Children's health and the environment: Public health issues and challenges for risk assessment

Environmental Health Perspectives

Volumn 112, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 257-265

  Landrigan, Philip J ^a   Kimmel, Carole A ^b   Correa, Adolfo ^c   Eskenazi, Brenda ^d  

^a MOUNT SINAI SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b U S ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY   (United States)

^c CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Children's environmental health; Developmental toxicology; Risk assessment; Safety factors; Toxicity testing

Indexed keywords

4 BIPHENYLAMINE; AMINOPTERIN; BENZO[A]PYRENE; CADMIUM; CARBON MONOXIDE; DIETHYLSTILBESTROL; FORMALDEHYDE; HEAVY METAL; HYDROGEN CYANIDE; ISOTRETINOIN; LEAD; MERCURY; NICOTINE; PESTICIDE; PHENYTOIN; SULFUR DIOXIDE; THALIDOMIDE; TOBACCO SMOKE; TOXIC SUBSTANCE; VALPROIC ACID; WARFARIN;

ARTICLE; CHILD; CHILD HEALTH; CHILDHOOD CANCER; CONGENITAL MALFORMATION; DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; ENDOCRINE DISEASE; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH; EXPERIENCE; FETUS DEVELOPMENT; FOOD QUALITY; HEAVY METAL POISONING; HUMAN; INDOOR AIR POLLUTION; INTOXICATION; LAW; LEAD POISONING; MALIGNANT NEOPLASTIC DISEASE; MEDICAL RESEARCH; MERCURIALISM; NEUROLOGIC DISEASE; OUTCOMES RESEARCH; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROPHYLAXIS; PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE; QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS; RESPIRATORY TRACT DISEASE; RISK ASSESSMENT; SAFETY; TERATOGENICITY; TOXICITY TESTING; TOXICOKINETICS; TOXICOLOGY;

NICOTIANA TABACUM;

EID: 1042280395     PISSN: 00916765     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1289/ehp.6115     Document Type: Article

References (156)

1. Adams J, Lammer EJ. 1993. Neurobehavioral teratology of isotretinoin. Reprod Toxicol 7:175-177.
2. Adams J, Lammer EJ. 1995. Human isotretinoin exposure: the teratogenesis of a syndrome of cognitive deficits. Neurotoxicol Teratol 17:386.
3. American Academy of Pediatrics. 2001. The pediatrician's role in the diagnosis and management of autistic spectrum disorder in children. Pediatrics 107:1221-1226.
4. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Environmental Health. 1998. Screening for elevated blood lead levels. Pediatrics 101:1072-1078.
5. Amin-Zaki L, Majeed MA, Elhassani SB, Clarkson TW, Greenwood MR, Doherty RA. 1979. Prenatal methylmercury poisoning. Clinical observations over five years. Am J Dis Child 133:172-177.
6. Aris RM, Christian D, Hearne PQ, Kerr K, Finkbeiner WE, Balmes JR. 1993. Ozone-induced airway inflammation in human subjects as determined by airway lavage and biopsy. Am Rev Respir Dis 148:1363-1372.
7. Ashworth A. 1998. Effects of intrauterine growth retardation on mortality and morbidity in infants and young children. Eur J Clin Nutr 52(suppl 1):S34-S41; discussion S41-S42.
8. Bakir F, Damluji SF, Amin-Zaki L, Murtadha M, Khalidi A, al-Rawi NY, et al. 1973. Methylmercury poisoning in Iraq. Science 181:230-241.
9. Bellinger D, Leviton A, Waternaux C, Needleman H, Rabinowitz M. 1987. Longitudinal analyses of prenatal and postnatal lead exposure and early cognitive development. N Engl J Med 316:1037-1043.
10. Berkowitz GS, Wolff MS, Matte T, Susser E, Landrigan PJ. 2001. The rationale for a national prospective cohort study of environmental exposure and childhood development. Environ Res 85:59-68.
11. Birnbaum LS. 1994. The mechanism of dioxin toxicity: relationship to risk assessment. Environ Health Perspect 102: 157-167.
12. Blanck HM, Marcus M, Hertzberg V, Tolbert PE, Rubin C, Henderson AK, et al. 2000a. Determinants of polybrominated biphenyl serum decay among women in the Michigan PBB cohort. Environ Health Perspect 108(2):147-152.
13. Blanck HM, Marcus M, Tolbert PE, Rubin C, Henderson AK, Hertzberg, et al. 2000b. Age at menarche and tanner stage in girls exposed in utero and postnatally to polybrominated biphenyl. Epidemiology 11:641-647.
14. Bobak M. 2000. Outdoor air pollution, low birth weight, and prematurity. Environ Health Perspect 108(2):173-176.
15. Bobak M, Richards M, Wadsworth M. 2001. Air pollution and birth weight in Britain in 1946. Epidemiology 12(3):358-359.
16. Bongiovanni AM, DiGeorge AM, Grumbach MM. 1959. Masculinization of the female infant associated with estrogenic therapy alone during gestation. Four cases. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 19:1004-1011.
17. Brody DJ, Pirkle JL, Kramer RA, Flegal KM, Matte TD, Gunter EW, et al. 1994. Blood lead levels in the US population. Phase 1 of the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III, 1988 to 1991). JAMA 272:277-283.
18. Call RS, Smith TF, Morris E, Chapman MD, Platts-Mills TA. 1992. Risk factors for asthma in inner city children. J Pediatr 121:862-866.
19. Campbell CG, Seidler FJ, Slotkin TA. 1997. Chlorpyrifos interferes with cell development in rat brain regions. Brain Res Bull 43:179-189.
20. CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). 1995a. Asthma - United States, 1982-1992. MMWR More Mortal Wkly Rep 43:952-955.
21. CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). 1995b. Children at Risk from Ozone Air Pollution - United States, 1991-1993. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 44:309-312.
22. CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). 1997. Update: Blood Lead Levels - United States, 1991-1994. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 46:141-146.
23. CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). 2003. Second National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals. Atlanta, GA:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available: http://www.cdc.gov/exposurereport/ [accessed 3 July 2003].
24. CEPA (California Environmental Protection Agency). 1997. Health Effects of Exposure to Environmental Tobacco Smoke. Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment. Sacramento, CA:California Environmental Protection Agency, 3/37-3/38. Available:htp://www.oehha.org/pdf/exec.pdf [accessed 7 February 2003].
25. Chilmonczyk BA, Salmun LM, Megathlin KN, Neveux LM, Palomaki GE, Knight GJ, et al. 1993. Association between exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and exacerbations of asthma in children. N Engl J Med 328:1665-1669.
26. Clarkson TW. 1972. The pharmacology of mercury compounds. Annu Rev Pharmacol 12:375-406.
27. Cody RP, Weisel CP, Birnbaum G, Lioy PJ. 1992. The effect of ozone associated with summertime photochemical smog and frequency of asthma visits to hospital emergency departments. Environ Res 58:184-194.
28. Colborn T, Dumanoski D, Myers JP. 1996. Our Stolen Future: Are We Threatening Our Fertility, Intelligence, and Survival? A Scientific Detective Story. New York:Dutton.
29. Consumers Union of the United States Inc. 2001. A Report Card for the EPA. Successes and Failures in Implementing the Food Quality Protection Act. Related Tables. In: A Report Card For The EPA. (Table 2.1 and Appendix 1). Available: http://www.consumersunion.org/food/fqpa_info.htm [accessed 7 February 2003].
30. Cresteil T. 1998. Onset of xenobiotic metabolism in children: toxicological implications. Food Addit Contam 15(suppl): S45-S51.
31. Crump KS, Kjellstrom T, Shipp AM, Silvers A, Stewart A. 1998. Influence of prenatal mercury exposure upon scholastic and psychological test performance: benchmark analysis of a New Zealand cohort. Risk Anal 18:701-713.
32. Cullinan P, Taylor AJ. 1994. Asthma in children: environmental factors. Br Med J 308:1585-1586.
33. Cunningham J, Dockery DW, Spiezer FE. 1994. Maternal smoking during pregnancy as a predictor of lung function in children. Am J Epidemiol 139:1139-1152.
34. Dales RE, Zwanenburg H, Burnett R, Franklin CA. 1991. Respiratory health effects of home dampness and molds among Canadian children. Am J Epidemiol 134:196-203.
35. Davidson PW, Myers GJ, Cox C, Axtell C, Shamlaye C, Sloane-Reeves J, et al. 1998. Effects of prenatal and postnatal methylmercury exposure from fish consumption on neuro-development: outcomes at 66 months of age in the Seychelles Child Development Study. JAMA 280:701-707.
36. Dejmek J, Selevan SG, Benes I, Solansky I, Sram RJ. 1999. Fetal growth and maternal exposure to particulate matter during pregnancy. Environ Health Perspect 107(6):475-478.
37. Delfino RJ, Zeiger RS, Seltzer JM, Street DH, Matteucci RM, Anderson PR, et al. 1997. The effect of outdoor fungal spore concentrations on daily asthma severity. Environ Health Perspect 105:622-635.
38. Devesa SS, Blot WJ, Stone BJ, Miller BA, Tarone RE, Fraumeni JF Jr. 1995. Recent cancer trends in the United States. J Natl Cancer Inst 87:175-182.
39. Ekbom A, Hsieh CC, Lipworth L, Adami HQ, Trichopoulos D. 1997. Intrauterine environment and breast cancer risk in women: a population-based study. J Natl Cancer Inst 89:71-76.
40. Eskenazi B, Bradman A, Castorina R. 1999. Exposures of children to organophosphate pesticides and their potential adverse health effects. Environ Health Perspect 107:409-419.
41. Eskenazi B, Prehn AW, Christianson RE. 1995. Passive and active material smoking as measured by serum cotinine: the effect on birthweight. Am J Public Health 85:395-398.
42. Euling S, Kimmel CA. 2001. Developmental stage sensitivity and mode of action information for endocrine disrupting chemicals. Sci Total Environ 274:103-113.
43. Fedrick J. 1973. Epilepsy and pregnancy: a report from Oxford record linkage study. Br Med J 2:442-448.
44. FQPA (Food Quality Protection Act). 1996. Food Quality Protection Act of 1996. Public Law 104-170. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Available: http://www.pmac.net/fqpal.htm [accessed 7 February 2003].
45. Forsberg B, Stjernberg N, Falk M, Lundback B, Wall S. 1993. Air pollution levels, meteorological conditions and asthma symptoms. Eur Respir J 6:1109-1115.
46. Friedman MS, Powell KE, Hutwagner L, Graham LM, Teague WG. 2001. Impact of changes in transportation and commuting behaviors during the 1996 Summer Olympic Games in Atlanta on air quality and childhood asthma. JAMA 285:897-905.
47. Gill WB, Schumacher GF, Bibbo M. 2002. Structural and functional abnormalities in the sex organs in male offspring of mothers treated with diethylstibestrol (DES). J Reprod Med 16:147-153.
48. Ginsberg, G. Hattis D, Sonawane B, Russ A, Banati P, Kozlak M, et al. 2002. Evaluation of child/adult pharmacokinetic differences from a database derived from the therapeutic drug literature. Toxisol Sci 66:185-200.
49. Gold DR, Burge HA, Carey V, Milton DK, Platts-Mills T, Weiss ST. 1999. Predictors of repeated wheeze in the first year of life: the relative roles of cockroach, birth weight, acute lower respiratory illness, and maternal smoking. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 160(1):227-236.
50. Goldman LR, Koduru SH. 2000. Chemicals in the environment and developmental toxicity to children: a public health and policy perspective. Environ Health Perspect 108(suppl 3):S443-S448.
51. Grandjean P, Weihe P, White RF, Debes F, Araki S, Yokoyama K, et al. 1997. Cognitive deficit in 7-year old children with prenatal exposure to methylmercury. Neurotoxicol Teratol 19:417-428.
52. Gray LE Jr, Ostby J, Furr J, Price M, Veeramachaneni DN, Parks L. 2000. Perinatal exposure to the phthalates DEHP, BBP, and DINP, but not DEP, DMP, or DOTP, alters sexual differentiation of the male rat. Toxicol Sci 58:350-365.
53. Gray R, Peto R, Brantom P, Grasso P. 1991. Chronic nitrosamine ingestion in 1040 rodents: the effect of choice of nitrosamines, the species studied, and the age of starting exposure. Cancer Res 51(part 2):6470-6491.
54. Guillette LJ Jr, Gross TS, Masson GR, Matter JM, Percival HF, Woodward AR. 1994. Developmental abnormalities of the gonad and abnormal sex hormone concentrations in juvenile alligators from contaminated and control lakes in Florida. Environ Health Perspect 102:680-688.
55. Guo YL, Hsu PC, Hsu CC, Lambert GH. 2000. Semen quality after prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dibenzofurans. Lancet 356:1240-1241.
56. Guzelian PS, Henry CJ, Olin SS, eds. 1992. Similarities and Differences between Children and Adults: Implications for Risk Assessment. Washington, DC:ILSI Press.
57. Ha EH, Hong Y-C, Lee B-E, Woo B-H, Schwartz J, Christiani DC. 2001. Is air pollution a risk factor for low birth weight in Seoul? Epidemiology 12(6):643-648.
58. Haddow JE, Knight GJ, Palomaki GE, McCarthy JE. 1988. Second trimester serum cotinine levels in nonsmokers in relation to birth weight, Am J Obstet Gynecol 159:481-484.
59. Haggerty R, Rothman J. 1975. Child Health and the Community. New York:John Wiley & Sons.
60. Harada Y. 1968. Congenital (or fetal) Minamata disease. In: Study Group of Minamata Disease. Kumamoto, Japan:Kumamoto University, 93-117.
61. Harrison PT. 2001. Endocrine disruptors and human health. Br Med J 323:1317-1318.
62. Herbst AL, Bern HA. 1981. Developmental Effects of Diethylstilbestrol (DES) in Pregnancy. New York:Thieme-Stratton.
63. Herbst AL, Ulfelder H, Poskanzer DC. 1971. Adenocarcinoma of the vagina: association of maternal stilbestrol therapy with tumor appearance in young women. N Engl J Med 284:878-881.
64. Horstman DH, Folinsbee LJ, Ives PJ, Abdul-Salaam S, McDonnell WE. 1990. Ozone concentration and pulmonary response relationships for 6.6-hour exposures with five hours of moderate exercise to 0.08, 0.10, and 0.12 ppm. Am Rev Respir Dis 142:1158-1163.
65. Jacobson JL, Jacobson SW. 1996. Intellectual impairment in children exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls in utero. N Engl J Med 335:783-789.
66. Jenkins RA, Tomkins BA, Guerin MR. 1992. The Chemistry of Environmental Tobacco Smoke: Composition and Measurement. Indoor Air Research Series. Chelsea, MI:Lewis Publishers.
67. Kallen B, Robert E, Mastroiacovo P, Martinez-Frias ML, Castilla EE, et al. 1989. Anticonvulsant drugs and malformations: is there a drug specificity? Eur J Epidemiol 5:31-36.
68. Kaufman RH, Adam E, Hatch EE, Noller K, Herbst AL, Palmer JR, et al. 2000. Continued follow-up of pregnancy outcomes in diethylstilbestrol-exposed offspring. Obstet Gynecol 96:483-489.
69. Klonoff-Cohen HS, Edelstein SL, Lefkowitz ES, Srinivasan IP, Kaegi D, Chang JC, et al. 1995. The effect of passive smoking and tobacco exposure through breast milk on sudden infant death syndrome. JAMA 273:795-798.
70. Kogevinas M, Becher H, Benn T, Bertazzi P, Boffetta P, Buenode-Mesquita H, et al. 1997. Cancer mortality in workers exposed to phenoxy herbicides, chlorophenols, and dioxins. An expanded and updated international cohort study. Am J Epidemiol 145:1061-1075.
71. Kreit JW, Gross KB, Moore TB, Lorenzen TJ, D'Arcy J, Eschenbacher WL. 1989. Ozone-induced changes in pulmonary function and bronchial responsiveness in asthmatics. J Appl Physiol 66:217-222.
72. Lambert WE, Samet JM. 1996. Indoor air pollution. In: Occupational and Environmental Respiratory Disease (Harber P, Schenker MM, Balmes JR, ads). St Louis, MO:Mosby, 784-807.
73. Lammer EJ, Chen DT, Hoar RM, Agnish ND, Benke PJ, Braun JT, et al. 1985. Retinioc acid embryopathy. N Engl J Med 313:837-841.
74. Landrigan PJ, Carlson JE. 1995. Environmental policy and children's health. Future Child 5:34-52.
75. Landrigan PJ, Goldman LR. 2003. Another view of children's health [Editorial]. Chem Eng News 81:3.
76. Lanphear BP, Dietrich K, Auinger P, Cox C. 2000. Cognitive deficits associated with blood lead concentrations <10 microg/dL in US children and adolescents. Public Health Rep 115:521-529.
77. Lebowitz MD, Sherril D, Holberg CJ. 1992. Effects of passive smoking on lung growth in children. Pediatr Pulmonol 12:37-42.
78. Lenz W. 1962. Thalidomide and congenital abnormalities. Lancet 1:271-272.
79. Longnecker MP, Daniels JL. 2001. Environmental contaminants as etiologic factors for diabetes. Environ Health Perspect 109(suppl 6):S871-S876.
80. Longnecker MP, Dlebanoff MA, Brock JW, Zhou H, Gray KA, Needham LL, et al. 2002. Maternal serum level of 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene and risk of cryptorchidism, hypospadias, and polythelia among male offspring. Am J Epidemiol 155:313-322.
81. Longnecker MP, Rogan WJ, Lucier G. 1997. The human health effects of DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) and PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) and an overview of organochlorines in public health. Annu Rev Public Health 18:211-244.
82. Mannino DM, Siegel M, Husten C, Rose D, Etzel R. 1996. Environmental tobacco smoke exposure and health effects in children: results from the 1991 National Health Interview Survey. Tob Control 5:13-18.
83. Martinez FD, Cline M, Burrows B. 1992. Increased incidence of asthma in children of smoking mothers. Pediatrics 89:21-26.
84. McBride WG. 1961. Thalidomide and congenital abnormalities. Lancet 2:1358.
85. McConnochie KM, Roghmann KJ. 1986. Parental smoking, presence of older siblings, and family history of asthma increase risk of bronchiolitis. Am J Dis Child 140:806-812.
86. Mehlman MA, Bingham E, Landrigan PJ, Soffritti M, Belpoggi F, Melnick RL, eds. 2002. Carcinogenesis bioassays and protecting public health. Commemorating the lifework of Cesare Maltoni and colleagues. In: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. New York:New York Academy of Sciences, 1-229.
87. Mocarelli P, Gerthoux PM, Ferrari E, Patterson DG Jr, Kieszak SM, Brambilla P, et al. 2000. Paternal concentrations of dioxin and sex ratio of offspring. Lancet 355:1858-1863.
88. Molfino NA, Wright SC, Katz I, Tarlo S, Silverman F, McClean PA, et al. 1991. Effect of low concentrations of ozone on inhaled allergen responses in asthmatic subjects. Lancet 338:199-203.
89. Monson RR, Rosenberg L, Hartz SC, Shapiro S, Heinonen OP, Slone D. 1973. Diphenylhydantoin and selected malformations. N Engl J Med 289:1049-1052.
90. Montealegre F, Chardon D, Tarrats. 1993. Environmental factors precipitating bronchial asthma exacerbations in southern Puerto Rico: a pilot study. J Asthma 83:219-227.
91. Moore SJ, Turnpenny P, Quinn A, Glover S, Lloyd DJ, Montgomery T, et al. 2000. A clinical study of 57 children with fetal anticonvulsant syndromes. J Med Genet 37:489-497.
92. Morris K, Morgenlander M, Coulehan JL, Gahagen S, Arena VC, Morganlander M. 1990. Wood-burning stoves and lower respiratory tract infection in American Indian Children. Am J Dis Child 144:105-108.
93. Morrow PE. 1984. Toxicological data on NOx: an overview. J Toxicol Environ Health 13:205-227.
94. NAS (National Academy of Sciences). 1984. Toxicity Testing: Needs and Priorities. Washington, DC:National Academy Press, 1984.
95. NAS (National Academy of Sciences). 1992. Environmental Neurotoxicology. Washington, DC:National Academy Press.
96. NAS (National Academy of Sciences). 1993. Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children. Washington, DC:National Academy Press.
97. NAS (National Academy of Sciences). 1999. Hormonally Active Agents in the Environment. Washington, DC:National Academy Press.
98. NAS (National Academy of Sciences). 2000. Toxicological Effects of Methylmercury. Washington, DC:National Academy Press.
99. National Children's Study Interagency Coordinating Committee. 2003. The National Children's Study of environmental effects on child health and development. Environ Health Perspect 111:642-646.
100. Neas LM, Dockery DW, Koutrakis P, Tollerud DJ, Speizer FE. 1995. The association of ambient air pollution with twice daily peak expiratory flow rate measurements in children. Am J Epidemiol 141:111-122.
101. Neas LM, Dockery DW, Ware JH, Spengler JD, Speizer FE, Ferris BG Jr. 1991. Association of indoor nitrogen dioxide with respiratory symptoms and pulmonary function in children. Am J Epidemiol 134:204-219.
102. Needleman HL, McFarland C, Ness RB, Fienberg SE, Tobin MJ. 2002. Bone lead levels in adjudicated delinquents - a case control study. Neurotoxicol Teratol 24:711-717.
103. Needleman HL, Schell A, Bellinger D, Leviton A, Allred EN. 1990. The long-term effects of exposure to low doses of lead in childhood. An 11-year follow-up report. N Engl J Med 322:83-88.
104. NRC (National Research Council). 2000. Scientific Frontiers in Developmental Toxicology and Risk Assessment. Washington, DC:National Academy Press.
105. O'Brien PC, Noller KL, Robboy SJ, Barnes AB, Kaufman RH, Tilley BC, et al. 1979. Vaginal epithelial changes in young women enrolled in the National Cooperative Diethylstilbestrol Adenosis (DESAD) Project. Obstet Gynecol 53:300-308.
106. O'Flaherty EJ. 1997. Pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and prediction of developmental abnormalities. Reprod Toxicol 11:413-416.
107. Ogston SA, Florey CD, Walker CH. 1987. Association of infant alimentary and respiratory illness with parental smoking and other environmental factors. J Epidemiol Community Health 41:21-25.
108. Paulozzi LJ, Erickson JD, Jackson RJ. 1997. Hypospadias trends in two US surveillance systems. Pediatrics 100: 831-834.
109. Perera FP, Rauh V, Tsai WY, Kinney P, Camann D, Barr D, et al. 2003. Effects of transplacental exposure to environmental pollutants on birth outcomes in a multiethnic population. Environ Health Perspect 111:201-205.
110. Peterson RE, Theobald HM, Kimmel GL. 1993. Developmental and reproductive toxicity of dioxins and related compounds: cross species comparisons. Crit Rev Toxicol 23:283-335.
111. Pirkle JL, Flegal KM, Bernert JT, Brody DJ, Etzel RA, Maurer KR. 1996. Exposure of the US population to environmental tobacco smoke: the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988 to 1991. JAMA 275:1233-1240.
112. Pope CA III. 1991. Respiratory hospital admissions associated with PM10 pollution in Utah, Salt Lake, and Cache Valleys. Arch Environ Health 46:90-97.
113. Reed BD, Lutz LJ. 1988. Household smoking exposure - association with middle ear effusions. Fam Med 20:426-430.
114. Rennick GJ, Jarman FC. 1992. Are children with asthma affected by smog? Med J Aust 156:837-841.
115. Ritz B, Yu F. 1999. The effect of ambient carbon monoxide on low birth weight among children born in southern California between 1989 and 1993. Environ Health Perspect 107(1):17-25.
116. Ritz B, Yu F, Chapa G, Fruin S. 2000. Effect of air pollution on preterm birth among children born in Southern California between 1989 and 1993. Epidemiology 11(5):502-511.
117. Ritz B, Yu F, Fruin S, Chapa G, Shaw GM, Harris JA. 2002. Ambient air pollution and risk of birth defects in Southern California. Am J Epidemiol 155(1):17-25.
118. Robin LF, Less PS, Winget M, Steinhoff M, Moulton LH, Santosham M, et al. 1996. Wood-burning stoves and lower respiratory illnesses in Navajo children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 15:859-865.
119. Robison LL, Buckley JD, Bunin G. 1995. Assessment of environmental and genetic factors in the etiology of childhood cancers: the Children's Cancer Group epidemiology program. Environ Health Perspect 103(suppl 6):S111-S116.
120. Rodier PM. 1995. Developing brain as a target of toxicity. Environ Health Perspect 103(suppl 6):S73-S76.
121. Romieu I, Meneses F, Sienra-Monge JJ, Huerta J, Ruiz Velasco S, White MC, et al. 1995. Effects of urban air pollutants on emergency room visits for childhood asthma in Mexico City. Am J Epidemiol 141:546-553.
122. Rosenstreich DL, Eggleston P, Kattan M, Baker D, Slavin RG, Gergen P, et al. 1997. The role of cockroach allergy and exposure to cockroach allergen in causing morbidity among inner-city children with asthma. N Engl J Med 336: 1356-1363.
123. Schaefer M. 1994. Children and toxic substances: confronting a major public health challenge. Environ Health Perspect 102(suppl 2):S155-S156.
124. Schechter CB. 1999. Re: brain and other central nervous system cancers: recent trends in incidence and mortality. J Natl Cancer Inst 91:2050-2051.
125. Schwartz J, Slater D, Larson TV, Pierson WE, Koenig JQ. 1993. Particulate air pollution and hospital emergency room visits for asthma in Seattle. Am Rev Respir Dis 147:826-831.
126. Selevan SG, Kimmel CA, Mendola P. 2000. Identifying critical windows of exposure for children's health. Environ Health Perspect 108(suppl 3):S451-S455.
127. Spengler JD. 1991. Sources and concentrations of indoor air pollutants. In: Indoor Air Pollution. A Health Perspective (Samet JM, Spengler JD, eds). Baltimore, MD:The Johns Hopkins University Press.
128. Spielberg SP. 1992. Anticonvulsant adverse drug reactions: age dependent and age independent. In: Similarities and Differences between Children and Adults, Implications for Risk Assessment. (Guzelian PS, Henry CJ, Olin SS, eds). Washington, DC:International Life Sciences Institute Press, 104-106.
129. Strachan DP, Jarvis MJ, Feyeralbend C. 1989. Passive smoking, salivary cotinine concentrations, and middle ear effusion in 7 year old children. Br Med J 298:1549-1552.
130. Stromland K, Nordin V, Miller M, Akerstrom B, Gillberg C. 1994. Autism in thalidomide embryopathy: a population study. Dev Med Child Neurol 36:351-356
131. Taussig HB. 1962. A study of the German outbreak of phocomelia. JAMA 180:1106-1114.
132. Taylor JA, Sanderson M. 1995. A re-examination of the risk factors for the sudden infant death syndrome. J Pediatr 126:887-891.
133. Thiersch JB. 1952. Therapeutic abortions with folic acid antagonist 4-aminopteroylglutamic acid amino PGA administered by oral route. Am J Obstet Gynecol 63:1298-1304.
134. U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 1986. Guidelines for the health assessment of suspect developmental toxicants. Fed Reg 51:34028-34040.
135. U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 1991. Guidelines for developmental toxicity risk assessment. Fed Reg 56(234):63798-63826: EPA/600/FR-91/001. Washington, DC:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Available: http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/raf/pdfs/devtox.pdf [accessed 6 February 2003].
136. U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 1994. Indoor Air Pollution: An Introduction for Health Professionals. Washington, DC:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Available: http://www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/hpguide.html [accessed 6 February 2003].
137. U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 1999. Toxicology Data Requirements for Assessing Risks of Pesticide Exposure to Children's Health - Report of the Toxicology Working Group of the 1OX Task Force (April 28, 1999 draft). Washington, DC:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Available: http://www.epa.gov/scipoly/sap/1999/may/l0xtx428.pdf [accessed 6 February 2003].
138. U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2001. Chronic Reference Dose for Methylmercury (MeHg) (CASRN 22967-92-6). Integrated Risk Information System. Washington, DC:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Available: http://www.epa.gov/iris/subst/0073.htm [accessed 6 February 2003].
139. U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2002a. Determination of the Appropriate FQPA Safety Factor(s) for Use in the Tolerance-Setting Process. Office of Pesticide Programs, Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic Substances. Washington, DC:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Available: http://www.epa.gov/oppfead1/trac/science/determ.pdf [accessed 6 February 2003].
140. U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2002b. A review of the reference dose and reference concentration processes. EPA/630/P-02/002F. 01 December 2002. Washington, DC:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Risk Assessment Forum. Available: http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=55365 [accessed 3 July 2003].
141. Verhoeff AP, van Strien RT, van Wijnen JH, Brunekreef B. 1995. Damp housing and childhood respiratory symptoms: the role of sensitization to dust mites and molds. Am J Epidemiol 141:103-110.
142. Wang X, Ding H, Ryan L, Xu X. 1997. Association between air pollution and low birth weight: a community-based study. Environ Health Perspect 105(5):514-520.
143. Wang X, Wypij D, Gold DR, Speizer FE, Ware JH, Ferris BG Jr, et al. 1994. A longitudinal study of the effects of parental smoking on pulmonary function in children 6-18 years. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 149:1420-1425.
144. Warkany J. 1976. Warfarin embryopathy. Teratology 14:205-209.
145. Warkany J, Beaudry PH, Hornstein S. 1959. Attempted abortion with aminopterin (4-aminopteroglutamic acid). Am J Dis Child 97:274-281.
146. Weisglas-Kuperus N, Patandin S, Berbers GA, Sas TC, Mulder PG, Sauer PJ, et al. 2000. Immunologic effects of background exposure to polychlorinated bilphenyls and dioxins in Dutch preschool children. Environ Health Perspect 108:1203-1207.
147. Weitzman M, Gortmaker S, Walker DK, Sobol A. 1990. Maternal smoking and childhood asthma. Pediatrics 85:505-511.
148. Welsch F, Blumenthal GM, Conolly RB. 1995. Physiologically based pharmacokinetic models applicable to organogenesis: extrapolation between species and potential use in prenatal toxicity risk assessments. Toxicol Lett 82-83:539-547.
149. White MC, Etzel RA, Wilcox WD, Lloyd C. 1994. Exacerbations of childhood asthma and ozone pollution in Atlanta. Environ Res 65:56-68.
150. Whitney KD, Seidler FJ, Slotkin TA. 1995. Developmental neurotoxicity of chlorpyrifos: cellular mechanisms. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 134:53-62.
151. WHO. 1999. International Consultation on Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS) and Child Health. Consultation Report 1999. WHO/NCD/TFI/99.10. Geneva:World Health Organization. Available: http://www.who.int/toh [accessed 6 February 2003].
152. Wiles R, Campbell C. 1993. Pesticides in Children's Food, Washington, DC:Environmental Working Group.
153. Wilhelm M, Ritz B. 2003. Residential proximity to traffic and adverse birth outcomes in Los Angeles County, California, 1994-1996. Environ Health Perspect 111:207-216.
154. Winneke G. 1995. Endpoints of developmental neurotoxicity in environmentally exposed children. Toxicol Lett 77:127-136.
155. Wright AL, Holberg C, Martinez FD, Taussig LM. 1991. Relationship of parental smoking to wheezing and nonwheezing lower respiratory tract illnesses in infancy. Group Health Medical Associates. J Pediatr 118:207-214.
156. Wu T, Buck GM, Mendola P. 2003. Blood lead levels and sexual maturation in U.S. girls: The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Study, 1988-1994. Environ Health Perspect 111:737-741.