supplementary Report, Summary 1, GNB (Neocid)" 8 June 1943, HD725 Insect Control Malaria - Repellents and Insecticides 1943-1945, Southwest Pacific Area, RG 112.
52. Knipling (n. 18 above), 336; "DDT Outlook," Soap and Sanitary Chemicals, June 1944, 127.
53. Minutes of the Fourth Conference on Insect Repellents, 14 July 1943 (n. 22 above).
54. Pyrethrum Mission, "Summary 1, Neocid" and "Supplementary Report, Summary 1, GNB (Neocid)"; Minutes of the Fourth Conference on Insect Repellents, 14 July 1943.
55. Herbert O. Calvery, "Bimonthly Progress Report No. 4, Toxicity of Insect Repellents and Lousicides," 31 August 1943, U.S.A. Typhus Commission DDT-Reports (1943), U.S.A. Typhus Commission, RG 112; "Statement by Dr. H. O. Calvery Regarding the Toxicity of DDT - Committee on Medical Research of the Office of Scientific Research and Development - Tropical Diseases Report no. 19. (First Revision. 30 May 1944, of Tropical Diseases Report no. 17)," attached to Clara L. Day to Clark Yeager, 27 February 1945, 441.(DDT) January-June 1945, General Subject File 1945-46, RG 112; "DDT Toxicity Studies," Soap and Sanitary Chemicals, December 1944, esp. 149.
56. Herbert O. Calvery, "Bimonthly Progress Report No. 4, Toxicity of Insect Repellents and Lousicides," 31 August 1943, U.S.A. Typhus Commission DDT-Reports (1943), U.S.A. Typhus Commission, RG 112; "Statement by Dr. H. O. Calvery Regarding the Toxicity of DDT - Committee on Medical Research of the Office of Scientific Research and Development - Tropical Diseases Report no. 19. (First Revision. 30 May 1944, of Tropical Diseases Report no. 17)," attached to Clara L. Day to Clark Yeager, 27 February 1945, 441.(DDT) January-June 1945, General Subject File 1945-46, RG 112; "DDT Toxicity Studies," Soap and Sanitary Chemicals, December 1944, esp. 149.
57. P. A. Neal et al., "Toxicity and Potential Dangers of Aerosols, Mists, and Dusting Powders Containing DDT," in Supplement No. 177 to the Public Health Reports (Washington, D.C., 1944), 2; W. F. von Oettingen and Paul A. Neal, "Fourth Preliminary Report on the Toxicity and Potential Dangers of Gesarol Insecticides with Special Reference to their Toxicity by Inhalation for August 1943," U.S.A. Typhus Commission Louse Powder - MYL, U.S.A. Typhus Commission, RG 112; P. A. Neal, "Summary of Conclusions of the Report on the Toxicity and Potential Dangers of Gesarol, as Reported at the Meeting of the National Research Council on September 28, 1943," Insect Repellents no. 3, Correspondence, Committees on Military Medicine, Division of Medical Sciences, NRC; P. A. Neal et al., "Final Report on the Toxicity and Potential Dangers of Gesarol" [May-September 1943, handwritten], 49-50, U.S.A. Typhus Commission DDT-Toxicity, U.S.A. Typhus Commission, RG 112.
58. P. A. Neal et al., "Toxicity and Potential Dangers of Aerosols, Mists, and Dusting Powders Containing DDT," in Supplement No. 177 to the Public Health Reports (Washington, D.C., 1944), 2; W. F. von Oettingen and Paul A. Neal, "Fourth Preliminary Report on the Toxicity and Potential Dangers of Gesarol Insecticides with Special Reference to their Toxicity by Inhalation for August 1943," U.S.A. Typhus Commission Louse Powder - MYL, U.S.A. Typhus Commission, RG 112; P. A. Neal, "Summary of Conclusions of the Report on the Toxicity and Potential Dangers of Gesarol, as Reported at the Meeting of the National Research Council on September 28, 1943," Insect Repellents no. 3, Correspondence, Committees on Military Medicine, Division of Medical Sciences, NRC; P. A. Neal et al., "Final Report on the Toxicity and Potential Dangers of Gesarol" [May-September 1943, handwritten], 49-50, U.S.A. Typhus Commission DDT-Toxicity, U.S.A. Typhus Commission, RG 112.
59. P. A. Neal et al., "Toxicity and Potential Dangers of Aerosols, Mists, and Dusting Powders Containing DDT," in Supplement No. 177 to the Public Health Reports (Washington, D.C., 1944), 2; W. F. von Oettingen and Paul A. Neal, "Fourth Preliminary Report on the Toxicity and Potential Dangers of Gesarol Insecticides with Special Reference to their Toxicity by Inhalation for August 1943," U.S.A. Typhus Commission Louse Powder - MYL, U.S.A. Typhus Commission, RG 112; P. A. Neal, "Summary of Conclusions of the Report on the Toxicity and Potential Dangers of Gesarol, as Reported at the Meeting of the National Research Council on September 28, 1943," Insect Repellents no. 3, Correspondence, Committees on Military Medicine, Division of Medical Sciences, NRC; P. A. Neal et al., "Final Report on the Toxicity and Potential Dangers of Gesarol" [May-September 1943, handwritten], 49-50, U.S.A. Typhus Commission DDT-Toxicity, U.S.A. Typhus Commission, RG 112.
60. P. A. Neal et al., "Toxicity and Potential Dangers of Aerosols, Mists, and Dusting Powders Containing DDT," in Supplement No. 177 to the Public Health Reports (Washington, D.C., 1944), 2; W. F. von Oettingen and Paul A. Neal, "Fourth Preliminary Report on the Toxicity and Potential Dangers of Gesarol Insecticides with Special Reference to their Toxicity by Inhalation for August 1943," U.S.A. Typhus Commission Louse Powder - MYL, U.S.A. Typhus Commission, RG 112; P. A. Neal, "Summary of Conclusions of the Report on the Toxicity and Potential Dangers of Gesarol, as Reported at the Meeting of the National Research Council on September 28, 1943," Insect Repellents no. 3, Correspondence, Committees on Military Medicine, Division of Medical Sciences, NRC; P. A. Neal et al., "Final Report on the Toxicity and Potential Dangers of Gesarol" [May-September 1943, handwritten], 49-50, U.S.A. Typhus Commission DDT-Toxicity, U.S.A. Typhus Commission, RG 112.
61. James S. Simmons to D. T. Richardson, 12 May 1944, 441.-1, DDT, Southwest Pacific Area, RG 112. Surviving documents do not explicitly state why the army relied on Neal's tests more than on Calvery's, but two reasons seem likely. First, medical doctors placed great weight on clinical experience. One of the army's key actors was Gen. Stanhope Bayne-Jones. He received a memo saying: "Whether minute quantities of DDT ingested in this manner [from food] will prove harmful has not been determined." He wrote on the memo, "I should say that this has been determined-Major Wheeler and others [illegible] dusting whole and get into the mouth a considerable amount of powder (10% DDT)." Clarence Guyton to Stanhope Bayne-Jones, 17 July 1944, U.S.A. Typhus Commission DDT - Toxicity, U.S.A. Typhus Commission, RG 112. Second, the conditions under which Neal tested animals more closely resembled the conditions under which the army would be using DDT. When Surgeon General Thomas Parran declared DDT safe, he specified exactly the forms that Neal had tested ("a 1% to 5% solution of gesarol in 10% cyclohexanone with 89 to 85 per cent Freon as an aerosol, or in concentrations up to 10% in inert powders for dusting clothes, or the use of a 1% Gesarol-Deobase Mist." Gesarol was an earlier name for DDT.). Thomas Parran to L. H. Weed, 27 October 1943, Insect Repellents no. 3, Correspondence, Committees on Military Medicine, Division of Medical Sciences, NRC. Neal later became even more convinced that his clinical studies showed DDT's safety. To collect data on the effects of DDT on humans, his team studied three men who had been exposed to "extremely great" amounts of DDT while working at the Orlando laboratory. In physical examinations spread over four days, they found that "none of them present definite findings that can be attributed to the toxic action of DDT." P. A. Neal et al., "Results of Examinations of Three Men Having Relatively Long Continued Occupational Exposure to DDT," 1 August 1944, U.S.A. Typhus Commission DDT - Toxicity, U.S.A. Typhus Commission, RG 112.
62. Dunlap has pointed out that factors other than DDT, such as the case-finding method and botanical insecticides, were also important but received less publicity. Dunlap (n. 2 above), 62; "DDT Considered Safe for Insecticidal Use," American Journal of Public Health 34 (1944): 1312-13, esp. 1313.
63. Frank Carey, "War Develops Powerful Attack Against Insects," Mobile Press Register, 12 December 1943; Walter Adams, "DDT ... A Deadly New Bug Killer," Better Homes and Gardens, May 1944; "Coming: Freedom From Insect Pests," Reader's Digest, May 1944; "DDT," Time, 12 June 1944; editorial, Chicago Tribune, reprinted in Soap and Sanitary Chemicals, April 1944, 135.
64. Frank Carey, "War Develops Powerful Attack Against Insects," Mobile Press Register, 12 December 1943; Walter Adams, "DDT ... A Deadly New Bug Killer," Better Homes and Gardens, May 1944; "Coming: Freedom From Insect Pests," Reader's Digest, May 1944; "DDT," Time, 12 June 1944; editorial, Chicago Tribune, reprinted in Soap and Sanitary Chemicals, April 1944, 135.
65. Frank Carey, "War Develops Powerful Attack Against Insects," Mobile Press Register, 12 December 1943; Walter Adams, "DDT ... A Deadly New Bug Killer," Better Homes and Gardens, May 1944; "Coming: Freedom From Insect Pests," Reader's Digest, May 1944; "DDT," Time, 12 June 1944; editorial, Chicago Tribune, reprinted in Soap and Sanitary Chemicals, April 1944, 135.
66. Frank Carey, "War Develops Powerful Attack Against Insects," Mobile Press Register, 12 December 1943; Walter Adams, "DDT ... A Deadly New Bug Killer," Better Homes and Gardens, May 1944; "Coming: Freedom From Insect Pests," Reader's Digest, May 1944; "DDT," Time, 12 June 1944; editorial, Chicago Tribune, reprinted in Soap and Sanitary Chemicals, April 1944, 135.
67. Frank Carey, "War Develops Powerful Attack Against Insects," Mobile Press Register, 12 December 1943; Walter Adams, "DDT ... A Deadly New Bug Killer," Better Homes and Gardens, May 1944; "Coming: Freedom From Insect Pests," Reader's Digest, May 1944; "DDT," Time, 12 June 1944; editorial, Chicago Tribune, reprinted in Soap and Sanitary Chemicals, April 1944, 135.
68. Frank Carey, "War Develops Powerful Attack Against Insects," Mobile Press Register, 12 December 1943; Walter Adams, "DDT ... A Deadly New Bug Killer," Better Homes and Gardens, May 1944; "Coming: Freedom From Insect Pests," Reader's Digest, May 1944; "DDT," Time, 12 June 1944; editorial, Chicago Tribune, reprinted in Soap and Sanitary Chemicals, April 1944, 135.
69. R. C. Roark of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine indexed 174 publications on DDT published by June 1944, 418 in the second half of 1944, and 381 more in the first six months of 1945. R. C. Roark and N. E. McIndoo, A Digest of the Literature on DDT Through April 30, 1944 (Washington, D.C., 1944), 4; R. C. Roark, A List of Publications on 2,2-Bis(Parachlorophenyl)-1,1,1-Trichloroethane (Called DDT) From 1874 to April 30, 1944, Inclusive (Washington, D.C., 1944); R. C. Roark, A Second List of Publications on DDT (Washington, D.C., 1945); R. C. Roark, A Third List of Publications on DDT January Through June 1945 (Washington, D.C., 1945).
70. R. C. Roark of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine indexed 174 publications on DDT published by June 1944, 418 in the second half of 1944, and 381 more in the first six months of 1945. R. C. Roark and N. E. McIndoo, A Digest of the Literature on DDT Through April 30, 1944 (Washington, D.C., 1944), 4; R. C. Roark, A List of Publications on 2,2-Bis(Parachlorophenyl)-1,1,1-Trichloroethane (Called DDT) From 1874 to April 30, 1944, Inclusive (Washington, D.C., 1944); R. C. Roark, A Second List of Publications on DDT (Washington, D.C., 1945); R. C. Roark, A Third List of Publications on DDT January Through June 1945 (Washington, D.C., 1945).
71. R. C. Roark of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine indexed 174 publications on DDT published by June 1944, 418 in the second half of 1944, and 381 more in the first six months of 1945. R. C. Roark and N. E. McIndoo, A Digest of the Literature on DDT Through April 30, 1944 (Washington, D.C., 1944), 4; R. C. Roark, A List of Publications on 2,2-Bis(Parachlorophenyl)-1,1,1-Trichloroethane (Called DDT) From 1874 to April 30, 1944, Inclusive (Washington, D.C., 1944); R. C. Roark, A Second List of Publications on DDT (Washington, D.C., 1945); R. C. Roark, A Third List of Publications on DDT January Through June 1945 (Washington, D.C., 1945).
72. R. C. Roark of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine indexed 174 publications on DDT published by June 1944, 418 in the second half of 1944, and 381 more in the first six months of 1945. R. C. Roark and N. E. McIndoo, A Digest of the Literature on DDT Through April 30, 1944 (Washington, D.C., 1944), 4; R. C. Roark, A List of Publications on 2,2-Bis(Parachlorophenyl)-1,1,1-Trichloroethane (Called DDT) From 1874 to April 30, 1944, Inclusive (Washington, D.O., 1944); R. C. Roark, A Second List of Publications on DDT (Washington, D.C., 1945); R. C. Roark, A Third List of Publications on DDT January Through June 1945 (Washington, D.C., 1945).
73. "Report of Special Committee on DDT," Journal of Economic Entomology 38 (1945): 144.
74. Norman T. Kirk and S. Bayne-Jones to Thomas Parran, 26 August 1944, 441 (DDT) July-December 1944, Security Classified General Subject File, RG 112.
75. Edwin Way Teale, "DDT," Nature, March 1945, 120; Robert H. Williams, "Spray My Cares Away? I Don't Think So," Washington Post, 27 October 1991.
76. Edwin Way Teale, "DDT," Nature, March 1945, 120; Robert H. Williams, "Spray My Cares Away? I Don't Think So," Washington Post, 27 October 1991.
77. "DDT Considered Safe for Insecticidal Use," American Journal of Public Health 34 (1944): 1312-13.
78. "DDT Outlook" (n. 27 above).
79. John H. Draize et al., "Summary of Toxicological Studies of the Insecticide DDT," Chemical and Engineering News 22 (1944): 1503-4, esp. 1504; Arthur A. Nelson et al., "Histopathological Changes Following Administration of DDT to Several Species of Animals," Public Health Reparti, 4 August 1944, 1009-20; Woodard, Ofner, and Montgomery (n. 6 above), 177-78.
80. John H. Draize et al., "Summary of Toxicological Studies of the Insecticide DDT," Chemical and Engineering News 22 (1944): 1503-4, esp. 1504; Arthur A. Nelson et al., "Histopathological Changes Following Administration of DDT to Several Species of Animals," Public Health Reports, 4 August 1944, 1009-20; Woodard, Ofner, and Montgomery (n. 6 above), 177-78.
81. R. D. Lillie and M. I. Smith, "Pathology of Experimental Poisoning in Cats, Rabbits, and Rats with 2,2 Bis-Parachlorphenyl-1,1,1 Trichlorethane," Public Health Reports, 28 July 1944, 979-84; M. I. Smith and E. F. Stohlman, "The Pharmacalogic Action of 2,2 Bis(P-Chlorophenyl) 1,1,1 Trichlorethane and its Estimation in the Tissues and Body Fluids," Public Health Reports, 28 July 1944, 984-93.
82. R. D. Lillie and M. I. Smith, "Pathology of Experimental Poisoning in Cats, Rabbits, and Rats with 2,2 Bis-Parachlorphenyl-1,1,1 Trichlorethane," Public Health Reports, 28 July 1944, 979-84; M. I. Smith and E. F. Stohlman, "The Pharmacalogic Action of 2,2 Bis(P-Chlorophenyl) 1,1,1 Trichlorethane and its Estimation in the Tissues and Body Fluids," Public Health Reports, 28 July 1944, 984-93.
83. Jane Stafford, "Insect War May Backfire," Science News Letter, 5 August 1944, 90-92, esp. 91; "DDT Warning," Time, 7 August 1944, 66.
84. Jane Stafford, "Insect War May Backfire," Science News Letter, 5 August 1944, 90-92, esp. 91; "DDT Warning," Time, 7 August 1944, 66.
85. H. B. Andervont to Dr. Spencer, 8 April 1946, attached to John W. Regan to R. R. Spencer, 2 May 1946, 441 (DDT) 1946, General Subject File, RG 112.
86. Ludwik Gross to the Surgeon General, U.S. Army, 17 August 1944, 441 (DDT) July-December 1944, Security Classified General Subject File, RG 112.
87. Dunn to Neal, 23 August 1944; Smith and Lillie to Neal, 22 August 1944; and Fraser to Kirk, 24 August 1944 (all n. 6 above).
88. Norman T. Kirk and S. Bayne-Jones to Thomas Parran, 26 August 1944, and Thomas Parran to Norman T. Kirk, 1 September 1944, 441 (DDT) July-December 1944, Security Classified General Subject File 1938-44, RG 112. Unfortunately, Andervont did not do the study. Asked for results in 1946, Andervont said he thought the army's DDT samples arrived in September 1944, but his assistant was ill and soon died. Because "an experiment in which any compound is tested for carcinogenic activity is a major experiment and demands considerable time and space," Andervont decided to undertake no new studies until he had a healthy assistant. A new assistant started in March 1945, but Andervont still found no time for the army study. Andervont to Spencer, 8 April 1946. In 1946, an embarrassed head of the National Cancer Institute reported Andervont's lapse to the army and ordered that tests begin. R. R. Spencer to S. Bayne-Jones, 8 April 1946.
89. "DDT is Dynamite to Insects But Effect on Man is Doubted," Washington Post, 10 July 1944; Roark and Mclndoo (n. 35 above).
90. E. Bishop to O. R. McCoy, 13 September 1944, 441 (DDT) July-December 1944, General Subject File, RG 112; Frederick S. Philips, "Medical Division Report No. 13, A Review of the Biological Properties and Insecticidal Applications of DDT," 22 November 1944, 2, U.S.A. Typhus Commission - DDT - General, U.S.A. Typhus Commission, RG 112; Summary, Joint Meeting of DDT Producers and Arsenical Producers Industry Advisory Committee, 19 October 1944, 9-10, 535.61105, Policy Documentation File, Record Group 179: War Production Board, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C. (hereafter cited as RG 179); Perkins, Insects, Experts (n. 2 above), 15-22, 40-44.
91. E. Bishop to O. R. McCoy, 13 September 1944, 441 (DDT) July-December 1944, General Subject File, RG 112; Frederick S. Philips, "Medical Division Report No. 13, A Review of the Biological Properties and Insecticidal Applications of DDT," 22 November 1944, 2, U.S.A. Typhus Commission - DDT - General, U.S.A. Typhus Commission, RG 112; Summary, Joint Meeting of DDT Producers and Arsenical Producers Industry Advisory Committee, 19 October 1944, 9-10, 535.61105, Policy Documentation File, Record Group 179: War Production Board, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C. (hereafter cited as RG 179); Perkins, Insects, Experts (n. 2 above), 15-22, 40-44.
92. H. H. Stage and C. F. W. Muesebeck, "Insects Killed by DDT Aerial Spraying in Panama," National Research Council Insect Control Committee Report No. 108, 1 July 1945,1, OSRD Insect Control Committee Reports - Numbered - Volume II, Committees on Military Medicine, Division of Medical Sciences, NRC; Minutes, Joint Meeting of the OSRD Insect Control Committee and the Army Committee for Insect and Rodent Control, 6 April 1945, 3, Insect Control, Misc. Minutes and Conferences, Committee on Insect Control (OSRD), Committees on Military Medicine, Division of Medical Sciences, NRC.
93. Leroy D. Christenson to Surgeon, HQ USAFISPA, 3 January 1944, 441 DDT through 30 June 1944, Security Classified General Subject File, RG 112; British reports attached to Headquarters, Supreme Allied Commander, South East Asia, to various offices, 4 October 1944, 441 (DDT) July-December 1944, Security Classified General Subject File, RG 112; Comments by Capt. J. J. Sapero, Lt. B. V. Travis and Comdr. H. P. Hopkins in Minutes, Subcommittee on Dispersal, 18-19 February 1946, 18, Miscellaneous Minutes and Conferences, Committee on Insect Control (OSRD), Insect Control, Minutes (Bulletins) and Reports, Committees on Military Medicine, Division of Medical Sciences 1940-1945 [discrepant dates in original], NRC.
94. Minutes, Joint Meeting of the National Academy-Research Council Insect Control Committee and the OSRD Insect Control Committee, 2 May 1945, 2, Joint with N.A.S., Committee on Insect Control, Executive Board, Administration, NRC.
95. Emory C. Gushing, "Report of Visit of Swiss Scientists," 24 September 1945, 4, 441.(DDT) July-December 1945, General Subject File, RG 112; Robert F. Griggs to M. C. Winternitz, 15 June 1945, Committee on Insect Control, OSRD, Office of Emergency Management, Executive, Government, N.A.S.-NRC Central File, NRC.
96. Minutes, Special Joint Meeting of the Army Committee for Insect and Rodent Control and the Office of Scientific Research and Development, Insect Control Committee, 12 January 1945, 7, Report No. 39, OSRD Insect Control
97. Minutes, Special Joint Meeting of the Army Committee for Insect and Rodent Control and the Office of Scientific Research and Development, Insect Control Committee, 12 January 1945, 7, Report No. 39, OSRD Insect Control Committee Reports v. 1, Minutes (Bulletins) and Reports, Committees on Military Medicine, Division of Medical Sciences, NRC; Harriet Geer and Herbert Scoville Jr., "Methods of Dispersal of DDT," 1 March 1945, 2, Committee on Insect Control, OSRD, Office of Emergency Management, Executive, Government, N.A.S.-NRC Central File, NRC.
98. "Use of DDT for Mosquito Control in the United States" (n. 6 above); Humphreys (n. 2 above).
99. Ahnfeldt to Surgeon General, 7 July 1945; Ahnfeldt to Annand, 7 July 1945; Ahnfeldt to Gabrielson, 7 July 1945, McCoy and Hart to Lincoln, 8 August 1945 (all n. 6 above).
100. "Use of DDT for Mosquito Control in the United States"; Humphreys. On ways in which World War II encouraged entomologists to shift from biologically based to chemically based methods of pest control, see Perkins, "Reshaping Technology," (n. 2 above).
101. "Use of DDT for Mosquito Control in the United States"; Humphreys. On ways in which World War II encouraged entomologists to shift from biologically based to chemically based methods of pest control, see Perkins, "Reshaping Technology," (n. 2 above).
102. J. Solon Mordell to George K. Hamill, 20 July 1945, 535.61105, Policy Documentation File, RG 179.
103. Ibid.
104. Summary, DDT Producers Industry Advisory Committee, 25 July 1945, 3-4, 535.61105, Policy Documentation File, RG 179.
105. In addition to these four, McLeod listed three more that were specific to World War II and the "end use" system in effect: the crop or animal must be important in the food production program; no other insecticide could serve; and the person recommending the use DDT should keep track of that use. The Department of Agriculture wanted to wait until the results of that summer's experiments were in before making a recommendation. Summary, DDT Producers Industry Advisory Committee, 25 July 1945, 3-4.
106. Ibid.
107. Ibid.
108. Dunlap (n. 2 above); Whorton (n. 10 above).
109. Summary, DDT Producers Industry Advisory Committee, 25 July 1945, 4; John Rodda, "The Outlook for Insecticide Raw Materials," Soap and Sanitary Chemicals, October 1944, 109-10.
110. Summary, DDT Producers Industry Advisory Committee, 25 July 1945, 5.
111. "WPB Lifts Restrictions on DDT," Soap and Sanitary Chemicals, August 1945, 125; "DDT Insecticides Rushed on Market," Soap and Sanitary Chemicals, September 1945, 124A-124C, esp. 124A; Dunlap, 65.
112. "WPB Lifts Restrictions on DDT," Soap and Sanitary Chemicals, August 1945, 125; "DDT Insecticides Rushed on Market," Soap and Sanitary Chemicals, September 1945, 124A-124C, esp. 124A; Dunlap, 65.
113. Dunlap, 234.
114. For detailed discussion, see the references in n. 2 above.
115. Peter Paret, "The New Military History," Parameters 21 (autumn 1991): 10-18, esp. 12; Joseph A. Wildermuth, "Bad Company," letter to Washington Post Book World, 20 February 1994, 14.
116. Peter Paret, "The New Military History," Parameters 21 (autumn 1991): 10-18, esp. 12; Joseph A. Wildermuth, "Bad Company," letter to Washington Post Book World, 20 February 1994, 14.
117. Merritt Roe Smith, ed., Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience (Cambridge, Mass., 1985); Alex Roland, "Technology and War: The Historiographical Revolution of the 1980s," Technology and Culture 34 (1993): 117-34; Paul N. Edwards, The Closed World: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America (Cambridge, Mass., 1996).
118. Merritt Roe Smith, ed., Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience (Cambridge, Mass., 1985); Alex Roland, "Technology and War: The Historiographical Revolution of the 1980s," Technology and Culture 34 (1993): 117-34; Paul N. Edwards, The Closed World: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America (Cambridge, Mass., 1996).
119. Merritt Roe Smith, ed., Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience (Cambridge, Mass., 1985); Alex Roland, "Technology and War: The Historiographical Revolution of the 1980s," Technology and Culture 34 (1993): 117-34; Paul N. Edwards, The Closed World: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America (Cambridge, Mass., 1996).
120. Geigy Company Inc., New York, "Now It Can Be Told," [n. d.], U.S.A. Typhus Commission DDT - Publicity, U.S.A. Typhus Commission, RG 112; Baxter (n. 12 above), 363.
121. By May 1945, DDT producers included General Chemical, Pennsylvania Salt, J. T. Baker, Monsanto, Cincinnati Chemical Works (partly owned by Geigy), Michigan, Du Pont, Merck, Hercules, Westvaco, and Marietta Dyestuffs. Summary, DDT Producers Industry Advisory Committee, 8 May 1945, 535.61105, Policy Documentation File, RG 179; Norman T. Kirk to Commanding General, Army Service Forces, 29 December 1943 441 (DDT) through 30 June 1944, Security Classified General Subject FUe, RG 112.
122. Minutes, DDT Producers Meeting, 18 July 1945, 7, 535.61105, Policy Documentation File, RG 179; "Testing Thanite," Hercules Mixer April 1946, 118.
123. "Sanitary Products," Soap and Sanitary Chemicals, March 1946, 121.
124. Warren Belasco, "Algae Burgers for a Hungry World? The Rise and Fall of Chlorella Cuisine," Technology and Culture 38 (1997): 608-34.
125. David F. Noble, "Command Performance: A Perspective on the Social and Economie Consequences of Military Enterprise," in Smith, Military Enterprise and Technological Change (n. 71 above), 329-46, esp. 330-31.
126. Paul B. Dunbar, "The FDA Looks at Insecticides," Food Drug Cosmetic Law Quarterly, June 1949, 234-39, esp. 236.