Plural institutionalism and the emergence of intellectual public spaces in contemporary China: four relational patterns and four organizational forms

Journal of Contemporary China

Volumn 7, Issue 18, 1998, Pages 271-301

  Xin, Gu ^a  

^a LEIDEN UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK; INSTITUTIONALISM; INTELLECTUALS; STATE-SOCIETY RELATIONS;

CHINA;

EID: 13144260725     PISSN: 10670564     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10670569808724316     Document Type: Article

References (119)

1. For a comprehensive review of this debate, see Gu Xin, 'A civil society and public sphere in post-Mao China? An overview of western publications', China Information 8(3), (Winter 1993-1994), pp. 38-52.
2. See, for example, Andrew G. Walder, 'The political sociology of the Beijing upheaval of 1989', Problems of Communism 38(5), (September-October 1989), pp. 30-40; and Dorothy J. Solinger, 'Urban entrepreneurs and the state: the merger of state and society', in Arthur Lewis Rosenbaum, ed., State and Society in China: The Consequences of Reform (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992), pp. 121-141.
3. See, for example, Andrew G. Walder, 'The political sociology of the Beijing upheaval of 1989', Problems of Communism 38(5), (September-October 1989), pp. 30-40; and Dorothy J. Solinger, 'Urban entrepreneurs and the state: the merger of state and society', in Arthur Lewis Rosenbaum, ed., State and Society in China: The Consequences of Reform (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992), pp. 121-141.
4. For example, see Philip C. C. Huang, '"Public sphere" and "civil society" in China', Modern China 19(2), (April 1993), pp. 216-217; and Heath B. Chamberlain, On the search for civil society in China', Modern China 19(2), (April 1993), pp. 199-215.
5. For example, see Philip C. C. Huang, '"Public sphere" and "civil society" in China', Modern China 19(2), (April 1993), pp. 216-217; and Heath B. Chamberlain, On the search for civil society in China', Modern China 19(2), (April 1993), pp. 199-215.
6. See X. L. Ding, The Decline of Communism in China: Legitimacy Crisis, 1977-1989 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
7. Ibid., p. 26.
8. The reason that I use the term 'public spaces' rather than the concept of 'public sphere' is similar to the reason for my reluctance to talk about 'civil society in China'. Habermas' model of the public sphere is too value-laden to be used as a paradigm for empirical studies. It had better be used as a normative category for political and social critique. For the elaborations of the limitations of Habermas' model, see Michael Schudson, 'Was There Ever a Public Sphere? If So, When? Reflections on the American Case', in Craig Calhoun, ed., Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge, MA: The M. I. T. Press, 1992), pp. 141-163.
9. I am indebted to T. W. Ngo for suggesting the term 'plural institutionalism'.
10. See Jerry F. Hough, The Soviet Union and Social Science Theory (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977), pp. 22-24.
11. See two useful review articles, Vivien Lowndes, 'Varieties of new institutionalism: a critical appraisal', Public Administration 74(2), (Summer 1996), pp. 181-197; and Junko Kato, 'Institutions and rationality in politics: three varieties of neo-institutionalists', British Journal of Political Science 26(4), (October 1996), pp. 553-582.
12. See two useful review articles, Vivien Lowndes, 'Varieties of new institutionalism: a critical appraisal', Public Administration 74(2), (Summer 1996), pp. 181-197; and Junko Kato, 'Institutions and rationality in politics: three varieties of neo-institutionalists', British Journal of Political Science 26(4), (October 1996), pp. 553-582.
13. See Douglass North, Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 3-5.
14. See Sven Steinmo, Kathleen Thelen, and Frank Longstrech, eds, Structuring Politics: Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Analysis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
15. See North, Institutions, pp. 36-53. Also see Peter A. Hall, Governing the Economy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), p. 19; here institutions are defined as 'the formal rules, compliance procedures, and standard operating practices'.
16. See North, Institutions, pp. 36-53. Also see Peter A. Hall, Governing the Economy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), p. 19; here institutions are defined as 'the formal rules, compliance procedures, and standard operating practices'.
17. Bo Rothstein, 'Labor-market institutions and working-class strength', in Sven Steinmo et al., eds, Structuring Politics, p. 35.
18. See Jerome Karabel, 'Towards a theory of intellectuals and politics', Theory and Society 25(2), (April 1996), pp. 205-233. In this seminal article, Karabel tries to establish an empirical theory on intellectuals and politics in light of neo-functionalism. In my view, however, his theory can be greatly strengthened by incorporating the insights of new institutionalism into the analysis.
19. For an analysis of the Democracy Wall Movement, see Andrew J. Nathan, Chinese Democracy (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1985); For a discussion of the samizdat as well as its Chinese version, see H. Gordon Skilling, Samizdat and an Independent Society in Central and Eastern Europe (Houndmills: Macmillan, 1989), ch. 1.
20. For an analysis of the Democracy Wall Movement, see Andrew J. Nathan, Chinese Democracy (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1985); For a discussion of the samizdat as well as its Chinese version, see H. Gordon Skilling, Samizdat and an Independent Society in Central and Eastern Europe (Houndmills: Macmillan, 1989), ch. 1.
21. Huang, '"Public Sphere" and "Civil Society" in China', p. 224.
22. Tang Tsou, 'The Tiananmen tragedy: the state-society relationship, choices, and mechanisms in historical perspective', in Brantly Womack, ed., Contemporary Chinese Politics in Historical Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 281.
23. For a description of these research centres and a discussion of their functions, see Nina P. Halpern, 'Information flows and policy coordination in the Chinese bureaucracy', in Kenneth G. Lieberthal and David M. Lampton, eds, Bureaucracy, Politics, and Decision Making in Post-Mao China (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1992), pp. 125-148.
24. See Merle Goldman, Sowing the Seeds of Democracy in China: Political Reform in the Deng Xiaoping (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994).
25. For a detailed description of the 'emancipate the mind' movement, see X. L. Ding, The Decline of Communism in China: Legitimacy Crisis, 1977-1989 (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 83-113.
26. See Goldman, Sowing the Seeds, pp. 25-61.
27. Tang Tsou, 'The Tianmen tragedy', p. 279. Also see Chen Yizi, Zhongguo: Shinian Gaige Yu Bajiu Minyun (China: The Ten-year Reforms and the 1989 Democratic Movement) (Taipei: Lianjing chuban shiye gongsi, 1990), p. 5.
28. Tang Tsou, 'The Tianmen tragedy', p. 279. Also see Chen Yizi, Zhongguo: Shinian Gaige Yu Bajiu Minyun (China: The Ten-year Reforms and the 1989 Democratic Movement) (Taipei: Lianjing chuban shiye gongsi, 1990), p. 5.
29. See John P. Burns, 'China's governance: political reform in a turbulent environment', The China Quarterly 119, (September 1989), pp. 504-505. Here Burns presents a brief introduction of the group and takes its relations to some political leaders as an example of the client-patron relationship.
30. See Chen Yizi, China, pp. 4-5.
31. Author's interview with Wang Xiaolu on 10 July 1994, at Canberra, Australia. Wang now is a doctoral candidate at the Australian National University.
32. For a vivid description of the Chinese peasants' carrying out the rural reform and the Party-within political struggle between the Maoists, led by Chairman Hua Guofeng, and the supporters of the reform, represented by Wan Li and Deng Xiaoping, see Yang Minqing and Tian Xuexiang, 'Cong Xiaogang Heihui dao Wan Li Bianfa' (From the underground Xiaogang meeting to the Wan Li reform), Hainan Jishi (The Hainan Magazine of On-the-spot Reports) 2, (January 1989), pp. 2-11.
33. See the Development Group, ed., Nongcun, Jingji, Shehui (The Countryside, Economy and Society), Vol. 1 (Beijing: Zhishi chubanshe, 1985), pp. 33-53.
34. Author's interview with Yang Guansan, one of the core members of the Development Group, on 20 December 1994, in Beijing.
35. See Zhou Qiren, 'The editorial preface' to Zhou Qiren, ed., Nongcun Biange yu Zhongguo Fazhan: 1979-1989 (The Rural Change and Development in China: 1979-1989) (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. xi. For the texts of Deng's and Du's speeches, see The Countryside, Economy and Society, Vol. 1, pp. I-11.
36. See Zhou Qiren, 'The editorial preface' to Zhou Qiren, ed., Nongcun Biange yu Zhongguo Fazhan: 1979-1989 (The Rural Change and Development in China: 1979-1989) (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. xi. For the texts of Deng's and Du's speeches, see The Countryside, Economy and Society, Vol. 1, pp. I-11.
37. For the best discussion of the 1980 election campaigns, see Nathan, Chinese Democracy, pp. 205-222.
38. Author's interview with Zhu Jiaming.
39. Based on the information provided by Yang Guansan in Author's interview with him.
40. This contract has been compiled in Nongcun, Jingji, Shehui (The Countryside, Economy and Society), Vol. 1, pp. 23-24.
41. Author's interview with Yang Guansan.
42. Author's interview with Bai Nansheng, a core member of the Development Group and a participant in the Chu County investigation, on 8 December 1994, in Beijing.
43. See Zhou Qiren, 'The editorial preface', p. xi; Chen Yizi, China, p. 37; and John P. Burns, 'China's governance', p. 504, note 94.
44. See Zhou Qiren, 'The editorial preface', p. xi; Chen Yizi, China, p. 37; and John P. Burns, 'China's governance', p. 504, note 94.
45. See Zhou Qiren, 'The editorial preface', p. xi; Chen Yizi, China, p. 37; and John P. Burns, 'China's governance', p. 504, note 94.
46. See The Compiling Group of Contemporary China, Dangdai Zhongguo de Nongye (Agriculture in Contemporary China) (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1992), pp. 314-315.
47. See Author's interview with Zhu Jiaming.
48. See Daniel Kane, 'Jin Guantao, Liu Qingfeng and their historical systems evolution theory: a new theory of Chinese history', Papers on Far Eastern History 39, (March 1989), pp. 46-73.
49. Information provided by Zhu Jiaming and Bao Zunxin, who were both important members of the Future Group.
50. Author's conversations with Jia Xinmin and Chen Xiaoya, who were members of the Future Group.
51. Alvin Toffler's The Third Wave was read and discussed by almost everybody because of Zhao Ziyang's recommendation.
52. For a discussion of this ideological struggle then taking place among the leadership, see Carol Hamrin, China and the Challege of the Future (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1990), pp. 75-78.
53. Apart from the ISBN number, every formal Chinese publication has to have another publishing code (shuhao) which is printed on its copyright page. The ISBN and the Chinese publishing code are not freely available to everybody. They are available only to those presses that are endorsed by the party-state.
54. Author's conversation with Zhang Gang in New York, November 1992. Zhang Gang was a core member of the EC and on the staff of the CISRES.
55. Author's interview with Chen Xiaoya.
56. The text of the letter is available in Zhong Weiguang, 'Jiquan zhuyi de wanquan yishixingtaihua he kexue sixiang taolun' (The complete ideologization and the discussion on scientific thoughts), Dangdai (The Contemporary) 86, (June 1993), pp. 8-35.
57. Author's interview with Chen Xiaoya. While Gramsci was scarcely read by Chinese intellectuals in the 1980s, many of them derived a similar view to Gramsci's theory of 'cultural hegemony' from their own experiences of the communist ideological life, and put it into their political practice.
58. See David Kelly and He Baogang, 'Emergent civil society and the intellectuals in China', p. 30; He Baogang, 'Dual roles of semi-civil society in Chinese democratization', Australian Journal of Political Science 29(1), (January 1994), pp. 154-171; and Goldman, Sowing the Seeds, pp. 358-360.
59. See David Kelly and He Baogang, 'Emergent civil society and the intellectuals in China', p. 30; He Baogang, 'Dual roles of semi-civil society in Chinese democratization', Australian Journal of Political Science 29(1), (January 1994), pp. 154-171; and Goldman, Sowing the Seeds, pp. 358-360.
60. See David Kelly and He Baogang, 'Emergent civil society and the intellectuals in China', p. 30; He Baogang, 'Dual roles of semi-civil society in Chinese democratization', Australian Journal of Political Science 29(1), (January 1994), pp. 154-171; and Goldman, Sowing the Seeds, pp. 358-360.
61. Author's interview with Chen Ziming on 18 December 1994. Chen was released from jail in May 1994. But in June 1995, Chen was arrested again and now he is in prison.
62. In his interesting book dealing with the legitimacy crisis of the official ideology in China, X. L. Ding proposes the concept 'institutional parasitism' as an alternate scheme to the conception of 'civil society versus the state', describing the symbiotic relationship between 'independent' or 'autonomous' organizations within the society and the party-state establishment (see his The Decline of Communism, pp. 22-35). However, the conception of 'institutional parasitism' is as similarly over-simplistic as the scheme of 'civil society versus the state' at least on a point that it is hard to probe into the difference between minban or non-official institutes and corporatist organizations, which is not in degree, but in nature.
63. The sources for much of the biographical information on Chen Ziming and Wang Juntao are: Chen Ziming, 'Shui Shi Lishi de Zuiren? Wo de Bianhushu' (Who is the guilty person condemned by history? My Defense), in Chen Ziming, Chen Ziming Fansi Shinian Gaige (Chen Ziming's Reflections on the Ten-year Reform) (Hong Kong: Gangdai yuekan, 1992), pp. 361-441; and Hou Xiaotian, 'Wang Juntao de Xinlu Licheng' (Wang Juntao's career and ideas), in Wang Juntao and Hou Xiaotian, Wang Juntao Qiren Qiyan Qi'zui' (Wang Juntao: His Career, His Speeches and His 'Guilt') (Hong Kong: Dangdai yuekan, 1992), pp. 21-33. The former has been partly translated into English, see 'China: defense statement of Chen Ziming', Asia Watch 4(18), (10 June 1992), pp. 1-17.
64. The sources for much of the biographical information on Chen Ziming and Wang Juntao are: Chen Ziming, 'Shui Shi Lishi de Zuiren? Wo de Bianhushu' (Who is the guilty person condemned by history? My Defense), in Chen Ziming, Chen Ziming Fansi Shinian Gaige (Chen Ziming's Reflections on the Ten-year Reform) (Hong Kong: Gangdai yuekan, 1992), pp. 361-441; and Hou Xiaotian, 'Wang Juntao de Xinlu Licheng' (Wang Juntao's career and ideas), in Wang Juntao and Hou Xiaotian, Wang Juntao Qiren Qiyan Qi'zui' (Wang Juntao: His Career, His Speeches and His 'Guilt') (Hong Kong: Dangdai yuekan, 1992), pp. 21-33. The former has been partly translated into English, see 'China: defense statement of Chen Ziming', Asia Watch 4(18), (10 June 1992), pp. 1-17.
65. The sources for much of the biographical information on Chen Ziming and Wang Juntao are: Chen Ziming, 'Shui Shi Lishi de Zuiren? Wo de Bianhushu' (Who is the guilty person condemned by history? My Defense), in Chen Ziming, Chen Ziming Fansi Shinian Gaige (Chen Ziming's Reflections on the Ten-year Reform) (Hong Kong: Gangdai yuekan, 1992), pp. 361-441; and Hou Xiaotian, 'Wang Juntao de Xinlu Licheng' (Wang Juntao's career and ideas), in Wang Juntao and Hou Xiaotian, Wang Juntao Qiren Qiyan Qi'zui' (Wang Juntao: His Career, His Speeches and His 'Guilt') (Hong Kong: Dangdai yuekan, 1992), pp. 21-33. The former has been partly translated into English, see 'China: defense statement of Chen Ziming', Asia Watch 4(18), (10 June 1992), pp. 1-17.
66. Author's interview with Min Qi on 18 July 1994, in Beijing. Min Qi was consistently a core member of the Chen-Wang group. The information provided by Min Qi was confirmed by Yang Guansan.
67. Author's interview with Min Qi. Also see Chen Ziming, Reflections, pp. 377-378.
68. See Chen Ziming, 'My defense', pp. 376-378.
69. Hu Ping, Wang Jutao et al., Kaituo - Beida Xueyun Wenxian (Exploration - Peking University Student Movement Materials) (Hong Kong: Tianyuan shuwu, 1990), pp. 368-371.
70. See Min Qi, 'Cong Zhinangtuan dao Sixiangku' (From the [establishment] brain trust to the [non-establishment] think tank), Ming-Pao (Hong Kong), (26 July 1993). This essay was written for the 4th anniversary of the BSESI. When it was published, Chen and Wang were still in jail.
71. Information here is mainly provided by Min Qi during the Author's interview with him. All the information is based on the archives of the Chen-Wang group. The task of putting them in order is under way.
72. 'Collectives and individuals', according to the Decision of the Central Committee of the CCP Concerning Reform of the Science and Technology Management System, 'should be permitted to set up scientific research or technological service organizations'. See Tony Saich, China's Science Policy in the 80s (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989), p. 167.
73. The emergence of talents exchange centres at various levels was a new phenomenon in the personnel system in the mid-1980s, to satisfy the growing demand of the mobility of talented people. For a detailed description of the reform in this institutional realm, see Saich, China's Science Policy, pp. 104-144; on talents exchange centres particularly, see pp. 133-135.
74. Chen Yizi was the executive director of the Office. See Chen Yizi, China, pp. 106-110.
75. Min Qi, 'From the brain trust to the think tank'.
76. A vivid description of the 1986 student demonstrations is Orvill Schell, Discos and Democracy: China in the Throes of Reform (New York: Doubleday, 1989), pp. 211-244. Among the aftermath of the demonstrations was Hu Yaobang's forced resignation from his post of the Party's General Secretary.
77. Author's interview with Min Qi.
78. See Min Qi, 'From the brain trust to the think tank'.
79. Author's interview with He Jiadong on 20 July 1994 and with Feng Lanrui on 14 December 1994. Feng was the general secretary of the CUSES and the former director of the Economics Weekly. The photocopy of the agreement is also at author's hand. For a study of the Economic Weekly, see author's 'The Economic Weekly, the public space and the voices of Chinese independent intellectuals', The China Quarterly 147, (December 1996), pp. 860-888.
80. See Chang Hua, 'Zhongguo wenhua shuyuan dashi xinian' (A chronology of the Academy of Chinese Culture), in Li Zhonghua and Wang Shouchang, eds, Wenhua de Huigu yu Zhanwang (The Retrospections and Prospects of Culture: The Commemorative Collection for the Tenth Anniversary of the Academy of Chinese Culture) (Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 1994), p. 53.
81. For a disccusion of traditional academies, see Linda Walton, 'The institutional context of neo-Confucianism: scholars, schools, and Shu-yüan in Sung-Yüan China', in W. Theodore de Bary and John W. Chaffee, eds, Neo-Confucian Education: The Formative Stage (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1989), pp. 457-492; for studies of Zhu Xi (Chu Hsi)'s activities in academies, see Wing-tsit Chan, 'Chu Hsi and the Academies', ibid., pp. 389-413; and John W. Chaffee, 'Chu Hsi and revival of the White Deer Grotto Academy, 1179-1181 A.D.', T'ong Pao 71, (1985), pp. 40-62.
82. For a disccusion of traditional academies, see Linda Walton, 'The institutional context of neo-Confucianism: scholars, schools, and Shu-yüan in Sung-Yüan China', in W. Theodore de Bary and John W. Chaffee, eds, Neo-Confucian Education: The Formative Stage (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1989), pp. 457-492; for studies of Zhu Xi (Chu Hsi)'s activities in academies, see Wing-tsit Chan, 'Chu Hsi and the Academies', ibid., pp. 389-413; and John W. Chaffee, 'Chu Hsi and revival of the White Deer Grotto Academy, 1179-1181 A.D.', T'ong Pao 71, (1985), pp. 40-62.
83. For a disccusion of traditional academies, see Linda Walton, 'The institutional context of neo-Confucianism: scholars, schools, and Shu-yüan in Sung-Yüan China', in W. Theodore de Bary and John W. Chaffee, eds, Neo-Confucian Education: The Formative Stage (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1989), pp. 457-492; for studies of Zhu Xi (Chu Hsi)'s activities in academies, see Wing-tsit Chan, 'Chu Hsi and the Academies', ibid., pp. 389-413; and John W. Chaffee, 'Chu Hsi and revival of the White Deer Grotto Academy, 1179-1181 A.D.', T'ong Pao 71, (1985), pp. 40-62.
84. Author's interview with professor Tang Yijie, the president of Culture Academy from the beginning to the present, on 20 December 1994.
85. Interview with Tang Yijie.
86. Ibid. Also see Chang Hua, 'Chronology', pp. 54-55.
87. See the Culture Academy's own introductory pamphlet (the 1988 version), p. 4.
88. Interview with Tang Yijie.
89. See Chang Hua, 'Chronology', p. 54.
90. Interview with Wang Shouchang.
91. See the Culture Academy's own introductory pamphlet (the 1993 version), pp. 2-3.
92. The lists of the Culture Academy's teachers over different periods are available in its introductory pamphlets (the 1988 and 1993 versions).
93. For a brief description of the conflict between Liang and Mao, see Guy S. Alitto, The Last Confucian: Liang Shu-ming and the Chinese Dilemma of Modernity (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1979), pp. 324-333.
94. The best studies of Chinese modern conservative ideas are collected in Charlott Furth, ed., The Limits of Change: Essays on Conservative Alternatives in Republican China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976).
95. For a study of the Hong Kong-based New Confucianism, see Hao Chang, 'New Confucianism and the intellectual crisis of contemporary China', in Furth, The Limits of Change, pp. 276-302. For a study of Xiong Shili's ideas, see Tu Wei-ming, 'Hsiung Shih-li's quest for authentic existence', in Furth, ibid., pp. 242-275.
96. For a study of the Hong Kong-based New Confucianism, see Hao Chang, 'New Confucianism and the intellectual crisis of contemporary China', in Furth, The Limits of Change, pp. 276-302. For a study of Xiong Shili's ideas, see Tu Wei-ming, 'Hsiung Shih-li's quest for authentic existence', in Furth, ibid., pp. 242-275.
97. See Chen Lai, 'Sixiang Chulu San Dongxiang' (Three directions for the [Chinese] intellectual outlet), in Gan Yang, ed., Zhongguo Dangdai Wenhua Yishi (The Cultural Consciousness in Contemporary China) (Hong Kong: Sanlian Shudian, 1989), pp. 584-585.
98. Kenneth G. Lieberthal, 'Introduction: the "fragmented authoritarianism" model and its limitations', in Kenneth G. Lieberthal and David M. Lampton, eds, Bureaucracy, Politics, and Decision Making, pp. 1-30.
99. Quoted from Tang Tsou, 'The Tiananmen tragedy', p. 295.
100. To quote Merle Goldman's expression, see her Sowing the Seeds, the title of ch. 10.
101. For a vivid description of factionalism in the Chinese intellectual group life, see Su Wei, 'Quanzi, Shalong yu Gonggong Kongjian' (Circles, salons and the public sphere), in Ying-shih Yü et al., Cong Wusi Dao Heshang (From the May Fourth [Movement] to the River Elegy) (Taipei: Fengyun shidai chuban youxian gongsi, 1992), pp. 171-188.
102. This controversy has been described by many authors. Among them, see Barry Sautman, 'Sirens of the strongman: neo-authoritarianism in recent Chinese political theory'. The China Quarterly 129, (March 1992), pp. 72-102; and Ma Shu Yun, 'The rise and fall of neo-authoritarianism in China', China Information 5(3), (Winter 1990-1991), pp. 1-18.
103. This controversy has been described by many authors. Among them, see Barry Sautman, 'Sirens of the strongman: neo-authoritarianism in recent Chinese political theory'. The China Quarterly 129, (March 1992), pp. 72-102; and Ma Shu Yun, 'The rise and fall of neo-authoritarianism in China', China Information 5(3), (Winter 1990-1991), pp. 1-18.
104. See Goldman, Sowing the Seeds, pp. 287-292.
105. Tang Tsou, 'The Tiananmen tragedy', p. 274.
106. See Stanley Rosen, 'Students and the state in China: the crisis in ideology and organization', in Rosenbaum, ed., State and Society, pp. 167-192.
107. See Goldman, Sowing the Seeds, pp. 293-294.
108. Hu Ping's interview with Wang Juntao, p. 26.
109. See Wang Juntao: His Career, His Speeches and His 'Guilt', p. 31.
110. For a detailed analysis of Chen and Wang's involvement in the movement, see Edward X. Gu, 'Elitist democracy and China's democratization: a graduate approach towards democratic transition by a group of Chinese dissidents', Democratization, Vol. IV (forthcoming).
111. Tang Tsou, 'The Tiananmen tragedy', p. 311.
112. This institute as a branch organization of the CITIC, China's largest corporation for international investment, was formed by Li Xianglu, a former secretary of Zhao Ziyang, and Zhu Jiaming, a leading economic adviser of Zhao Ziyang.
113. The text of the declaration is collected in the Students' Association of the Hong Kong Chinese University, ed., Bajiu Zhongguo Minyun Ziliaoce (The Collected Materials of the 1989 Chinese Democratic Movement) (Hong Kong: The Students' Association of the Hong Kong Chinese University, 1991), pp. 198-199.
114. Tang Tsou, 'The Tiananmen tragedy', p. 281.
115. Author's interview with Zhu Jiaming.
116. See Mei Zi's interview with Chen Yizi, published in Open Magazine, (June 1991), pp. 69-71.
117. That personal connections serve as an important institutional element (although being conventional in nature) in socio-political games in China, whether in revolutionary or in post-revolutionary phases, has been illustrated by some Western scholars of China's politics and society. See David Apter and Tony Saich, Revolutionary Discourse in Mao's Republic (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), p. 322; and Mayfair Mei-hui Yang, Gifts Favors and Banquets: The Art of Social Relationships in China (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994).
118. That personal connections serve as an important institutional element (although being conventional in nature) in socio-political games in China, whether in revolutionary or in post-revolutionary phases, has been illustrated by some Western scholars of China's politics and society. See David Apter and Tony Saich, Revolutionary Discourse in Mao's Republic (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), p. 322; and Mayfair Mei-hui Yang, Gifts Favors and Banquets: The Art of Social Relationships in China (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994).
119. Tang Tsou, 'The Tiananmen tragedy', p. 302.