The intuitive executive: Understanding and applying 'gut feel' in decision-making

Academy of Management Executive

Volumn 18, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 76-91

  Sadler Smith, Eugene ^a   Shefy, Erella ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SURREY   (United Kingdom)

^b Humanager Consulting   (Israel)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 11044239138     PISSN: 10795545     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5465/AME.2004.15268692     Document Type: Review

References (103)

1. Robert Salmon, former vice-president of L'Oreal (http://www. refresher.com/lsignals); Lindsey Owen-Jones, chairman and chief executive officer of L'Oreal, in Business Week Online. 28 June 1999.
2. Robert Salmon, former vice-president of L'Oreal (http://www. refresher.com/lsignals); Lindsey Owen-Jones, chairman and chief executive officer of L'Oreal, in Business Week Online. 28 June 1999.
3. Davis, S.H., & Davis, P.B. 2003. The intuitive dimensions of administrative decision-making. Lanham: Scarecrow; Eisen-hardt, K.M. 1999. Strategy as decision-making. Sloan Management Review, Spring: 65-72. For a summary of the dominant paradigms, see Das, T.K., & Teng, B-S. 1999. Cognitive biases and strategic decision processes: An integrative perspective. Journal of Management Studies, 36(6): 757-778. The question remains as to where an intuitive decision mode fits within the spectrum of approaches identified by Das and Teng, op. cit., 759.
4. Davis, S.H., & Davis, P.B. 2003. The intuitive dimensions of administrative decision-making. Lanham: Scarecrow; Eisen-hardt, K.M. 1999. Strategy as decision-making. Sloan Management Review, Spring: 65-72. For a summary of the dominant paradigms, see Das, T.K., & Teng, B-S. 1999. Cognitive biases and strategic decision processes: An integrative perspective. Journal of Management Studies, 36(6): 757-778. The question remains as to where an intuitive decision mode fits within the spectrum of approaches identified by Das and Teng, op. cit., 759.
5. Davis, S.H., & Davis, P.B. 2003. The intuitive dimensions of administrative decision-making. Lanham: Scarecrow; Eisen-hardt, K.M. 1999. Strategy as decision-making. Sloan Management Review, Spring: 65-72. For a summary of the dominant paradigms, see Das, T.K., & Teng, B-S. 1999. Cognitive biases and strategic decision processes: An integrative perspective. Journal of Management Studies, 36(6): 757-778. The question remains as to where an intuitive decision mode fits within the spectrum of approaches identified by Das and Teng, op. cit., 759.
6. Hayashi, A.M. 2001. When to trust your gut. Harvard Business Review, February: 59-65.
7. Huber, G.P., & Daft, R.L. 1987. The information environments of organisations. In P.M. Javlin, et al. (Eds.). Handbook of organizational communication. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
8. Hodgkinson, G.P., & Sparrow, P. 2002. The competent organization. Buckingham: Open University Press discusses the importance of rationality and intention.
9. Fineman, S. 1996: Emotion and learning. In S.R. Clegg, C. Hardy, & W.R. Nord (Eds). Handbook of organization studies. London: Sage: 545.
10. Leblebici, H., & Salancik, G.R. 1981. Effects of environmental uncertainty on information and decisions in banks. Administrative Science Quarterly, 26(4): 578-596; Narayanan, V.K., & Fahey, L. 1982. The micro-politics of strategy formulation. Academy of Management Review, 7(1): 25-34; Bourgeois, L.J., & Eisenhardt, K.M. 1988. Strategic decision processes in high velocity environments: Four cases in the micro-computer industry. Management Science, 34(7): 816-835.
11. Leblebici, H., & Salancik, G.R. 1981. Effects of environmental uncertainty on information and decisions in banks. Administrative Science Quarterly, 26(4): 578-596; Narayanan, V.K., & Fahey, L. 1982. The micro-politics of strategy formulation. Academy of Management Review, 7(1): 25-34; Bourgeois, L.J., & Eisenhardt, K.M. 1988. Strategic decision processes in high velocity environments: Four cases in the micro-computer industry. Management Science, 34(7): 816-835.
12. Leblebici, H., & Salancik, G.R. 1981. Effects of environmental uncertainty on information and decisions in banks. Administrative Science Quarterly, 26(4): 578-596; Narayanan, V.K., & Fahey, L. 1982. The micro-politics of strategy formulation. Academy of Management Review, 7(1): 25-34; Bourgeois, L.J., & Eisenhardt, K.M. 1988. Strategic decision processes in high velocity environments: Four cases in the micro-computer industry. Management Science, 34(7): 816-835.
13. The relationship between procedural rationality and decision-making effectiveness (DME) was positive and statistically significant and when controlling for environmental instability (r = 0.35, p < 0.01; t = 2.30, p < 0.05). See: Dean, J.W., & Sharfman, M.P. 1996. Does decision-making matter: A study of strategic decision-making effectiveness. Academy of Management Journal, 39(2): 368-396.
14. The correlation between rationality and uncertainty was negative and statistically significant (r = -0.38, p < 0.01). See: Dean, J.W., & Sharfman, M.P. 1993. Procedural rationality in the strategic decision-making process. Journal of Management Studies, 30(4): 587-620.
15. Daft, R.L., & Lengel, H.R. 1986. Organizational information requirements, media richness and structural design. Management Science, 32(5): 554-571. The research findings in support of these contrasting viewpoints are themselves somewhat complex. For example, Dean & Sharfman (1993) found that decision-makers engaged in less rational processes of strategic decision-making when faced with highly uncertain problems; whereas when there was little competitive threat, little perceived external control, and the issues being faced were well understood, executives used rational procedures. Fredrickson & Mitchell (1984) reported a negative relationship between rationality and organizational performance and used it as introductory evidence that rational models are not appropriate for some environments. Further research by Fredrickson (1984) established a positive relationship between rationality and performance in stable environments. See Fredrickson, J.W., & Mitchell, T.R. 1984. Strategic decision processes: Comprehensiveness and performance in an industry with an unstable environment. Academy of Management Journal, 27(2): 399-423; Fredrickson, J.W. 1984. The comprehensiveness of strategic decision processes: Extension, observations, future directions. Academy of Management Journal, 27(3): 445-466; Priem, R.L., Rasheed, A., & Kotulik, A. 1995. Rationality in strategic decision processes, environmental dynamism and firm performance. Journal of Management, 21 (5): 913-929.
16. Daft, R.L., & Lengel, H.R. 1986. Organizational information requirements, media richness and structural design. Management Science, 32(5): 554-571. The research findings in support of these contrasting viewpoints are themselves somewhat complex. For example, Dean & Sharfman (1993) found that decision-makers engaged in less rational processes of strategic decision-making when faced with highly uncertain problems; whereas when there was little competitive threat, little perceived external control, and the issues being faced were well understood, executives used rational procedures. Fredrickson & Mitchell (1984) reported a negative relationship between rationality and organizational performance and used it as introductory evidence that rational models are not appropriate for some environments. Further research by Fredrickson (1984) established a positive relationship between rationality and performance in stable environments. See Fredrickson, J.W., & Mitchell, T.R. 1984. Strategic decision processes: Comprehensiveness and performance in an industry with an unstable environment. Academy of Management Journal, 27(2): 399-423; Fredrickson, J.W. 1984. The comprehensiveness of strategic decision processes: Extension, observations, future directions. Academy of Management Journal, 27(3): 445-466; Priem, R.L., Rasheed, A., & Kotulik, A. 1995. Rationality in strategic decision processes, environmental dynamism and firm performance. Journal of Management, 21 (5): 913-929.
17. Daft, R.L., & Lengel, H.R. 1986. Organizational information requirements, media richness and structural design. Management Science, 32(5): 554-571. The research findings in support of these contrasting viewpoints are themselves somewhat complex. For example, Dean & Sharfman (1993) found that decision-makers engaged in less rational processes of strategic decision-making when faced with highly uncertain problems; whereas when there was little competitive threat, little perceived external control, and the issues being faced were well understood, executives used rational procedures. Fredrickson & Mitchell (1984) reported a negative relationship between rationality and organizational performance and used it as introductory evidence that rational models are not appropriate for some environments. Further research by Fredrickson (1984) established a positive relationship between rationality and performance in stable environments. See Fredrickson, J.W., & Mitchell, T.R. 1984. Strategic decision processes: Comprehensiveness and performance in an industry with an unstable environment. Academy of Management Journal, 27(2): 399-423; Fredrickson, J.W. 1984. The comprehensiveness of strategic decision processes: Extension, observations, future directions. Academy of Management Journal, 27(3): 445-466; Priem, R.L., Rasheed, A., & Kotulik, A. 1995. Rationality in strategic decision processes, environmental dynamism and firm performance. Journal of Management, 21 (5): 913-929.
18. Daft, R.L., & Lengel, H.R. 1986. Organizational information requirements, media richness and structural design. Management Science, 32(5): 554-571. The research findings in support of these contrasting viewpoints are themselves somewhat complex. For example, Dean & Sharfman (1993) found that decision-makers engaged in less rational processes of strategic decision-making when faced with highly uncertain problems; whereas when there was little competitive threat, little perceived external control, and the issues being faced were well understood, executives used rational procedures. Fredrickson & Mitchell (1984) reported a negative relationship between rationality and organizational performance and used it as introductory evidence that rational models are not appropriate for some environments. Further research by Fredrickson (1984) established a positive relationship between rationality and performance in stable environments. See Fredrickson, J.W., & Mitchell, T.R. 1984. Strategic decision processes: Comprehensiveness and performance in an industry with an unstable environment. Academy of Management Journal, 27(2): 399-423; Fredrickson, J.W. 1984. The comprehensiveness of strategic decision processes: Extension, observations, future directions. Academy of Management Journal, 27(3): 445-466; Priem, R.L., Rasheed, A., & Kotulik, A. 1995. Rationality in strategic decision processes, environmental dynamism and firm performance. Journal of Management, 21 (5): 913-929.
19. Goleman, D. 1998. Working with emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.
20. Hodgkinson & Sparrow, op. cit.
21. Bargh, J.A., & Chartrand, T.L. 1999. The unbearable automaticity of being. American Psychologist, 54(7): 462-479.
22. Parikh, J. 1994. Intuition: The new frontier of management. Oxford: Blackwell Business.
23. Burke, L.A., & Miller, M.K. 1999. Taking the mystery out of intuitive decision-making. The Academy of Management Executive. 13(4): 91-99.
24. Isenberg, D.J. 1984. How senior managers think. Harvard Business Review, November/December: 81-90.
25. Overell, S. 2001. Trust you gut. Director, July: 28.
26. Hayashi, 2001, op. cit., 61.
27. Benner, P., & Tanner, C. 1987. How expert nurses use intuition. American Journal of Nursing, January: 23-31; Davis & Davis, op. cit.
28. Benner, P., & Tanner, C. 1987. How expert nurses use intuition. American Journal of Nursing, January: 23-31; Davis & Davis, op. cit.
29. See Allinson, C.W., & Hayes, J. 1996. The Cognitive Style Index: A measure of intuition-analysis for organizational research. Journal of Management Studies, 33(1): 19-135; Allinson, C.W., Chell, E., & Hayes, J. 2000. Intuition and entrepreneurial behavior. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 9: 31-43; Sadler-Smith, E. 2004. Cognitive style and the management of small and medium sized enterprises. Organization Studies, 25: 155- 181; Clarke, I., & Mackaness, W. 2001. Management intuition: An interpretative account of structure and content of decision schemas using cognitive maps. Journal of Management Studies, 38(2): 147-172.
30. See Allinson, C.W., & Hayes, J. 1996. The Cognitive Style Index: A measure of intuition-analysis for organizational research. Journal of Management Studies, 33(1): 19-135; Allinson, C.W., Chell, E., & Hayes, J. 2000. Intuition and entrepreneurial behavior. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 9: 31-43; Sadler-Smith, E. 2004. Cognitive style and the management of small and medium sized enterprises. Organization Studies, 25: 155- 181; Clarke, I., & Mackaness, W. 2001. Management intuition: An interpretative account of structure and content of decision schemas using cognitive maps. Journal of Management Studies, 38(2): 147-172.
31. See Allinson, C.W., & Hayes, J. 1996. The Cognitive Style Index: A measure of intuition-analysis for organizational research. Journal of Management Studies, 33(1): 19-135; Allinson, C.W., Chell, E., & Hayes, J. 2000. Intuition and entrepreneurial behavior. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 9: 31-43; Sadler-Smith, E. 2004. Cognitive style and the management of small and medium sized enterprises. Organization Studies, 25: 155- 181; Clarke, I., & Mackaness, W. 2001. Management intuition: An interpretative account of structure and content of decision schemas using cognitive maps. Journal of Management Studies, 38(2): 147-172.
32. See Allinson, C.W., & Hayes, J. 1996. The Cognitive Style Index: A measure of intuition-analysis for organizational research. Journal of Management Studies, 33(1): 19-135; Allinson, C.W., Chell, E., & Hayes, J. 2000. Intuition and entrepreneurial behavior. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 9: 31-43; Sadler-Smith, E. 2004. Cognitive style and the management of small and medium sized enterprises. Organization Studies, 25: 155- 181; Clarke, I., & Mackaness, W. 2001. Management intuition: An interpretative account of structure and content of decision schemas using cognitive maps. Journal of Management Studies, 38(2): 147-172.
33. Gardner, W.L., & Martinko, M.J. 1996. Using the MBTI to study managers: A literature review and research agenda. Journal of Management, 22(1): 45-83.
34. Westcott, M.R. 1968. Toward a contemporary psychology of intuition. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
35. O'Reilly, C.A. 1980. Individuals and information overload in organizations: Is more necessarily better? Academy of Management Journal, 23(4): 684-696.
36. Sparrow, P.R. 1999. Strategy and cognition: Understanding the role of management knowledge structures, organizational memory and information overload. Creativity and Innovation Management, 8(2): 140-148.
37. McCutcheon, H.H.I., & Pincombe, J. 2001. Intuition: An important tool in the practice of nursing. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 35: 342-348; Atkinson, L. 2000. Trusting your own judgment. In Atkinson, T., & Claxton, G. (Eds). 2000. The intuitive practitioner. Buckingham: Open University Press: 53-66; Goldberg, P. 1989. The many faces of intuition. In W.H. Agor (Ed.), Intuition in organisations: Leading and managing productively. Newbury Park, CA.: Sage Publications.
38. McCutcheon, H.H.I., & Pincombe, J. 2001. Intuition: An important tool in the practice of nursing. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 35: 342-348; Atkinson, L. 2000. Trusting your own judgment. In Atkinson, T., & Claxton, G. (Eds). 2000. The intuitive practitioner. Buckingham: Open University Press: 53-66; Goldberg, P. 1989. The many faces of intuition. In W.H. Agor (Ed.), Intuition in organisations: Leading and managing productively. Newbury Park, CA.: Sage Publications.
39. McCutcheon, H.H.I., & Pincombe, J. 2001. Intuition: An important tool in the practice of nursing. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 35: 342-348; Atkinson, L. 2000. Trusting your own judgment. In Atkinson, T., & Claxton, G. (Eds). 2000. The intuitive practitioner. Buckingham: Open University Press: 53-66; Goldberg, P. 1989. The many faces of intuition. In W.H. Agor (Ed.), Intuition in organisations: Leading and managing productively. Newbury Park, CA.: Sage Publications.
40. The questions are useful only as a starting point for self-reflection and should not be used a basis for typecasting. For example, Einstein is seen by many as the archetypal rational mind, but he is widely reported as recognizing intuition as the 'sower of all true science.' See Dunne, B.J. 1997. Subjectivity and intuition in the scientific method. In R. Davis-Floyd & P. Sven Arvidson (Eds), Intuition: The inside story: Interdisciplinary perspectives. London: Routledge. For valid and reliable self-report measures of intuition and their psychometric evaluation, the following research may be consulted: Allinson & Hayes, 1996, op. cit.; Epstein, S., et al. 1996. Individual differences in intuitive-experiential and analytical-reasoning thinking styles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71: 390-405; Hodgkinson, G.P., & Sadler-Smith, E. 2003. Complex or unitary? A critique and empirical reassessment of the Allinson-Hayes Cognitive Style Index. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 76: 243-268; Scott, S.G., & Bruce, R.A. 1994. Determinants of innovative behavior: A path model of individual innovation in the workplace. Academy of Management Journal, 37: 580-607.
41. The questions are useful only as a starting point for self-reflection and should not be used a basis for typecasting. For example, Einstein is seen by many as the archetypal rational mind, but he is widely reported as recognizing intuition as the 'sower of all true science.' See Dunne, B.J. 1997. Subjectivity and intuition in the scientific method. In R. Davis-Floyd & P. Sven Arvidson (Eds), Intuition: The inside story: Interdisciplinary perspectives. London: Routledge. For valid and reliable self-report measures of intuition and their psychometric evaluation, the following research may be consulted: Allinson & Hayes, 1996, op. cit.; Epstein, S., et al. 1996. Individual differences in intuitive-experiential and analytical-reasoning thinking styles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71: 390-405; Hodgkinson, G.P., & Sadler-Smith, E. 2003. Complex or unitary? A critique and empirical reassessment of the Allinson-Hayes Cognitive Style Index. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 76: 243-268; Scott, S.G., & Bruce, R.A. 1994. Determinants of innovative behavior: A path model of individual innovation in the workplace. Academy of Management Journal, 37: 580-607.
42. The questions are useful only as a starting point for self-reflection and should not be used a basis for typecasting. For example, Einstein is seen by many as the archetypal rational mind, but he is widely reported as recognizing intuition as the 'sower of all true science.' See Dunne, B.J. 1997. Subjectivity and intuition in the scientific method. In R. Davis-Floyd & P. Sven Arvidson (Eds), Intuition: The inside story: Interdisciplinary perspectives. London: Routledge. For valid and reliable self-report measures of intuition and their psychometric evaluation, the following research may be consulted: Allinson & Hayes, 1996, op. cit.; Epstein, S., et al. 1996. Individual differences in intuitive-experiential and analytical-reasoning thinking styles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71: 390-405; Hodgkinson, G.P., & Sadler-Smith, E. 2003. Complex or unitary? A critique and empirical reassessment of the Allinson-Hayes Cognitive Style Index. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 76: 243-268; Scott, S.G., & Bruce, R.A. 1994. Determinants of innovative behavior: A path model of individual innovation in the workplace. Academy of Management Journal, 37: 580-607.
43. The questions are useful only as a starting point for self-reflection and should not be used a basis for typecasting. For example, Einstein is seen by many as the archetypal rational mind, but he is widely reported as recognizing intuition as the 'sower of all true science.' See Dunne, B.J. 1997. Subjectivity and intuition in the scientific method. In R. Davis-Floyd & P. Sven Arvidson (Eds), Intuition: The inside story: Interdisciplinary perspectives. London: Routledge. For valid and reliable self-report measures of intuition and their psychometric evaluation, the following research may be consulted: Allinson & Hayes, 1996, op. cit.; Epstein, S., et al. 1996. Individual differences in intuitive-experiential and analytical-reasoning thinking styles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71: 390-405; Hodgkinson, G.P., & Sadler-Smith, E. 2003. Complex or unitary? A critique and empirical reassessment of the Allinson-Hayes Cognitive Style Index. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 76: 243-268; Scott, S.G., & Bruce, R.A. 1994. Determinants of innovative behavior: A path model of individual innovation in the workplace. Academy of Management Journal, 37: 580-607.
44. The questions are useful only as a starting point for self-reflection and should not be used a basis for typecasting. For example, Einstein is seen by many as the archetypal rational mind, but he is widely reported as recognizing intuition as the 'sower of all true science.' See Dunne, B.J. 1997. Subjectivity and intuition in the scientific method. In R. Davis-Floyd & P. Sven Arvidson (Eds), Intuition: The inside story: Interdisciplinary perspectives. London: Routledge. For valid and reliable self-report measures of intuition and their psychometric evaluation, the following research may be consulted: Allinson & Hayes, 1996, op. cit.; Epstein, S., et al. 1996. Individual differences in intuitive-experiential and analytical-reasoning thinking styles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71: 390-405; Hodgkinson, G.P., & Sadler-Smith, E. 2003. Complex or unitary? A critique and empirical reassessment of the Allinson-Hayes Cognitive Style Index. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 76: 243-268; Scott, S.G., & Bruce, R.A. 1994. Determinants of innovative behavior: A path model of individual innovation in the workplace. Academy of Management Journal, 37: 580-607.
45. Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. 1982. On the study of statistical intuitions. Cognition, 11: 123-141.
46. Claxton, G. 2001. The anatomy of intuition. In Atkinson, T., & Claxton, G. (Eds). The intuitive practitioner. Buckingham: Open University Press: 32-52.
47. This is the way in which Wallas (1926) described intuition in the context of creativity and insight in his incubation-illumination theory of creativity. See Wallas, G. 1926. The art of thought. New York: Harcourt Brace.
48. Polanyi argued that there existed a tacit knowledge whose contents are not part of one's normal consciousness or open to introspection (in essence 'we know more than we can tell'). See Polanyi, M. 1966. The tacit dimension. New York: Doubleday.
49. See Vaughan, F. 1979. Awakening intuition. New York: Doubleday.
50. Reber, A.S. 1993. Implicit learning and tacit knowledge; An essay on the cognitive unconscious, New York: Oxford University Press. Recent advances in cognitive science and artificial intelligence suggest that intuition-as-expertise is an outcome of long periods of learning and expertise. See Tsang, E.W.K. 2004. Towards a scientific inquiry into superstitious business decision making. Organization Studies, 25: 923-946.
51. Reber, A.S. 1993. Implicit learning and tacit knowledge; An essay on the cognitive unconscious, New York: Oxford University Press. Recent advances in cognitive science and artificial intelligence suggest that intuition-as-expertise is an outcome of long periods of learning and expertise. See Tsang, E.W.K. 2004. Towards a scientific inquiry into superstitious business decision making. Organization Studies, 25: 923-946.
52. Hogarth, R.M. 2001. Educating intuition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
53. Simon, H.A. 1989. Making management decisions: The role of intuition and emotion. In W.H. Agor (Ed.). Intuition in organizations: Leading and managing productively. Newbury Park, CA.: Sage.
54. Bowers, K.S., et al. 1990. Intuition in the context of discovery. Cognitive Psychology, 22: 72-110.
55. Klein, G. 2003. Intuition at work: Why developing your gut instincts will make you better at what you do. New York: Currency Doubleday.
56. Davis & Davis, op. cit., 59; Bruner, J.S. 1960. The process of education. Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press.
57. Davis & Davis, op. cit., 59; Bruner, J.S. 1960. The process of education. Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press.
58. Wagner, R.K. 2002. Smart people doing dumb things: A case of managerial incompetence. In R.J. Sternberg (Ed.). Why smart people can be so stupid. New Haven & London: Yale University Press. Related research also suggests that: (1) tacit knowledge is not related to IQ; (2) the relationship between tacit knowledge and performance is independent of relations between personality and performance.
59. http://www.ceoforum.com.au/200210_reflections.cfm.
60. Klein, op. cit., 124; Jenkins, M., & Johnson, G. 1997. Entrepre-neurial intentions and outcomes: A comparative causal mapping study. Journal of Management Studies, 34 (Special Issue): 895-920.
61. Klein, op. cit., 124; Jenkins, M., & Johnson, G. 1997. Entrepre-neurial intentions and outcomes: A comparative causal mapping study. Journal of Management Studies, 34 (Special Issue): 895-920.
62. Weick, K.E. 2001. Making sense of the organisation. Oxford: Blackwell Business.
63. Hogarth, op. cit.
64. Damasio, A.R. 1994. Descartes' error: Emotion, reason and the human brain. New York: Harper Collins/Quill; Goleman, D. 1996. Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. London: Bloomsbury.
65. Damasio, A.R. 1994. Descartes' error: Emotion, reason and the human brain. New York: Harper Collins/Quill; Goleman, D. 1996. Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. London: Bloomsbury.
66. LeDoux, I. 1996. The emotional brain. New York: Touch-stone/Simon & Schuster, Goleman uses the term 'emotional hijacking' in his popularization of LeDoux's research. See: Goleman, D., 1996, op. cit.
67. LeDoux, I. 1996. The emotional brain. New York: Touch-stone/Simon & Schuster, Goleman uses the term 'emotional hijacking' in his popularization of LeDoux's research. See: Goleman, D., 1996, op. cit.
68. Russo, J.E., & Schoemaker, P.H.J. 1992. Managing overconfidence. Sloan Management Review, Winter: 7-17; Taggart, W. 1997. Discovering and understanding intuition. Exceptional Human Experience, 15(2): 174-188.
69. Russo, J.E., & Schoemaker, P.H.J. 1992. Managing overconfidence. Sloan Management Review, Winter: 7-17; Taggart, W. 1997. Discovering and understanding intuition. Exceptional Human Experience, 15(2): 174-188.
70. 'Batting average' is used in the English game of cricket; an alternative might be 'strike rate.'
71. Hogarth, op. cit.
72. Laughlin, C. 1997. The nature of intuition: A neuropsycho-logical approach. In R. Davis-Floyd & P. Sven Arvidson (Eds). Intuition: The inside story: Interdisciplinary perspectives. London: Routledge.
73. Ward, T.B., Smith, S.M., & Finke, R.A. 1999. Creative cognition. In R.J. Sternberg (Ed.). The handbook of creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. The quantum physicist Richard Feynman claimed that one of the reasons Einstein failed to develop a unified theory was that he stopped thinking in concrete physical images and turned to the manipulation of equations. See Monsay, E.H. 1997. Intuition in the development of scientific theory and practice. In R. Davis-Floyd & P. Sven Arvidson (Eds). Intuition: The inside story: Interdisciplinary perspectives. London: Routledge. Numerous examples exist in the history of thought in science, the arts, and many other fields of human endeavor which attest to the significant role played by imagery (visual, auditory, and kinesthetic).
74. Ward, T.B., Smith, S.M., & Finke, R.A. 1999. Creative cognition. In R.J. Sternberg (Ed.). The handbook of creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. The quantum physicist Richard Feynman claimed that one of the reasons Einstein failed to develop a unified theory was that he stopped thinking in concrete physical images and turned to the manipulation of equations. See Monsay, E.H. 1997. Intuition in the development of scientific theory and practice. In R. Davis-Floyd & P. Sven Arvidson (Eds). Intuition: The inside story: Interdisciplinary perspectives. London: Routledge. Numerous examples exist in the history of thought in science, the arts, and many other fields of human endeavor which attest to the significant role played by imagery (visual, auditory, and kinesthetic).
75. Hogarth, op. cit., 231.
76. Adapted from Watts, G.W. 1993. Exercises for bringing head and heart together. Training & Development, November: 17-19.
77. See: Reid, P. 2002. How to think: Building your mental muscle, London: Prentice Hall.
78. Das & Teng, op. cit.
79. Bukszar, E., & Connolly, T. 1988. Hindsight bias and strategic choice: Some problems in learning from experience. Academy of Management Journal, 31(3): 628-641.
80. Myers, D.G. 2002. Intuition: Its powers and perils. New Haven: Yale University Press: 118.
81. Russo, I.E., & Schoemaker, P.H.J. 1992. Managing overconfidence. Sloan Management Review, Winter: 7-17; Schwenk, C.R. 1984. Devil's advocacy in managerial decision-making. Journal of Management Studies, 21: 153-168.
82. Russo, I.E., & Schoemaker, P.H.J. 1992. Managing overconfidence. Sloan Management Review, Winter: 7-17; Schwenk, C.R. 1984. Devil's advocacy in managerial decision-making. Journal of Management Studies, 21: 153-168.
83. Schweiger, D.M., Sandberg, W.R., & Rechner, P.L. 1989. Experiential effects of dialectical enquiry, devil's advocacy, and consensus approaches to strategic decision-making. Academy of Management Journal, 32: 745-772; Herbert, T.T., & Estes, R.W. 1977. Improving executive planning by formalising dissent: The corporate devil's advocate. Academy of Management Review, 2: 662-667; Rowan, op. cit., 196.
84. Schweiger, D.M., Sandberg, W.R., & Rechner, P.L. 1989. Experiential effects of dialectical enquiry, devil's advocacy, and consensus approaches to strategic decision-making. Academy of Management Journal, 32: 745-772; Herbert, T.T., & Estes, R.W. 1977. Improving executive planning by formalising dissent: The corporate devil's advocate. Academy of Management Review, 2: 662-667; Rowan, op. cit., 196.
85. Schweiger, D.M., Sandberg, W.R., & Rechner, P.L. 1989. Experiential effects of dialectical enquiry, devil's advocacy, and consensus approaches to strategic decision-making. Academy of Management Journal, 32: 745-772; Herbert, T.T., & Estes, R.W. 1977. Improving executive planning by formalising dissent: The corporate devil's advocate. Academy of Management Review, 2: 662-667; Rowan, op. cit., 196.
86. See, for example, Miller, S.J., Hickson, D.J., & Wilson, D.C. 1999. Decision-making in organizations. In Clegg, S.R., Hardy, C., & Nord, W.R. (Eds). Managing in organizations. Current issues. London: Sage; Klein, G. 2003. Intuition at work. New York: Century Doubleday; Davis & Davis, op. cit.
87. See, for example, Miller, S.J., Hickson, D.J., & Wilson, D.C. 1999. Decision-making in organizations. In Clegg, S.R., Hardy, C., & Nord, W.R. (Eds). Managing in organizations. Current issues. London: Sage; Klein, G. 2003. Intuition at work. New York: Century Doubleday; Davis & Davis, op. cit.
88. See, for example, Miller, S.J., Hickson, D.J., & Wilson, D.C. 1999. Decision-making in organizations. In Clegg, S.R., Hardy, C., & Nord, W.R. (Eds). Managing in organizations. Current issues. London: Sage; Klein, G. 2003. Intuition at work. New York: Century Doubleday; Davis & Davis, op. cit.
89. Monsay (1997) cites the views of scholars including Carl Rogers and Jonas Salk in support of the assertion that under the right conditions intuition can be developed. See Monsay, E.H. 1997. Intuition in the development of scientific theory and practice. In R. Davis-Floyd & P. Sven Arvidson (Eds). Intuition: The inside story: Interdisciplinary perspectives. London: Routledge.
90. Taggart, W., & Robey, D. 1981. Minds and managers: On the dual nature of human information processing and management. Academy of Management Review, 6: 187-195.
91. For example, being mindful is an acute awareness of one's surroundings, thoughts, and behaviors and is engendered by pausing and examining our perceptions and feeling states as dispassionately as we can through a non-reactive awareness and openness to whatever the object of our attention is and our context, with the aim of avoiding premature cognitive commitment (see Austin, J.H. 1998. Zen and the brain. Cambridge, MA.: The MIT Press). Taggart described a quiet, relaxed mind that is focused upon the present moment and free of distracting fears and desires as the sine qua non of intuitive experience (1997, op. cit., 182). Intuitive flow experiences are discussed extensively in Csikszentmihalyi, M. 1992. Flow: The psychology of happiness. London: Rider.
92. For example, being mindful is an acute awareness of one's surroundings, thoughts, and behaviors and is engendered by pausing and examining our perceptions and feeling states as dispassionately as we can through a non-reactive awareness and openness to whatever the object of our attention is and our context, with the aim of avoiding premature cognitive commitment (see Austin, J.H. 1998. Zen and the brain. Cambridge, MA.: The MIT Press). Taggart described a quiet, relaxed mind that is focused upon the present moment and free of distracting fears and desires as the sine qua non of intuitive experience (1997, op. cit., 182). Intuitive flow experiences are discussed extensively in Csikszentmihalyi, M. 1992. Flow: The psychology of happiness. London: Rider.
93. For example, being mindful is an acute awareness of one's surroundings, thoughts, and behaviors and is engendered by pausing and examining our perceptions and feeling states as dispassionately as we can through a non-reactive awareness and openness to whatever the object of our attention is and our context, with the aim of avoiding premature cognitive commitment (see Austin, J.H. 1998. Zen and the brain. Cambridge, MA.: The MIT Press). Taggart described a quiet, relaxed mind that is focused upon the present moment and free of distracting fears and desires as the sine qua non of intuitive experience (1997, op. cit., 182). Intuitive flow experiences are discussed extensively in Csikszentmihalyi, M. 1992. Flow: The psychology of happiness. London: Rider.
94. Taggart, op. cit., 181; Agor, op. cit., 222-223.
95. Taggart, op. cit., 181; Agor, op. cit., 222-223.
96. Sadler-Smith, E, & Shefy, E. 2004. Developing intuition: Becoming smarter by thinking less. Academy of Management Best Paper Proceedings, Academy of Management Annual Meeting, New Orleans, Louisiana, August 2004.
97. Shapiro, S., & Spence, M.T. 1997. Managerial intuition: A conceptual and operational framework. Business Horizons, January/February: 63-68.
98. Russo & Schoemaker, op. cit.
99. See Epstein, S. 1994. Integration of the cognitive and the psychodynamic unconscious. American Psychologist, 49: 709-724. Stanovich and West make a similar distinction between System 1 processes that are fast, heuristic, associative, and automatic and System 2 processes that are rule-based, slow, load heavily on working memory, and are controlled. See Stanovich, K.E., & West, R.F. 2000. Individual differences in reasoning: Implications for the rationality debate? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 23: 645-726.
100. See Epstein, S. 1994. Integration of the cognitive and the psychodynamic unconscious. American Psychologist, 49: 709-724. Stanovich and West make a similar distinction between System 1 processes that are fast, heuristic, associative, and automatic and System 2 processes that are rule-based, slow, load heavily on working memory, and are controlled. See Stanovich, K.E., & West, R.F. 2000. Individual differences in reasoning: Implications for the rationality debate? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 23: 645-726.
101. Haidt, J. 2001. The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychological Review, 108(4): 814-834.
102. Slavic, P. 1972. Psychological study of human judgment: Implications for investment decision-making. The Journal of Finance, 27(4): 779-799.
103. Writers such as the anthropologist Charles Laughlin attribute this dichotomy to the historical association of intuition with metaphysics and religion. In the Enlightenment and beyond, religion became the nemesis of science, and hence the 'intuitional baby' was thrown out with the 'metaphysical bath-water.' See Laughlin, C. 1997. The nature of intuition: A neuro-psychological approach. In R. Davis-Floyd & P. Sven Arvidson (Eds). Intuition the inside story: Interdisciplinary perspectives. London: Routledge.