Echoes of Latifundism? Electoral Constituencies of Successor Parties in Post-Communist Countries

East European Politics and Societies

Volumn 18, Issue 1, 2004, Pages

  Lubecki, Jacek ^a  

^a MILLIKIN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

East Germany; Hungary; Latifundism; Poland; Post communist Europe; Regional political culture; Russia; Successor parties

Indexed keywords

EID: 1142265427     PISSN: 08883254     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0888325403258286     Document Type: Review

References (156)

1. Two criteria determine the term successor parties for the purposes of this paper: (1) parties that are institutional successors of the former ruling communist parties of Eastern Europe and (2) those among them that achieved genuine electoral successes in reasonably free elections. More specifically, the parties or electoral blocks under consideration are, In Hungary, the MSZP (Hungarian Socialist Party) and the MSZMP (Hungarian Socialist Workers Party); in Poland, the electoral block SLD (Union of Democratic Left); in Germany, the PDS (Party of Democratic Socialism); and in Russia, the KPRF (Communist Party of the Russian Federation) and its agrarian ally AP (Agrarian Party).
2. In politically volatile Lithuania, the Lithuanian Democratic Workers Party went from 42.61 percent of national vote in 1992 down to 9.5 percent in 1990. See Terry Clark, "The Lithuanian Political Party System: A Case Study of the Democratic Consolidation," East European Politics and Society 9:1(1995): 41-62; and Lithuanian Seimas, Department of Computing, "Preliminary Results of the Seimas Elections in the Multi-Mandate Districts," in Results of the Seimas Elections 1996, http://wingis.sc-uni.ktult/rinkimai/results.htm (23 October 1996).
3. In politically volatile Lithuania, the Lithuanian Democratic Workers Party went from 42.61 percent of national vote in 1992 down to 9.5 percent in 1990. See Terry Clark, "The Lithuanian Political Party System: A Case Study of the Democratic Consolidation," East European Politics and Society 9:1(1995): 41-62; and Lithuanian Seimas, Department of Computing, "Preliminary Results of the Seimas Elections in the Multi-Mandate Districts," in Results of the Seimas Elections 1996, http://wingis.sc-uni.ktult/rinkimai/results.htm (23 October 1996).
4. See American Institute for Contemporary German Studies, www.aicgs.org/wahlen/.
5. See the Russian Center for Public Opinion and Market Research (VCIOM) and the Center for the Study of Public Policy of the University of Starthclyde, www.RussiaVotes.org.
6. With regard to the steadfastness of the successor party electorate in Poland, see Hubert Tworzecki, Parties and Politics in Post-1989 Poland (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1996), 177-78. For the Russian evidence, see Stephen White, Richard Rose, and Ian McAllister, How Russia Votes (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House, 1996), 136-37, For East Germany, see Daniel Ziblatt, "Putting Humpty-Dumpty Back Together Again. Communist Collapse and the Reconstruction of the East German Ex-Communist Party," German Politics and Society 16:1(1998), 18-19.
7. With regard to the steadfastness of the successor party electorate in Poland, see Hubert Tworzecki, Parties and Politics in Post-1989 Poland (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1996), 177-78. For the Russian evidence, see Stephen White, Richard Rose, and Ian McAllister, How Russia Votes (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House, 1996), 136-37, For East Germany, see Daniel Ziblatt, "Putting Humpty-Dumpty Back Together Again. Communist Collapse and the Reconstruction of the East German Ex-Communist Party," German Politics and Society 16:1(1998), 18-19.
8. With regard to the steadfastness of the successor party electorate in Poland, see Hubert Tworzecki, Parties and Politics in Post-1989 Poland (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1996), 177-78. For the Russian evidence, see Stephen White, Richard Rose, and Ian McAllister, How Russia Votes (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House, 1996), 136-37, For East Germany, see Daniel Ziblatt, "Putting Humpty-Dumpty Back Together Again. Communist Collapse and the Reconstruction of the East German Ex-Communist Party," German Politics and Society 16:1(1998), 18-19.
9. Popular press repeated this thesis ad nauseum In the case of Polish 1993 and Hungarian 1994 elections. See Jane Perlez, "Ex-Communists Get Crucial New Role in Polish Elections. Discontent on Economy," New York Times, 20 September 1993; and "Ex-Communists Post-Big Gains in Hungary's National Elections," New York Times, 9 May 1994. Initial scholarly reactions repeated similar notions; see John Gibson and Anna Cielecka, "Economic Influences on the Political Support for Market Reform in Post-Communist Transition: Some Evidence from the 1993 Polish Parliamentary Elections," Europe-Asia Studies 47:5(1995): 765-85; and Edith Oltay, "The Former Communists' Election Victory in Hungary," RFE/RL Research Report 3:25(24 June 1994): 1-6.
10. Popular press repeated this thesis ad nauseum In the case of Polish 1993 and Hungarian 1994 elections. See Jane Perlez, "Ex-Communists Get Crucial New Role in Polish Elections. Discontent on Economy," New York Times, 20 September 1993; and "Ex-Communists Post-Big Gains in Hungary's National Elections," New York Times, 9 May 1994. Initial scholarly reactions repeated similar notions; see John Gibson and Anna Cielecka, "Economic Influences on the Political Support for Market Reform in Post-Communist Transition: Some Evidence from the 1993 Polish Parliamentary Elections," Europe-Asia Studies 47:5(1995): 765-85; and Edith Oltay, "The Former Communists' Election Victory in Hungary," RFE/RL Research Report 3:25(24 June 1994): 1-6.
11. Popular press repeated this thesis ad nauseum In the case of Polish 1993 and Hungarian 1994 elections. See Jane Perlez, "Ex-Communists Get Crucial New Role in Polish Elections. Discontent on Economy," New York Times, 20 September 1993; and "Ex-Communists Post-Big Gains in Hungary's National Elections," New York Times, 9 May 1994. Initial scholarly reactions repeated similar notions; see John Gibson and Anna Cielecka, "Economic Influences on the Political Support for Market Reform in Post-Communist Transition: Some Evidence from the 1993 Polish Parliamentary Elections," Europe-Asia Studies 47:5(1995): 765-85; and Edith Oltay, "The Former Communists' Election Victory in Hungary," RFE/RL Research Report 3:25(24 June 1994): 1-6.
12. Popular press repeated this thesis ad nauseum In the case of Polish 1993 and Hungarian 1994 elections. See Jane Perlez, "Ex-Communists Get Crucial New Role in Polish Elections. Discontent on Economy," New York Times, 20 September 1993; and "Ex-Communists Post-Big Gains in Hungary's National Elections," New York Times, 9 May 1994. Initial scholarly reactions repeated similar notions; see John Gibson and Anna Cielecka, "Economic Influences on the Political Support for Market Reform in Post-Communist Transition: Some Evidence from the 1993 Polish Parliamentary Elections," Europe-Asia Studies 47:5(1995): 765-85; and Edith Oltay, "The Former Communists' Election Victory in Hungary," RFE/RL Research Report 3:25(24 June 1994): 1-6.
13. For evidence regarding Hungary, see Geoffrey Evans and Stephen Whitefield, "Social and Ideological Cleavage Formation in Post-Communist Hungary," Europe-Asia Studies 47:7(1995): 1191. For Poland, see Hubert Tworzecki, Parties and Politics, 177-78. For the Russian evidence, see White, Rose, and McAllister, How Russia Votes, 145; and Ralph Clem and Peter Craumer, "Urban-Rural Voting Differences in Russian Elections, 1995-1996: A Rayon-Level Analysis," Post-Soviet Geography and Economics 38:7(1997): 379-95. The East German data, finally, can be found in Oskar Niedermayer, "Die Stellung der PDS im Ostdeuschten Parteisystem," in The Party of Democratic Socialism in Germany. Modern Post-Communism or Nostalgic Populism? ed. Peter Baker (Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 1998), 18-37; Jonathan Olsen, "Germany's PDS and Varieties of 'Post-Communist' Socialism," Problems of Post-Communism 45:6(November 1998): 42-52; David Patton, "Germany's Party of Democratic Socialism in a Comparative Perspective," East European Politics and Societies 12:3(Fall 1998): 500-26; and Helmut Wiesenthal, "Post-Unification Dissatisfaction, or Why Are So Many East Germans Unhappy with the New Political System?" German Politics 7:2(August 1998): 1-30.
14. For evidence regarding Hungary, see Geoffrey Evans and Stephen Whitefield, "Social and Ideological Cleavage Formation in Post-Communist Hungary," Europe-Asia Studies 47:7(1995): 1191. For Poland, see Hubert Tworzecki, Parties and Politics, 177-78. For the Russian evidence, see White, Rose, and McAllister, How Russia Votes, 145; and Ralph Clem and Peter Craumer, "Urban-Rural Voting Differences in Russian Elections, 1995-1996: A Rayon-Level Analysis," Post-Soviet Geography and Economics 38:7(1997): 379-95. The East German data, finally, can be found in Oskar Niedermayer, "Die Stellung der PDS im Ostdeuschten Parteisystem," in The Party of Democratic Socialism in Germany. Modern Post-Communism or Nostalgic Populism? ed. Peter Baker (Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 1998), 18-37; Jonathan Olsen, "Germany's PDS and Varieties of 'Post-Communist' Socialism," Problems of Post-Communism 45:6(November 1998): 42-52; David Patton, "Germany's Party of Democratic Socialism in a Comparative Perspective," East European Politics and Societies 12:3(Fall 1998): 500-26; and Helmut Wiesenthal, "Post-Unification Dissatisfaction, or Why Are So Many East Germans Unhappy with the New Political System?" German Politics 7:2(August 1998): 1-30.
15. For evidence regarding Hungary, see Geoffrey Evans and Stephen Whitefield, "Social and Ideological Cleavage Formation in Post-Communist Hungary," Europe-Asia Studies 47:7(1995): 1191. For Poland, see Hubert Tworzecki, Parties and Politics, 177-78. For the Russian evidence, see White, Rose, and McAllister, How Russia Votes, 145; and Ralph Clem and Peter Craumer, "Urban-Rural Voting Differences in Russian Elections, 1995-1996: A Rayon-Level Analysis," Post-Soviet Geography and Economics 38:7(1997): 379-95. The East German data, finally, can be found in Oskar Niedermayer, "Die Stellung der PDS im Ostdeuschten Parteisystem," in The Party of Democratic Socialism in Germany. Modern Post-Communism or Nostalgic Populism? ed. Peter Baker (Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 1998), 18-37; Jonathan Olsen, "Germany's PDS and Varieties of 'Post-Communist' Socialism," Problems of Post-Communism 45:6(November 1998): 42-52; David Patton, "Germany's Party of Democratic Socialism in a Comparative Perspective," East European Politics and Societies 12:3(Fall 1998): 500-26; and Helmut Wiesenthal, "Post-Unification Dissatisfaction, or Why Are So Many East Germans Unhappy with the New Political System?" German Politics 7:2(August 1998): 1-30.
16. For evidence regarding Hungary, see Geoffrey Evans and Stephen Whitefield, "Social and Ideological Cleavage Formation in Post-Communist Hungary," Europe-Asia Studies 47:7(1995): 1191. For Poland, see Hubert Tworzecki, Parties and Politics, 177-78. For the Russian evidence, see White, Rose, and McAllister, How Russia Votes, 145; and Ralph Clem and Peter Craumer, "Urban-Rural Voting Differences in Russian Elections, 1995-1996: A Rayon-Level Analysis," Post-Soviet Geography and Economics 38:7(1997): 379-95. The East German data, finally, can be found in Oskar Niedermayer, "Die Stellung der PDS im Ostdeuschten Parteisystem," in The Party of Democratic Socialism in Germany. Modern Post-Communism or Nostalgic Populism? ed. Peter Baker (Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 1998), 18-37; Jonathan Olsen, "Germany's PDS and Varieties of 'Post-Communist' Socialism," Problems of Post-Communism 45:6(November 1998): 42-52; David Patton, "Germany's Party of Democratic Socialism in a Comparative Perspective," East European Politics and Societies 12:3(Fall 1998): 500-26; and Helmut Wiesenthal, "Post-Unification Dissatisfaction, or Why Are So Many East Germans Unhappy with the New Political System?" German Politics 7:2(August 1998): 1-30.
17. For evidence regarding Hungary, see Geoffrey Evans and Stephen Whitefield, "Social and Ideological Cleavage Formation in Post-Communist Hungary," Europe-Asia Studies 47:7(1995): 1191. For Poland, see Hubert Tworzecki, Parties and Politics, 177-78. For the Russian evidence, see White, Rose, and McAllister, How Russia Votes, 145; and Ralph Clem and Peter Craumer, "Urban-Rural Voting Differences in Russian Elections, 1995-1996: A Rayon-Level Analysis," Post-Soviet Geography and Economics 38:7(1997): 379-95. The East German data, finally, can be found in Oskar Niedermayer, "Die Stellung der PDS im Ostdeuschten Parteisystem," in The Party of Democratic Socialism in Germany. Modern Post-Communism or Nostalgic Populism? ed. Peter Baker (Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 1998), 18-37; Jonathan Olsen, "Germany's PDS and Varieties of 'Post-Communist' Socialism," Problems of Post-Communism 45:6(November 1998): 42-52; David Patton, "Germany's Party of Democratic Socialism in a Comparative Perspective," East European Politics and Societies 12:3(Fall 1998): 500-26; and Helmut Wiesenthal, "Post-Unification Dissatisfaction, or Why Are So Many East Germans Unhappy with the New Political System?" German Politics 7:2(August 1998): 1-30.
18. For evidence regarding Hungary, see Geoffrey Evans and Stephen Whitefield, "Social and Ideological Cleavage Formation in Post-Communist Hungary," Europe-Asia Studies 47:7(1995): 1191. For Poland, see Hubert Tworzecki, Parties and Politics, 177-78. For the Russian evidence, see White, Rose, and McAllister, How Russia Votes, 145; and Ralph Clem and Peter Craumer, "Urban-Rural Voting Differences in Russian Elections, 1995-1996: A Rayon-Level Analysis," Post-Soviet Geography and Economics 38:7(1997): 379-95. The East German data, finally, can be found in Oskar Niedermayer, "Die Stellung der PDS im Ostdeuschten Parteisystem," in The Party of Democratic Socialism in Germany. Modern Post-Communism or Nostalgic Populism? ed. Peter Baker (Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 1998), 18-37; Jonathan Olsen, "Germany's PDS and Varieties of 'Post-Communist' Socialism," Problems of Post-Communism 45:6(November 1998): 42-52; David Patton, "Germany's Party of Democratic Socialism in a Comparative Perspective," East European Politics and Societies 12:3(Fall 1998): 500-26; and Helmut Wiesenthal, "Post-Unification Dissatisfaction, or Why Are So Many East Germans Unhappy with the New Political System?" German Politics 7:2(August 1998): 1-30.
19. For evidence regarding Hungary, see Geoffrey Evans and Stephen Whitefield, "Social and Ideological Cleavage Formation in Post-Communist Hungary," Europe-Asia Studies 47:7(1995): 1191. For Poland, see Hubert Tworzecki, Parties and Politics, 177-78. For the Russian evidence, see White, Rose, and McAllister, How Russia Votes, 145; and Ralph Clem and Peter Craumer, "Urban-Rural Voting Differences in Russian Elections, 1995-1996: A Rayon-Level Analysis," Post-Soviet Geography and Economics 38:7(1997): 379-95. The East German data, finally, can be found in Oskar Niedermayer, "Die Stellung der PDS im Ostdeuschten Parteisystem," in The Party of Democratic Socialism in Germany. Modern Post-Communism or Nostalgic Populism? ed. Peter Baker (Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 1998), 18-37; Jonathan Olsen, "Germany's PDS and Varieties of 'Post-Communist' Socialism," Problems of Post-Communism 45:6(November 1998): 42-52; David Patton, "Germany's Party of Democratic Socialism in a Comparative Perspective," East European Politics and Societies 12:3(Fall 1998): 500-26; and Helmut Wiesenthal, "Post-Unification Dissatisfaction, or Why Are So Many East Germans Unhappy with the New Political System?" German Politics 7:2(August 1998): 1-30.
20. For evidence regarding Hungary, see Geoffrey Evans and Stephen Whitefield, "Social and Ideological Cleavage Formation in Post-Communist Hungary," Europe-Asia Studies 47:7(1995): 1191. For Poland, see Hubert Tworzecki, Parties and Politics, 177-78. For the Russian evidence, see White, Rose, and McAllister, How Russia Votes, 145; and Ralph Clem and Peter Craumer, "Urban-Rural Voting Differences in Russian Elections, 1995-1996: A Rayon-Level Analysis," Post-Soviet Geography and Economics 38:7(1997): 379-95. The East German data, finally, can be found in Oskar Niedermayer, "Die Stellung der PDS im Ostdeuschten Parteisystem," in The Party of Democratic Socialism in Germany. Modern Post-Communism or Nostalgic Populism? ed. Peter Baker (Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 1998), 18-37; Jonathan Olsen, "Germany's PDS and Varieties of 'Post-Communist' Socialism," Problems of Post-Communism 45:6(November 1998): 42-52; David Patton, "Germany's Party of Democratic Socialism in a Comparative Perspective," East European Politics and Societies 12:3(Fall 1998): 500-26; and Helmut Wiesenthal, "Post-Unification Dissatisfaction, or Why Are So Many East Germans Unhappy with the New Political System?" German Politics 7:2(August 1998): 1-30.
21. See Allison Mahr and John Nagle, "Resurrection of the Successor Parties and Democratization in East-Central Europe," Communist and Post-Communist Studies 28:4(1995): 393-409.
22. These include voters between their midthirties and midfifties in East-Central Europe and voters older than fifty in Russia.
23. See White, Rose, and McAllister, How Russia Votes, 43-44; Olsen, "Germany's PDS"; Mitchell Orenstein, "A Genealogy of Communist Successor Parties in East-Central Europe and the Determinants of Their Success," East European Politics and Societies 12:3(Fall 1998): 489.
24. See White, Rose, and McAllister, How Russia Votes, 43-44; Olsen, "Germany's PDS"; Mitchell Orenstein, "A Genealogy of Communist Successor Parties in East-Central Europe and the Determinants of Their Success," East European Politics and Societies 12:3(Fall 1998): 489.
25. See White, Rose, and McAllister, How Russia Votes, 43-44; Olsen, "Germany's PDS"; Mitchell Orenstein, "A Genealogy of Communist Successor Parties in East-Central Europe and the Determinants of Their Success," East European Politics and Societies 12:3(Fall 1998): 489.
26. The seminal articles in this respect are Vladimir Kolossov, "The Electoral Geography of the Former Soviet Union 1989-91: Retrospective Comparison and Theoretical Issues," in The New Political Geography of Eastern Europe, ed. John O'Loughlin and Herman van der Wusten (London: Halsted Press, 1993), 189-215; Darrell Slider, Vladimir Gimple'son, and Sergei Churov, "Political Tendencies in Russia's Regions," Slavic Review 53:3(Fall 1994): 711-32; and Ralph Clem and Peter Craumer, "The Geography of the Russian 1995 Parliamentary Elections: Continuity, Change and Correlates," Post-Soviet Geography 36:10(1995): 587-616.
27. The seminal articles in this respect are Vladimir Kolossov, "The Electoral Geography of the Former Soviet Union 1989-91: Retrospective Comparison and Theoretical Issues," in The New Political Geography of Eastern Europe, ed. John O'Loughlin and Herman van der Wusten (London: Halsted Press, 1993), 189-215; Darrell Slider, Vladimir Gimple'son, and Sergei Churov, "Political Tendencies in Russia's Regions," Slavic Review 53:3(Fall 1994): 711-32; and Ralph Clem and Peter Craumer, "The Geography of the Russian 1995 Parliamentary Elections: Continuity, Change and Correlates," Post-Soviet Geography 36:10(1995): 587-616.
28. The seminal articles in this respect are Vladimir Kolossov, "The Electoral Geography of the Former Soviet Union 1989-91: Retrospective Comparison and Theoretical Issues," in The New Political Geography of Eastern Europe, ed. John O'Loughlin and Herman van der Wusten (London: Halsted Press, 1993), 189-215; Darrell Slider, Vladimir Gimple'son, and Sergei Churov, "Political Tendencies in Russia's Regions," Slavic Review 53:3(Fall 1994): 711-32; and Ralph Clem and Peter Craumer, "The Geography of the Russian 1995 Parliamentary Elections: Continuity, Change and Correlates," Post-Soviet Geography 36:10(1995): 587-616.
29. See Joan Urban and Valerii Solovei, Russia's Communists at the Crossroads (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1997), 186-89; John O'Loughlin, Michael Shin, and Paul Talbot, "Political Geographies and Cleavages in the Russian Parliamentary Elections," Post-Soviet Geography and Economics 37:6(1996): 355-85; and William Reisinger, Arthur Miller, and Vicky Hesli, "Ideological Divisions and Party-Building Prospects in Post-Soviet Russia," in Elections and Voter in Post-Communist Russia, ed. Matthew Wyman, Stephen White, and Sarah Oates (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 1998), 147-51.
30. See Joan Urban and Valerii Solovei, Russia's Communists at the Crossroads (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1997), 186-89; John O'Loughlin, Michael Shin, and Paul Talbot, "Political Geographies and Cleavages in the Russian Parliamentary Elections," Post-Soviet Geography and Economics 37:6(1996): 355-85; and William Reisinger, Arthur Miller, and Vicky Hesli, "Ideological Divisions and Party-Building Prospects in Post-Soviet Russia," in Elections and Voter in Post-Communist Russia, ed. Matthew Wyman, Stephen White, and Sarah Oates (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 1998), 147-51.
31. See Joan Urban and Valerii Solovei, Russia's Communists at the Crossroads (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1997), 186-89; John O'Loughlin, Michael Shin, and Paul Talbot, "Political Geographies and Cleavages in the Russian Parliamentary Elections," Post-Soviet Geography and Economics 37:6(1996): 355-85; and William Reisinger, Arthur Miller, and Vicky Hesli, "Ideological Divisions and Party-Building Prospects in Post-Soviet Russia," in Elections and Voter in Post-Communist Russia, ed. Matthew Wyman, Stephen White, and Sarah Oates (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 1998), 147-51.
32. See Larry Wade, Alexander J. Groth, and Peter Lavelle, "Searching for Voting Patterns in Post-Communist Poland's Sejm Elections," Communist and Post-Communist Studies 28:4(1995): 421-23; and Tworzecki, Parties and Politics.
33. See Larry Wade, Alexander J. Groth, and Peter Lavelle, "Searching for Voting Patterns in Post-Communist Poland's Sejm Elections," Communist and Post-Communist Studies 28:4(1995): 421-23; and Tworzecki, Parties and Politics.
34. See Wiesenthal, "Post-Unification Dissatisfaction," 12-15, 21-27; and Patton, "Germany's Party of Democratic Socialism," 513.
35. See Wiesenthal, "Post-Unification Dissatisfaction," 12-15, 21-27; and Patton, "Germany's Party of Democratic Socialism," 513.
36. See Racz Barnabas and Istvan Kukorelli, "The 'Second-Generation' Post-Communist Elections in Hungary in 1994," Europe-Asia Studies 47:2(1995): 267-68; András Körösényi, "Revival of the Past or New Beginning. The Nature of Post-Communist Politics," in Democracy and Political Transformation. Theories and East-Central European Realities, ed. György Szoboszlai (Budapest: Hungarian Political Science Association, 1991); and Zoltan Kovács, "The Geography of Hungarian Parliamentary Elections 1990," in O'Loughlin and van der Wusten, The New Political Geography of Eastern Europe, 255-73.
37. See Racz Barnabas and Istvan Kukorelli, "The 'Second-Generation' Post-Communist Elections in Hungary in 1994," Europe-Asia Studies 47:2(1995): 267-68; András Körösényi, "Revival of the Past or New Beginning. The Nature of Post-Communist Politics," in Democracy and Political Transformation. Theories and East-Central European Realities, ed. György Szoboszlai (Budapest: Hungarian Political Science Association, 1991); and Zoltan Kovács, "The Geography of Hungarian Parliamentary Elections 1990," in O'Loughlin and van der Wusten, The New Political Geography of Eastern Europe, 255-73.
38. See Racz Barnabas and Istvan Kukorelli, "The 'Second-Generation' Post-Communist Elections in Hungary in 1994," Europe-Asia Studies 47:2(1995): 267-68; András Körösényi, "Revival of the Past or New Beginning. The Nature of Post-Communist Politics," in Democracy and Political Transformation. Theories and East-Central European Realities, ed. György Szoboszlai (Budapest: Hungarian Political Science Association, 1991); and Zoltan Kovács, "The Geography of Hungarian Parliamentary Elections 1990," in O'Loughlin and van der Wusten, The New Political Geography of Eastern Europe, 255-73.
39. See Peter Taylor and Ronald Johnston, Geography of Elections (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1979), 85-111, 170-270; Anthony Giddens, The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); and John Agnew, Place and Politics. The Geographical Mediation of State and Society (Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1987).
40. See Peter Taylor and Ronald Johnston, Geography of Elections (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1979), 85-111, 170-270; Anthony Giddens, The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); and John Agnew, Place and Politics. The Geographical Mediation of State and Society (Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1987).
41. See Peter Taylor and Ronald Johnston, Geography of Elections (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1979), 85-111, 170-270; Anthony Giddens, The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); and John Agnew, Place and Politics. The Geographical Mediation of State and Society (Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1987).
42. See Anne Applebaum, "Poland's Old Guard Lures Rural Voters," Financial Times, 20 September 1993.
43. See Jan Falkowski, Wpływ urbanizacji i uprzemysłowienia na przemiany w strukturze przestrzennej rolnictwa (na przykładzie aglomeracji Dolnej Wisły) (Toruń: Uniwersytet Mikołaja Kopernika, 1981).
44. Ivan Szelényi noted, "The astonishing parallels between the kolkhoz system and the Junker estate" that Involved a historical continuity between the former large estates and collective farms in Hungary. See Iván Szelényi, Socialist Entrepreneurs. Embourgeoisment in Rural Hungary (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988), 21.
45. This issue sparked a rich literature in comparative politics. See Barrington Moore Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy. Lords and Peasants in the Making of the Modern World (Boston: Beacon, 1966).
46. See Szelényi, Socialist Entrepreneurs, 183-89, Idiko Vasary, Beyond the Plan. Social Change in a Hungarian Village (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1987), 40-59; Andrzej Korboński, Politics of Socialist Agriculture in Poland: 1945-1960 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965), 90-95, 258; Dariusz Jarosz, Polityka władz komunistycznych w Polsce w latach 1948-56 a chłopi (Warszawa, Poland: Wydawnictwo DiG, 1998), 116, 152; Siegfried Kuntsche, "Bodenreform in einem Kernland der Grossgrunbesitzes: Meckleneburg-Vorpommern," in "Junkerland in Bauerhand?" Durchführung, Auswirkungen und Stellenwert der Bodenreform in der Sowjetischen Besatzugszone, ed. Arnd Bauerkämper (Stuttgart, Germany: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1996), 51-68; and Grigory Ioffe and Tatyana Nefedova, Continuity and Change in Rural Russia. A Geographical Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997), 58-61.
47. See Szelényi, Socialist Entrepreneurs, 183-89, Idiko Vasary, Beyond the Plan. Social Change in a Hungarian Village (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1987), 40-59; Andrzej Korboński, Politics of Socialist Agriculture in Poland: 1945-1960 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965), 90-95, 258; Dariusz Jarosz, Polityka władz komunistycznych w Polsce w latach 1948-56 a chłopi (Warszawa, Poland: Wydawnictwo DiG, 1998), 116, 152; Siegfried Kuntsche, "Bodenreform in einem Kernland der Grossgrunbesitzes: Meckleneburg-Vorpommern," in "Junkerland in Bauerhand?" Durchführung, Auswirkungen und Stellenwert der Bodenreform in der Sowjetischen Besatzugszone, ed. Arnd Bauerkämper (Stuttgart, Germany: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1996), 51-68; and Grigory Ioffe and Tatyana Nefedova, Continuity and Change in Rural Russia. A Geographical Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997), 58-61.
48. See Szelényi, Socialist Entrepreneurs, 183-89, Idiko Vasary, Beyond the Plan. Social Change in a Hungarian Village (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1987), 40-59; Andrzej Korboński, Politics of Socialist Agriculture in Poland: 1945-1960 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965), 90-95, 258; Dariusz Jarosz, Polityka władz komunistycznych w Polsce w latach 1948-56 a chłopi (Warszawa, Poland: Wydawnictwo DiG, 1998), 116, 152; Siegfried Kuntsche, "Bodenreform in einem Kernland der Grossgrunbesitzes: Meckleneburg-Vorpommern," in "Junkerland in Bauerhand?" Durchführung, Auswirkungen und Stellenwert der Bodenreform in der Sowjetischen Besatzugszone, ed. Arnd Bauerkämper (Stuttgart, Germany: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1996), 51-68; and Grigory Ioffe and Tatyana Nefedova, Continuity and Change in Rural Russia. A Geographical Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997), 58-61.
49. See Szelényi, Socialist Entrepreneurs, 183-89, Idiko Vasary, Beyond the Plan. Social Change in a Hungarian Village (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1987), 40-59; Andrzej Korboński, Politics of Socialist Agriculture in Poland: 1945-1960 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965), 90-95, 258; Dariusz Jarosz, Polityka władz komunistycznych w Polsce w latach 1948-56 a chłopi (Warszawa, Poland: Wydawnictwo DiG, 1998), 116, 152; Siegfried Kuntsche, "Bodenreform in einem Kernland der Grossgrunbesitzes: Meckleneburg-Vorpommern," in "Junkerland in Bauerhand?" Durchführung, Auswirkungen und Stellenwert der Bodenreform in der Sowjetischen Besatzugszone, ed. Arnd Bauerkämper (Stuttgart, Germany: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1996), 51-68; and Grigory Ioffe and Tatyana Nefedova, Continuity and Change in Rural Russia. A Geographical Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997), 58-61.
50. See Szelényi, Socialist Entrepreneurs, 183-89, Idiko Vasary, Beyond the Plan. Social Change in a Hungarian Village (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1987), 40-59; Andrzej Korboński, Politics of Socialist Agriculture in Poland: 1945-1960 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965), 90-95, 258; Dariusz Jarosz, Polityka władz komunistycznych w Polsce w latach 1948-56 a chłopi (Warszawa, Poland: Wydawnictwo DiG, 1998), 116, 152; Siegfried Kuntsche, "Bodenreform in einem Kernland der Grossgrunbesitzes: Meckleneburg-Vorpommern," in "Junkerland in Bauerhand?" Durchführung, Auswirkungen und Stellenwert der Bodenreform in der Sowjetischen Besatzugszone, ed. Arnd Bauerkämper (Stuttgart, Germany: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1996), 51-68; and Grigory Ioffe and Tatyana Nefedova, Continuity and Change in Rural Russia. A Geographical Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997), 58-61.
51. See Szelényi, Socialist Entrepreneurs, 183-89, Idiko Vasary, Beyond the Plan. Social Change in a Hungarian Village (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1987), 40-59; Andrzej Korboński, Politics of Socialist Agriculture in Poland: 1945-1960 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965), 90-95, 258; Dariusz Jarosz, Polityka władz komunistycznych w Polsce w latach 1948-56 a chłopi (Warszawa, Poland: Wydawnictwo DiG, 1998), 116, 152; Siegfried Kuntsche, "Bodenreform in einem Kernland der Grossgrunbesitzes: Meckleneburg-Vorpommern," in "Junkerland in Bauerhand?" Durchführung, Auswirkungen und Stellenwert der Bodenreform in der Sowjetischen Besatzugszone, ed. Arnd Bauerkämper (Stuttgart, Germany: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1996), 51-68; and Grigory Ioffe and Tatyana Nefedova, Continuity and Change in Rural Russia. A Geographical Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997), 58-61.
52. See György Enyedi, Hungary: An Economic Geography (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1976); Robert Lewis and Richard Rowland, Population Redistribution in the USSR (New York: Praeger, 1979); William Berentsen, "Regional Change in the German Democratic Republic," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 71;1(March 1981): 50-66; and Paul Burns, "Spatial Inequality in Poland 1945-1981" (master's thesis, Kansas State University, 1985).
53. See György Enyedi, Hungary: An Economic Geography (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1976); Robert Lewis and Richard Rowland, Population Redistribution in the USSR (New York: Praeger, 1979); William Berentsen, "Regional Change in the German Democratic Republic," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 71;1(March 1981): 50-66; and Paul Burns, "Spatial Inequality in Poland 1945-1981" (master's thesis, Kansas State University, 1985).
54. See György Enyedi, Hungary: An Economic Geography (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1976); Robert Lewis and Richard Rowland, Population Redistribution in the USSR (New York: Praeger, 1979); William Berentsen, "Regional Change in the German Democratic Republic," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 71;1(March 1981): 50-66; and Paul Burns, "Spatial Inequality in Poland 1945-1981" (master's thesis, Kansas State University, 1985).
55. See György Enyedi, Hungary: An Economic Geography (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1976); Robert Lewis and Richard Rowland, Population Redistribution in the USSR (New York: Praeger, 1979); William Berentsen, "Regional Change in the German Democratic Republic," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 71;1(March 1981): 50-66; and Paul Burns, "Spatial Inequality in Poland 1945-1981" (master's thesis, Kansas State University, 1985).
56. See Alun Jones, The New Germany (New York: John Wiley, 1994), Ewa Marczyńska-Witczak and Wojciech Michalski, Przestrzenne i czasowe zróżnicowanie warunków życia ludności w Polsce (Łód: Centralny Urzad Planowania, 1996); Bert Van Selm, "Economic Performance in Russia's Regions," Europe-Asia Studies 50:4(1998): 603-18; and Klára Major and József Nemes Nagy, "Jövevelemegyen Lötkenségek," Statisztiali Szemle 77:6(June 1999); 397-421.
57. See Alun Jones, The New Germany (New York: John Wiley, 1994), Ewa Marczyńska-Witczak and Wojciech Michalski, Przestrzenne i czasowe zróżnicowanie warunków życia ludności w Polsce (Łód: Centralny Urzad Planowania, 1996); Bert Van Selm, "Economic Performance in Russia's Regions," Europe-Asia Studies 50:4(1998): 603-18; and Klára Major and József Nemes Nagy, "Jövevelemegyen Lötkenségek," Statisztiali Szemle 77:6(June 1999); 397-421.
58. See Alun Jones, The New Germany (New York: John Wiley, 1994), Ewa Marczyńska-Witczak and Wojciech Michalski, Przestrzenne i czasowe zróżnicowanie warunków życia ludności w Polsce (Łód: Centralny Urzad Planowania, 1996); Bert Van Selm, "Economic Performance in Russia's Regions," Europe-Asia Studies 50:4(1998): 603-18; and Klára Major and József Nemes Nagy, "Jövevelemegyen Lötkenségek," Statisztiali Szemle 77:6(June 1999); 397-421.
59. See Alun Jones, The New Germany (New York: John Wiley, 1994), Ewa Marczyńska-Witczak and Wojciech Michalski, Przestrzenne i czasowe zróżnicowanie warunków życia ludności w Polsce (Łód: Centralny Urzad Planowania, 1996); Bert Van Selm, "Economic Performance in Russia's Regions," Europe-Asia Studies 50:4(1998): 603-18; and Klára Major and József Nemes Nagy, "Jövevelemegyen Lötkenségek," Statisztiali Szemle 77:6(June 1999); 397-421.
60. See Anthony Kruszewski, The Oder-Neisse Boundary and Poland's Modernization (New York: Praeger, 1972), 64.
61. The primary territorial units are Hungarian counties (N = 20), Polish provinces (N = 49), German Länder (N = 6), and Russian subjects of the Federation N = 89, but the number varies depending on specific data).
62. In each country under consideration, the level of intercorrelation between percentages of votes obtained by successor parties In territorial units of analysis across successive elections is very high.
63. Since no open unemployment existed under communism, post-communist unemployment rates are among the best synthetic measures of the extent to which regions were economically penalized by the fall of communism.
64. Ken Jowitt, "Dizzy with Democracy," Problems of Post-Communism, 43 (January/February 1996): 3-8.
65. See Enyedi, Hungary, 13-14, 157-58, 204-6.
66. See Principales Données d'Exploitation, 10-11.
67. See Béla Fazekas, "Ötvenéves a Földreform," Statistica Szemele 73:3(1995): 197-215; Vasary, Beyond the Plan, 30-60; Szelényi, Socialist Entrepreneurs, 21, 183-89.
68. See Béla Fazekas, "Ötvenéves a Földreform," Statistica Szemele 73:3(1995): 197-215; Vasary, Beyond the Plan, 30-60; Szelényi, Socialist Entrepreneurs, 21, 183-89.
69. See Béla Fazekas, "Ötvenéves a Földreform," Statistica Szemele 73:3(1995): 197-215; Vasary, Beyond the Plan, 30-60; Szelényi, Socialist Entrepreneurs, 21, 183-89.
70. See Lajos Mádaj, "Az 1945-ös Nemzetgyüléslképiselöválasztások Néhány Eredménye," Statistika Szemele 71:3(1993): 267-75.
71. See Enyedi, Hungary, 53, 206, 247; and Kovács, "Geography of Hungarian," 268.
72. See Enyedi, Hungary, 53, 206, 247; and Kovács, "Geography of Hungarian," 268.
73. See Enyedi, Hungary, 157-58, 204-6.
74. Specifically, in the counties of Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén, Békés, Nógrád, and Heves, where the HCP obtained more than 25 percent of the vote. See Körösényi, "Revival of the Past or New Beginning," 181.
75. See Enyedi, Hungary, 157-58, 204-6, 247.
76. Pre-communist latifundism (as measured by percentage of agricultural land in estates over 114 ha) alone explains 38 percent of the variance in the 1990 to 1998 Hungarian successor vote, while unemployment explains 33 percent. I also tested the correlation between Hungarian successor vote and a host of other socioeconomic variables, including rates of urbanization and industrialization under communism and pre- and post-communist occupational status, all of which proved to be insignificant. However, post-communist (1997-98) infant mortality rates were a significant correlate of the successor vote. I factor-loaded unemployment (1996-97) and infant mortality rates (1997-98) into a latent variable "post-communist socioeconomic status," (factor-loading values r = .63 for unemployment and r = .61 for infant mortality), which correlated highly with successor vote variable (standardized regression coefficient R = .90), explaining 82 percent of variance. However, in a test of partial correlation, latifudism (percentage of land in holdings over 114 ha) juxtaposed to "post-communist economic status" maintained its significance at A = .49. "Post-communist socioeconomic status" and latifundism together explained 98 percent of variance in the successor vote; thus, 16 percent of the variance explained can be attributed to latifundism alone.
77. See Tomasz Grabowski, "Individualism Unbound," (manuscript, University of California at Berkeley, 1998), chap. 1.
78. It was the case in Olsztyn, Elblag, Zielona Góra, Słupsk, Gorzów, Koszalin, and Szczecin provinces. Based on Główny Urzad Statystyczny, Rocznik statystyczny województw 1990 (Warszawa: Główny Urzad Statystyczny, 1991).
79. See Korboński, Politics of Socialist Agriculture, 88.
80. I excluded from my analysis the easternmost kresy (borderlands) of pre-communist Poland, as they were taken over by the Soviet Union the result of World War II. These ethnically mixed areas included Poland's most gigantic landed estates. The kresy Polish population migrated mostly to the ex-German recovered territories.
81. Based on Glówny Urzad Statystyczny Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Statystyka rolnicza 1931/32, Statystyka Polski, Seria B, vol. 10 (Warszawa, Poland: Główny Urzad Statystyczny Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, 1933).
82. Regina Chomać, Struktura agrarna Królestwa Polskiego na przełomie XIX i XX wieku (Warszawa, Poland: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1970), 85.
83. See Korboński, Politics of Socialist, 90-95.
84. See Korboński, Politics of Socialist, 177-79: and Jarosz, Polityka władz, 107-16.
85. See Korboński, Politics of Socialist, 177-79: and Jarosz, Polityka władz, 107-16.
86. See Korbońiski, Politics of Socialist, 258; Jarosz, Polityka władz, 151-52. Poland was the only communist country where the collectivization campaign completely failed.
87. See Korbońiski, Politics of Socialist, 258; Jarosz, Polityka władz, 151-52. Poland was the only communist country where the collectivization campaign completely failed.
88. See Burns, Spatial Inequality, 67-88; and Marczyńska-Witczak and Michalski, Przestrzenne i czasowe zrótżnicowanie, 26-65.
89. See Burns, Spatial Inequality, 67-88; and Marczyńska-Witczak and Michalski, Przestrzenne i czasowe zrótżnicowanie, 26-65.
90. Based on Główny Urzad Statystyczny, Rocznik statystyczny 1995 (Warszawa, Poland: Główny Urzad Statystyczny, 1995).
91. On its own, pre-communist latifundism explains 33 percent of variance in the successor vote in the "old" territories of Poland, whereas unemployment in the same area explains 14 percent of variance. Just like in the Hungarian case, I tested for correlations between Polish successor vote and a host of independent variables denoting socioeconomic status of regions before, during, and after communism. Similarly, also, I factor-loaded infant mortality (1990) (factor load r = .54) and unemployment (1994-96) (factor load r = .46) to create a latent variable "post-communist economic status," which correlated highly (R = .80) with successor vote and could explain 64 percent of the variance. Latifundism, however, maintained its significance (R = .35) when controlling for "post-communist economic status," Together, latifundism and "post-communist economic status" explained 78 percent of the variance. Fourteen percent of the variance in the regression can be thus attributed to latifundism.
92. Secularism was measured by number of Catholic priests by ten thousand inhabitants in 1985, while small scale farming was measured by percentage of farms 1-5 ha in size, both based on Główny Urzad Statystyczny, Rocznik statystyczny województw 1990. Migration, in turn, was measured by percentage of population born in a given locality in 1988 as reported by Główny Urzad Statystyczny, Narodowy spis powszechny. Migracje ludności w Polsce w latach 1979-1988 (Warszawa, Poland: Główny Urzad Statystyczny, 1992). I obtained the following factor-loading values, Catholicism, r = .79; population stability, r = .77; and small-scale peasant agriculture, r = .82. However, I could not conduct a test of partial correlation between "traditional community" and latifundism, given a high (r = .77) level of intercorrelation between the two variables and the problem of multicollinearity. Still, latifundism tested positively for significance when controlled for Catholicism (partial correlation coefficient r = .36), migration (partial correlation coefficient r = .44), and small-scale peasant farming (partial correlation coefficient r = .33).
93. Secularism was measured by number of Catholic priests by ten thousand inhabitants in 1985, while small scale farming was measured by percentage of farms 1-5 ha in size, both based on Główny Urzad Statystyczny, Rocznik statystyczny województw 1990. Migration, in turn, was measured by percentage of population born in a given locality in 1988 as reported by Główny Urzad Statystyczny, Narodowy spis powszechny. Migracje ludności w Polsce w latach 1979-1988 (Warszawa, Poland: Główny Urzad Statystyczny, 1992). I obtained the following factor-loading values, Catholicism, r = .79; population stability, r = .77; and small-scale peasant agriculture, r = .82. However, I could not conduct a test of partial correlation between "traditional community" and latifundism, given a high (r = .77) level of intercorrelation between the two variables and the problem of multicollinearity. Still, latifundism tested positively for significance when controlled for Catholicism (partial correlation coefficient r = .36), migration (partial correlation coefficient r = .44), and small-scale peasant farming (partial correlation coefficient r = .33).
94. Galicia was the traditional fortress of Polish pre-communist agrarian Populism, See Olga Narkiewicz, The Green Flag. Polish Populist Politics 1867-1970 (London: Rowman & Littlefield, 1976). Consequently, during the 1945 to 1947 period, the region became a hotbed of anticommunist Polish Populist Party (PSL). See Romuald Turkowski, Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe w obronie demokracji (Warszawa, Poland: Wydawnictwo Sejmowe, 1992), 72.
95. Galicia was the traditional fortress of Polish pre-communist agrarian Populism, See Olga Narkiewicz, The Green Flag. Polish Populist Politics 1867-1970 (London: Rowman & Littlefield, 1976). Consequently, during the 1945 to 1947 period, the region became a hotbed of anticommunist Polish Populist Party (PSL). See Romuald Turkowski, Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe w obronie demokracji (Warszawa, Poland: Wydawnictwo Sejmowe, 1992), 72.
96. I could not conduct a test of partial correlation between "traditional community" and latifundism, given the high level of intercorrelation between the two variables and the problem of multicollinearity. Still, latifundism tested positively for significance when controlled for Catholicism (partial correlation coefficient r = .30), migration (partial correlation coefficient r = .44), and small-scale peasant farming (partial correlation coefficient r = .33).
97. East Berlin, because of its unique status as the GDR's former capital, is PDS's primary electoral fortress and in most of its Bezirke (districts), the party has consistently achieved pluralities of more than 30 percent of the total vote. See Joanna McKay, "The Wall in the Ballot Box: The Berlin Election of 1995," German Politics 5:2(August 1996): 276-91, and "Berlin-Brandenburg? Nein Danke! The Referendum on the Proposed Länderfusion," German Politics 5:3(December 1996): 485-502.
98. East Berlin, because of its unique status as the GDR's former capital, is PDS's primary electoral fortress and in most of its Bezirke (districts), the party has consistently achieved pluralities of more than 30 percent of the total vote. See Joanna McKay, "The Wall in the Ballot Box: The Berlin Election of 1995," German Politics 5:2(August 1996): 276-91, and "Berlin-Brandenburg? Nein Danke! The Referendum on the Proposed Länderfusion," German Politics 5:3(December 1996): 485-502.
99. The 1990 elections to the Volkskammer were the only fully free elections in the still sovereign East Germany. The 1994 and 1998 elections were to the all-German Bundestag.
100. Based on Statisticher Reichsamt, Statistiches Jahrbuch, 5. See also Kuntsche, "Bodenreform in einem Kernland," 53.
101. Based on Statisticher Reichsamt, Statistiches Jahrbuch, 5. See also Kuntsche, "Bodenreform in einem Kernland," 53.
102. In Mecklenburg the expellees represented 42 percent of the population In 1946, which was the highest proportion in all postwar Germany; see Roy Mellor, The Two Germanies: A Modern Geography (London: Harper & Row, 1978), 164. In Brandenburg, the proportion of refugees and expellees reached 38.9 percent of inhabitants by 1947; see Bauerkämper, "Structurumbruch," 73.
103. In Mecklenburg the expellees represented 42 percent of the population In 1946, which was the highest proportion in all postwar Germany; see Roy Mellor, The Two Germanies: A Modern Geography (London: Harper & Row, 1978), 164. In Brandenburg, the proportion of refugees and expellees reached 38.9 percent of inhabitants by 1947; see Bauerkämper, "Structurumbruch," 73.
104. It was especially the case in Mecklenburg, where the SED won 49.5 percent of the Landtag vote in 1946. See Kuntsche, "Bodenreform in einem Kernland," 63; and Bauerkämper, "Structurumbruch," 83.
105. It was especially the case in Mecklenburg, where the SED won 49.5 percent of the Landtag vote in 1946. See Kuntsche, "Bodenreform in einem Kernland," 63; and Bauerkämper, "Structurumbruch," 83.
106. See Kuntsche, "Bodenreform in einem Kernland," 67; Bauerkämper, "Structurumbruch," 84.
107. See Kuntsche, "Bodenreform in einem Kernland," 67; Bauerkämper, "Structurumbruch," 84.
108. See especially William Berentsen's article, "Regional Change," 56-57.
109. Agricultural collectives often continued under the new legal forms, while their financial reserves were converted into hard currency at favorable rates. East German agricultural productivity also compares favorably with West Germany. See Joachim Singelman, Agricultural Transformation and Social Change in a County in East Germany, Rural Sociology Research Report, vol. 5 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1994).
110. See Stephen Silvia, "The Causes of Declining Unemployment in Germany. Can the Schröder Government Take Credit?" published online by American Institute for Contemporary German Studies, Johns Hopkins University, 2000, www.aicgs.org., 4.
111. See various articles In Peter Baker, ed, Party of Democratic Socialism.
112. On the local level, the GDR-built Grosse Siedlungen epitomize the typical PDS stamping ground. These are huge integrated assemblies of large apartment buildings, housing up to sixty thousand people. See Jones, The New Germany, 30.
113. See Slider, Gimple'son, and Churov, "Political Tendencies"; and Ralph Clem and Peter Craumer, "Urban-Rural Voting."
114. See Slider, Gimple'son, and Churov, "Political Tendencies"; and Ralph Clem and Peter Craumer, "Urban-Rural Voting."
115. See Jerry Hough, "The Political Geography of European Russia: Republics and Oblasts," Post-Soviet Geography and Economics 39:2(1998): 63-95.
116. See Joan Urban and Valerii Solovei, Russia's Communists at the Crossroads (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1997), 187.
117. See Urban and Solovei, Russia's Communists, 186-89; O'Loughlin, Shin, and Talbot, "Political Geographies"; and Reisinger, Miller, and Hesli, "Ideological Divisions," 147-51.
118. See Urban and Solovei, Russia's Communists, 186-89; O'Loughlin, Shin, and Talbot, "Political Geographies"; and Reisinger, Miller, and Hesli, "Ideological Divisions," 147-51.
119. See Urban and Solovei, Russia's Communists, 186-89; O'Loughlin, Shin, and Talbot, "Political Geographies"; and Reisinger, Miller, and Hesli, "Ideological Divisions," 147-51.
120. See Walter Connor, "Observation on the Status of Russia's Workers," Post-Soviet Geography and Economics 38:9(1997): 551; Van Selm, "Economic Performance,"; and Whitefield and Evans, "The Emerging Structure."
121. See Walter Connor, "Observation on the Status of Russia's Workers," Post-Soviet Geography and Economics 38:9(1997): 551; Van Selm, "Economic Performance,"; and Whitefield and Evans, "The Emerging Structure."
122. See Walter Connor, "Observation on the Status of Russia's Workers," Post-Soviet Geography and Economics 38:9(1997): 551; Van Selm, "Economic Performance,"; and Whitefield and Evans, "The Emerging Structure."
123. In general, the so-called "conservative" regions seem to be doing no worse than "liberal" ones. See Van Selm, "Economic Performance."
124. See White, Rose, and McAllister, How Russia Votes, 145.
125. Mining, fuel, and electrical energy industries emerged as the relatively best-performing sectors of the Russian economy. See Gertrude Schroeder, "Dimensions of Russia's Industrial Transformation 1992 to 1998: An Overview," Post-Soviet Geography and Economics 39:5(1998): 243-70; and Van Selm, "Economic Performance."
126. Mining, fuel, and electrical energy industries emerged as the relatively best-performing sectors of the Russian economy. See Gertrude Schroeder, "Dimensions of Russia's Industrial Transformation 1992 to 1998: An Overview," Post-Soviet Geography and Economics 39:5(1998): 243-70; and Van Selm, "Economic Performance."
127. See Grigory Ioffe and Tatyana Nefedova, Continuity and Change in Rural Russia. A Geographical Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1997); George Pavlovsky, Agricultural Russia on the Eve of Revolution (New York: Howard Fertig, 1968); W. H. Parker, A Historical Geography of Russia (Chicago: Aldine, 1968); Martin Gilbert, Atlas of Russian History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); and Lewis and Rowland, Population Redistribution, 47-48.
128. See Grigory Ioffe and Tatyana Nefedova, Continuity and Change in Rural Russia. A Geographical Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1997); George Pavlovsky, Agricultural Russia on the Eve of Revolution (New York: Howard Fertig, 1968); W. H. Parker, A Historical Geography of Russia (Chicago: Aldine, 1968); Martin Gilbert, Atlas of Russian History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); and Lewis and Rowland, Population Redistribution, 47-48.
129. See Grigory Ioffe and Tatyana Nefedova, Continuity and Change in Rural Russia. A Geographical Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1997); George Pavlovsky, Agricultural Russia on the Eve of Revolution (New York: Howard Fertig, 1968); W. H. Parker, A Historical Geography of Russia (Chicago: Aldine, 1968); Martin Gilbert, Atlas of Russian History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); and Lewis and Rowland, Population Redistribution, 47-48.
130. See Grigory Ioffe and Tatyana Nefedova, Continuity and Change in Rural Russia. A Geographical Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1997); George Pavlovsky, Agricultural Russia on the Eve of Revolution (New York: Howard Fertig, 1968); W. H. Parker, A Historical Geography of Russia (Chicago: Aldine, 1968); Martin Gilbert, Atlas of Russian History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); and Lewis and Rowland, Population Redistribution, 47-48.
131. See Grigory Ioffe and Tatyana Nefedova, Continuity and Change in Rural Russia. A Geographical Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1997); George Pavlovsky, Agricultural Russia on the Eve of Revolution (New York: Howard Fertig, 1968); W. H. Parker, A Historical Geography of Russia (Chicago: Aldine, 1968); Martin Gilbert, Atlas of Russian History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); and Lewis and Rowland, Population Redistribution, 47-48.
132. See Ioffe and Nefedova, Continuity and Change in Rural Russia, 200.
133. Ibid., 60-62.
134. See Robert Conquest, The Harvest of Sorrow. Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).
135. It is not my intention to deny the brutality of Bolshevik-Stalinist warfare against Russian peasants. In comparative terms, however, the Soviet treatment of south-central Russia was benign.
136. See Lewis and Rowland, Population Redistribution, 51, 59, 72, 205.
137. See White, Rose, and McAllister, How Russia Votes, xii.
138. Ioffe and Nefedova wrote specifically about the Central Chernozem region: It is hard to escape the feeling that socialist-style collective farming has been more accepted here than almost anywhere else in Russia, certainly more than in non-Chernozem zone. After all, agriculturally speaking the region has grown form one of the most backward into one of the most successful in Russia. (Ioffe and Nefedova, Continuity and Change in Rural Russia, 202)
139. See Lewis and Rowland, Population Redistribution, 16, 72, 200, 225, 359-70, 406; Ioffe and Nefedova, Continuity and Change in Rural Russia, 201-2.
140. See Lewis and Rowland, Population Redistribution, 16, 72, 200, 225, 359-70, 406; Ioffe and Nefedova, Continuity and Change in Rural Russia, 201-2.
141. See Phillip Hanson, "Understanding Regional Patterns of Economic Change in Post-Communist Russia," in Russian Regions. Economic Growth and Environment, ed. Takashi Murakami and Sinchiro Tabata (Hokkaido, Japan: Slavic Research Center, 2000), 5-42.
142. Mean KPRF vote In 1993 to 1995 Duma elections and Zyuganov's vote In the second round of presidential elections were highly intercorrelated (r = .772).
143. Variables 1 through 6 pertain to agrarian development in 35 provinces of European Russia during the pre-1917 era.
144. I obtained the following factor-loading values (r): Variable 1, r = .58, Variable 2 (recalculated to correlate positively with the latent variable), r = .51; Variable 3, r = .99; Variable 4, r = .81; Variable 5, r = .46; and Variable 6, r = .91.
145. See various articles, especially Daniel Ziblatt, "Two Paths of Change? How Former Communist Parties Remade Themselves after Communism's Collapse," in Communist Successor Parties in Post-Communist Politics, ed. John Ishiyama (Huntington, NY: Nova Science Publishing, 1999), 71-99; Anna Grzymala-Busse, Redeeming the Communist Past (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); and Mitchell Orenstein, "A Genealogy of Communist Successor Parties in East-Central Europe and the Determinants of Their Success," East European Politics and Societies 12:3(Fall 1998): 472-99. Ziblatt and Orenstein emphasize fundamental differences between Hungarian and Polish successor parties that refashioned their identities as "European" social democratic parties of "experts and pragmatists," as contrary to the PDS and the KPRF that pursued neo-Marxist strategies of "leftist retreat" or "patrioticnationalism," respectively.
146. See various articles, especially Daniel Ziblatt, "Two Paths of Change? How Former Communist Parties Remade Themselves after Communism's Collapse," in Communist Successor Parties in Post-Communist Politics, ed. John Ishiyama (Huntington, NY: Nova Science Publishing, 1999), 71-99; Anna Grzymala-Busse, Redeeming the Communist Past (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); and Mitchell Orenstein, "A Genealogy of Communist Successor Parties in East-Central Europe and the Determinants of Their Success," East European Politics and Societies 12:3(Fall 1998): 472-99. Ziblatt and Orenstein emphasize fundamental differences between Hungarian and Polish successor parties that refashioned their identities as "European" social democratic parties of "experts and pragmatists," as contrary to the PDS and the KPRF that pursued neo-Marxist strategies of "leftist retreat" or "patrioticnationalism," respectively.
147. See various articles, especially Daniel Ziblatt, "Two Paths of Change? How Former Communist Parties Remade Themselves after Communism's Collapse," in Communist Successor Parties in Post-Communist Politics, ed. John Ishiyama (Huntington, NY: Nova Science Publishing, 1999), 71-99; Anna Grzymala-Busse, Redeeming the Communist Past (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); and Mitchell Orenstein, "A Genealogy of Communist Successor Parties in East-Central Europe and the Determinants of Their Success," East European Politics and Societies 12:3(Fall 1998): 472-99. Ziblatt and Orenstein emphasize fundamental differences between Hungarian and Polish successor parties that refashioned their identities as "European" social democratic parties of "experts and pragmatists," as contrary to the PDS and the KPRF that pursued neo-Marxist strategies of "leftist retreat" or "patrioticnationalism," respectively.
148. See Ziblatt, "Two Paths of Change," 99; and Orenstein, "A Genealogy," 496-99.
149. See Ziblatt, "Two Paths of Change," 99; and Orenstein, "A Genealogy," 496-99.
150. For 2001 Polish elections, see Kazimierz Groblewski, "Rzadzi badzie lewica" in Rzeczpospolita, 24 September 2001, www.rzeczpospolita.pl/dodatki/wybory01. For Hungarian 2002 parliamentary elections, see Hungarian Ministry of the Interior, www.election.hu/so2.
151. For 2001 Polish elections, see Kazimierz Groblewski, "Rzadzi badzie lewica" in Rzeczpospolita, 24 September 2001, www.rzeczpospolita.pl/dodatki/wybory01. For Hungarian 2002 parliamentary elections, see Hungarian Ministry of the Interior, www.election.hu/so2.
152. See Patton, "Germany's Party of Democratic Socialism," 525; and Wiesenthal, "Post-Unification Dissatisfaction," 27.
153. See Patton, "Germany's Party of Democratic Socialism," 525; and Wiesenthal, "Post-Unification Dissatisfaction," 27.
154. For 1999 electoral data by region, see Russia Votes, www.RussiaVotes.org, For voters' socioeconomic characteristics, see Russian Regional Database, www.cspp.stath.ac.uk/rrindex.html.
155. For 1999 electoral data by region, see Russia Votes, www.RussiaVotes.org, For voters' socioeconomic characteristics, see Russian Regional Database, www.cspp.stath.ac.uk/rrindex.html.
156. See Ishiyama, "Discussion and Conclusion," in Ishiyama, Communist Successor Parties, 223-30.