Preventive diplomacy, international relations, conflict resolution and international water law: Implications for success and failure of the Israeli-Palestinian water conflict

International Journal of Global Environmental Issues

Volumn 3, Issue 2, 2003, Pages 188-225

  Dinar, Shlomi ^a  

^a JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Conflict resolution theory; International relations theory; International water law; Israeli Palestinian water conflict; Joint management institutions; Preventive diplomacy; Security; Up stream and down stream positions

Indexed keywords

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT; DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS; INTERNATIONAL LAW; INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS; WATER MANAGEMENT; WATER PLANNING;

ASIA; EURASIA; ISRAEL; MIDDLE EAST; PALESTINE;

EID: 1042267172     PISSN: 14666650     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1504/IJGENVI.2003.003864     Document Type: Article

References (135)

1. See for example, Homer-Dixon, T. (1999) Environment Scarcity and Violence, Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press, p.139; Gleick, P. (1995) 'Water and Conflict: Fresh Water Resources and International Security', in Lynn-Jones, S. and Miller, S. (Eds.): Global Dangers: Changing Dimensions of International Security, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England, pp.84-85.
2. See for example, Homer-Dixon, T. (1999) Environment Scarcity and Violence, Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press, p.139; Gleick, P. (1995) 'Water and Conflict: Fresh Water Resources and International Security', in Lynn-Jones, S. and Miller, S. (Eds.): Global Dangers: Changing Dimensions of International Security, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England, pp.84-85.
3. Spector, B. (2001) 'Transboundary disputes: Keeping backyards clean', in Zartman, I.W. (Ed.): Preventive Negotiation: Avoiding Conflict Escalation, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc, Lanham, Boulder, New York.
4. Suhrke, A. (1996) 'Environmental change, migration and conflict: a lethal feedback dynamic', in Crocker, C., Hampson, F., Aall, P. (Eds.): Managing Global Chaos, United States Institute of Peace, Washington, D.C., p.113.
5. Harpaz, Y., Haddad, M. and Arlosoroff, S. (2001) 'Overview of the mountain aquifer', in Feitelson, E. and Haddad, M. (Eds.): Management of Shared Groundwater Resources: the Israeli-Palestinian Case with an International Perspective, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, Dordecht, London, pp.47-51.
6. Gvirtzman, H. (1994) 'Groundwater allocation in Judea and Samaria', in Isaac J. and Shuval, H. (Eds.): Water and Peace in the Middle East, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp.205-218.
7. Kally with Fishelson [7, p.32] argue that the Arab states were almost united in their refusal to accept the right of the State of Israel to exist, and they related to the question of exploitation of common water resources accordingly.
8. Kally, E. and Fishelson, G. (1993) Water and Peace: Water Resources and the Arab-Israeli Peace Process Praeger, Westport, Connecticut and London.
9. Shuval, H.I. (1996) 'Towards resolving conflicts over water between Israel and its neighbours: The Israeli-Palestinian shared use of the mountain aquifer', in Allan, J.A. and Court J.H. (Eds.): Water, Peace and the Middle East: Negotiating Resources in the Jordan Basin, I.B. Tauris Publishers, London, New York.
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12. Elmusa, S. (1997) Water Conflict, Institute for Palestine Studies, Washington DC.
13. Rouyer, A. (2000) Turning Water into Politics: The Water Issue in the Palestinian-Israeli Conflict, St. Martin's Press, New York.
14. Abouali, G. (1998) 'Natural resources under occupation: The status of Palestinian water under international law', Pace International Law Review, Fall, p.466.
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16. Lowi, M. (1993) Water and Power: The Politics of a scarce resource in the Jordan River Basin, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p.189.
17. Rouyer, A. (1997) 'The water issue in the Palestinian-Israeli peace process', Survival: the IISS Quarterly (Summer).
18. Schmida [18, p.23] argues that since Palestinians are limited to the number of wells they can drill and the depth of these wells, salinity problems in Israel have been the result of overpumping on the side of Israel with the full knowledge of the consequences.
19. Schmida, L. (1983) Keys to Control: Israel's Pursuit of Arab Water Resources, American Educational Trust.
20. Palestine Delegation Papers submitted to the Third of the Multilateral on Water (Washington, DC, September 1992) quoted in Elmusa [20].
21. Elmusa, S. (1993) 'Dividing the common Palestinian-Israeli waters: An international water law approach', Journal of Palestine Studies, Vol. 22, No. 3, p.58 (Spring).
22. Elmusa, S. (1993) 'The water issue and the Palestinian-Israeli conflict', Information Paper, Number 2, The Centre for Policy Analysis on Palestine, Washington, D.C.
23. See also www.nad-plo.org/permanent/sumpalpo.html and www.nad-plo.org/ permanent/water.html for the official Palestinian position on water.
24. Dinar, S. (1999) 'The Israeli-Palestinian water conflict and its resolution: a view through international relations theory', presented at the International Studies Association Conference in Washington, DC, 16-21 February, p.12. Available from: www.ciaonet.org/isa/dis01/
25. I call this "equitable utilisation and then some" due to the position of some Palestinian officials claiming that both control over the Mountain Aquifer and the water of the Mountain Aquifer should be returned to the Palestinians.
26. Lowi, M. (1995) 'Rivers of conflict, rivers of peace', Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 49, No. 1, p.142 (Summer).
27. Lund [27, pp.34-35] believes confusion exists around the term 'Preventive Diplomacy' as well as terms such as conflict resolution and conflict management. Lund argues that the definition and importance of preventive diplomacy is often diluted due to the conditions and issues preventive diplomacy is thought to be associated with. As Lund marks: "the first part of the UN definition - preventive diplomacy as keeping disputes from arising - may miss the mark. Disputes do have sources of basic socioeconomic, political, psychological, and international conditions - for example, poverty, environmental degradation, lack of education, nationalism and the lust for power. However, although these systemic factors increase the chance that disputes will become violent in the long run they do not necessarily cause the violence. For violent reactions to these factors to emerge, intermediate factors must come into play, such as bellicose actions and ethnocentric demagoguery. But addressing systemic factors will not necessarily confront these proximate sources directly, because policies that address structural conditions in a general way cannot pinpoint where and when particular manifestations of violent conflict will emerge."
28. Lund, M. (1996) Preventing Violent Conflicts: a Strategy for Preventive Diplomacy, United States Institute of Peace, Washington, DC.
29. Comments made by Zartman, I.W. (1999) at a 'Preventive Diplomacy Panel' at the International Studies Association Conference in Washington, D.C., February.
30. Keohane, R. (1984) After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, p.76.
31. Keohane, R. (1990) 'Multilateralism: an agenda for research', International Journal, Vol. 45, No. 4 (Autumn).
32. Keohane, R. (1982) 'The demand for international regimes', International Organization, Vol. 36, p.325-355.
33. The Israeli-Palestinian Declaration of Principles, September 13, 1993, Article VII, Annex III, and Annex IV. Available from: www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/go.asp? MFAH00q00
34. Agreement on the Gaza Strip and Jericho Area, September 14, 1993, Article V, Annex II/Article II/Principle 31. Available from: www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/go.asp?MFAH00q40
35. The Israel-PLO Interim Agreement, September 28, 1995 Annex III/Appendix 1/Article 40. Available from: www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/go.asp?MFAH00qd0#app-40
36. Greico, J. (1990) Cooperation Among Nations: Europe, America and Non-Tariff Barriers to Trade, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, p.38.
37. Gilpin, R. (1986) 'The richness of the tradition of political realism', in Keohane, R. (Ed.): Neorealism and its Critics, Columbia University Press, New York, p.305.
38. Waltz, K.N. (1979) Theory of International Politics, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts.
39. Keohane, R. (1989) International Institutions and State Power: Essays in International Relations Theory, Westview Press, Boulder, San Francisco, London, p.14.
40. Mearsheimer, J. (1994/1995) 'The false promise of international institutions', International Security, Vol. 19, No. 3, p.7 (Winter).
41. Feitelson, E. (1998) 'The implications of change in the Israeli water agenda for Palestinian-Israeli water negotiations', Paper submitted to the Annual Meeting of the Association of American Geographers, Boston, 25-29 March, p.1.
42. Interview with Alwyn Rouyer (1998) Professor, Department of Political Science, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho, USA; 16 April.
43. Interview with Jerry Delli Priscolli (1998) Editor-in-Chief, Water Policy Journal. He is a dispute resolution specialist for the US Army Corps of Engineers; 4 April.
44. Moravcsik, A. (1994) 'Why the European community strengthens the state: domestic politics and international cooperation?', Centre for European Studies, Working Paper Series #52, presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, p.1.
45. Interview with Eran Feitelson (1998) Professor, Department of Geography, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Mount Scopus, Jerusalem, Israel. He is a co-head of the joint Israeli-Palestinian research team on joint management of shared aquifers; 9 April.
46. Lonergan, S. (2000) 'Water in the Jordan river basin', in Amery, H. and Wolf, A. (Eds.): Water in the Middle East: a Geography of Peace, The University of Texas Press, Austin, pp.46 and 60.
47. Boutwell, J. and Mendelsohn, E. (Eds.) (1995), Israeli-Palestinian Security: Issues in the Permanent Status Negotiations, American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Cambridge, Massachusetts, p.15.
48. Frey, F.W. (1993) 'The political context of conflict and cooperation over international river basins', Water International, Vol. 18.
49. 'From Oslo to Camp David to Taba: Setting the Record Straight: Special Policy Forum Report', Peacewatch, No. 340, Washington, D.C., Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 14 August, 2001. Available from: www.washingtoninstitute.org/watch/Peacewatch/peacewatch2001/340.htm
50. See also statements made by then Prime Minister Barak upon the conclusion of the Camp David Summit. Available from: www.mfa.gov.il/infa/go.asp? MFAH0hnu0
51. www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/go.asp?MFAH0hnn0
52. See also Haberman, C., Dennis Ross's Exit Interview, The New York Times, Section 6, Page 36, Column 1, Late Edition, 25 March, 2001.
53. For key Israeli points upon the conclusion of the Camp David Summit see www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/go.asp?MFAH0hnm0
54. See also remarks by then President Bill Clinton as he points to Barak's forthcomingness. Available from: www.state.gov/www/regions/nea/ 000725_clinton_stmt.html
55. Sher, G. (2001) Just Beyond Reach: Israeli-Palestinian Negotiations 1999-2001, Tel-Aviv: Yediot Achronot Books, pp.33-435 in Hebrew.
56. Interview with Uri Shamir (2002) Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, and Director, Water Research Institute, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel. He was an official in the Israeli water delegation at Emmitsburg; July 31; August 6; August 21.
57. For a brief and concise journalistic account incorporating the Palestinian version see writings by senior Arafat aid, Akram Haniyeh. His writings were published in Arabic in the Palestinian daily 'Al-Ayyam' from 29 July to 8 October, 2000.
58. For a brief day-to-day description of the negotiations from Palestinian sources see www.nad-plo.org/david/david.html
59. See also excerpts from a 29 July 2000 Palestine television interview with the Secretary General of the PLO Executive Committee and Palestinian negotiator, Mahmoud Abbas (Abu Mazen). Availabe from: www.nad-plo.org/speeches/ abumazen3.html
60. See also a statement by the Palestinian Authority. Available from: www.nad-plo.org/speeches/pnaI.html
61. Interviews conducted by Alwyn Rouyer of Amin Haddad (May 1994) and Marwan Haddad (December 1993) quoted in his book [12, p.191].
62. Interview with Shaddad Attili (2002) Policy Advisor, Water and Environment Division, Negotiations Affairs Department, Palestine Liberation Organization. He was on stand-by for the Palestinian water delegation at Emmitsburg; September 4; September 5.
63. Palestinians are demanding either 105 cubic metres per capita, as is used in Israel for domestic use, or to an agreed upon amount by the two parties [61].
64. Deutsch, M. (1973) The Resolution of Conflict, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.
65. Deutsch, M. (1994) 'Constructive conflict resolution: principles, training and research', Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 50, No. 1, pp.14-15.
66. Lewicki, R. and Litterer, J. (1985) Negotiation, Irwin, Homewood, pp.75-156.
67. Pruitt, D. (2002) 'Strategy in negotiaion', in Kremenyuk, A. (Ed.): International Negotiation: Analysis, Approaches, Issues, Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, p.85.
68. Lonergan S. (2000) 'Water in the Jordan river basin', in Amery, H. and Wolf, A. (Eds.): Water in the Middle East: a Geography of Peace, The University of Texas Press, Austin, p.45.
69. Stein, J.G. (1996) 'Image, identity and conflict resolution', in Crocker, C. Hampson, F.O. and Hall, P. (Eds.): Managing Global Chaos, United States Institute of Peace, Washington, DC.
70. Zartman, I.W. (2001) 'Preventive diplomacy: setting the stage', in Zartman, I.W. (Ed.): Preventive Negotiation: Avoiding Conflict Escalation, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Lanham, Boulder, New York, p.7.
71. Sherif, M. (1966) Group Conflict and Co-operation, Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd, London, p.88.
72. Sherif, M. (Ed.) (1962) Intergroup Relations and Leadership, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New York, London, p.11.
73. Samson, P. and Charrier, B. (1997) 'International freshwater conflict: issues and prevention strategies', Green Cross International, (August) Available from: http://www.gci.ch/GreenCrossPrograms/waterres/gcwater/study. html, p.9.
74. Salman, S. and Boisson de Chazournes, L. (1998) 'International watercourses: enhancing cooperation and managing conflict', in Salman, S. and Boisson de Chazournes, L. (Eds.): International Watercourses: Enhancing Cooperation and Managing Conflict, Proceedings of a World Bank Seminar, World Bank Technical Paper, No. 414, p.167.
75. For a comprehensive list of the many sources of international water law including the 1815 Vienna Congress see 'Sources of International Law', FAO Legislative Study, Food and Agricultural Organization Legal Office, N 65, Rome, 1998. It consists of the rules of customary international water law that developed since that time, a number of resolutions and principles adopted by a number of scholarly institutions such as the Institute of International Law and the International Law Association, decisions of international courts and tribunals and the work of scholars in this field.
76. Helsinki Rules on the Uses of the Waters of International Rivers, in International Law Association: Report of the Fifty-Second Conference Held at Helsinki, 14-20 August 1966 (1967). Available from: www.internationalwaterlaw. org/IntlDocs/Helsinki_Rules.htm
77. International Law Association, 'International Water Resources Law - Report of the Committee', in International Law Association, Report of the Sixty-Second Conference Held at Seoul, 24-30 August 1986 (1987). Available from: www.internationalwaterlaw.org/IntlDocs/Seoul_Rules.htm
78. Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses. Available from: www.un.org/law/cod/watere.htm
79. Sergent, M.R. (1997) 'Comparison of the Helsinki Rules to the 1994 UN draft articles: will the progression of international watercourse be damned?', Villanova Environmental Law Journal, Vol. 8.
80. Dellapenna [80, pp.40-41] argues that under the community of property model a water basin is jointly developed and managed as a unit without regard to international borders and with an agreed sharing of the benefits of, and equitable participation in, development and management.
81. Dellapenna, J. (1994) 'Treaties as Instruments for Managing Internationally-Shared Water Resources: Restricted Sovereignty vs. Community of Property', Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law, Vol. 26, (Winter).
82. The language of Article V ("Watercourse states shall in their respective territories utilize an international watercourse in an equitable and reasonable manner...with a view to attaining optimal and sustainable utilization ...") in the UN Convention versus the language in Article IV ("Each basin state is entitled to a reasonable and equitable share...") of the Helsinki rules demonstrate this difference.
83. Hillel, D. (1994) Rivers of Eden: the Struggle for Water and the Quest for Peace, Oxford University Press, New York, p.273.
84. McCaffrey, S. and Sinjela, M. (1998) 'Current developments: The 1997 United Nations convention on international watercourses', The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 92, pp.92 and 100.
85. McCaffrey, S. (1999) 'International groundwater law: evolution and context', in Salman, S. (Ed.): Groundwater: Legal and Policy Perspectives, Proceedings of a World Bank Seminar, World Bank Technical Paper, No. 456, p.155.
86. For Helsinki Rules see: "Helsinki Rules on the Uses of the Waters of International Rivers" [75]. For Seoul Rules: International Law Association, "International Water Resources Law - Report of the Committee" [76]. The Helsinki Rules pertained to groundwater, which forms with surface water part of a hydraulic system flowing into a common terminus. The Seoul Rules pertained to groundwater which does not form with surface waters part of a hydraulic system flowing into a common terminus.
87. Waltz [37, pp.139-146] argues that in situations of interdependence one must not only consider increased sensitivity among nations but also increased vulnerability as high interdependence among nations entails.
88. Wolf, A. (1998) 'Conflict and cooperation along international waterways', Water Policy, Vol. 1, p.252.
89. 'General Assembly Adopts Convention on Law of Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses', Press Release, GA/9248, May 21, 1997 - statements made by Leeora Kidron; One possible reason Israel supported the compromise reached was because, at least on the Mountain Aquifer, it is both up-stream and down-stream. Up-stream in terms of its control of the Aquifer but down-stream in terms of pollution and potential harm from the Palestinian side. Available from: www.dundee.ac.uk/cepmlp/water/assets/images/UNPRESS.doc
90. Schwabach [90, pp.257-278] provides an account and an analysis of the states that objected, abstained and accepted the Convention.
91. Schwabach, A. (1998) 'The United Nations Convention on the Law of Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses, Customary International Law, and the Interests of Developing Upper Riparians', Texas International Law Journal, Vol. 33, No. 2, (Spring).
92. McCaffrey [92, p.22] argues that "the very existence of a second paragraph implicitly acknowledging that harm may be caused without engaging the harming state's responsibility supports this conclusion. Also indicating a recognition that significant harm may have to be tolerated by a watercourse state are the numerous mitigating clauses in paragraph 2, especially the phrase 'having due regard for the provisions of Article 5 and 6' - the equitable utilisation articles. Finally Article 10 provides that any conflict between uses of an international watercourse is to be resolved with reference to articles 5 to 7. This means that in resolving the conflict, states need to refer to the package of articles setting forth both principles."
93. McCaffrey, S. (1998) 'The UN convention on the law of non-navigational uses of international watercourses: prospects and pitfalls', in Salman, S. and Boisson de Chazournes, L. (Eds.): International Watercourses: Enhancing Cooperation and Managing Conflict, Proceedings of World Bank Seminar, World Bank Technical Paper, No. 414, July.
94. McCaffrey, A. (2001) 'The contribution of the UN convention on the law of the non-navigational uses of international watercourses', International Journal of Global Environmental Issues, Vol. 1, No. 3-4, pp.254-255.
95. Dellapenna, J. (2001) 'The customary international law of transboundary fresh waters', International Journal of Global Environmental Issues, Vol. 1, No. 3-4, p.285.
96. Gabicikovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), International Court of Justice, 25 September, 1997. Available from: www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idocket/ihs/ ihsjudgement/ihs_ijudgement_970925_frame. htm
97. Wouters, P. (1997) 'Editor's forward: Current status of international water law', in Wouters, P. (Ed.): International Water Law: Selected Writings of Professor Charles B. Bourne, Kluwer Law International, Boston, Dordecht, London.
98. Eckstein, G. (2002) "Development of international water law and the UN Watercourse Convention," in Turton, A. and Henwood, R. (Eds.): Hydropolitics in the Developing World: A Southern African Perspective, AWIRU, Pretoria, South Africa, p.85.
99. Wolf, A. (1999) 'Criteria for equitable allocations: the heart of international water conflict', Natural Resources Forum, Vol. 23, No. 1, p.9.
100. Elmusa, S. (1996) 'The prerequisites of an equitable water agreement', in Beyond Rhetoric: Perspectives on a Negotiated Settlement in Palestine, The Centre for Policy Analysis on Palestine, Washington, DC, August p.27.
101. Nasser Y. (1996) 'Palestinian management options and challenges within an environment of scarcity and power imbalance', in Allan, J.A. and Court, J.H. (Eds.): Water, Peace and the Middle East: Negotiating Resources in the Jordan Basin, I.B. Tauris Publishers, London, New York, p.52.
102. 'General Assembly Adopts Convention on Law of Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses', Press Release, GA/9248, 21 May 1997.
103. According to Schwabach [90, pp.276-277] equitable utilisation is associated with territorial sovereignty (the principle up-stream riparains cite) while the obligation not to cause significant harm is associated with territorial integrity (the principle down-stream riparians cite).
104. Benvenisti, E. (1996) 'Collective action in the utilization of shared freshwater: the challenges of international water resources law', The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 30, No. 384.
105. McCaffrey [92, p.22] is discussing one of the lessons from the Worlds Court's judgement in the Gabcikovo/Nagymaros case.
106. While this is a compelling point it is important to note that this mechanism of favouring standards over rules is taken from domestic cases and thus assumes enforcement. In the international scene, however, where enforcement by an international body is not likely, vague rules may produce the opposite effect of equitable apportionment, stability and efficiency, exposing negotiations to the inherit power relationships and interests of powerful states over weaker states and entities.
107. Article 33, 'Settlement of Disputes', refers to joint institutions.
108. This is the main argument of neo-liberal institutionalism. See Keohane [38, p.166; 30, pp.89-92] and Lipson [108].
109. Lipson, C. (1984) 'International cooperation in economic and security affairs', World Politics, Vol. 37, No. 1, (October), p.5.
110. Hardin [110, p.1243] argues that the users of a common resource are caught in an inevitable process that leads to the destruction of the very resource on which they depend.
111. Hardin, G. (1968) 'The tragedy of the commons', Science, Vol. 162, No. 3859, (December), p.13.
112. Elmusa [99, p.27] asserts that an equitable utilisation would provide the Palestinians with an incentive to care for the aquifers. Ostrom et al. [112, p.279] argue that assigning individual rights to, or shares of, the resource for users allows parties to invest in the resource instead of overexploiting it. See also Wolf [10, p.829].
113. Ostrom, E., Burger, J., Field, C., Norgaard, R. and Policansky, D. (1999) 'Revisiting the commons', Science, Vol. 284 (April 9).
114. For a full text of the Bellagio Draft Treaty see Hayton and Utton [114, pp.643-722].
115. Hayton, R. and Utton, A. (1989) 'Transboundary groundwaters: the Bellagio Draft Treaty', Natural Resources Journal, Vol. 29.
116. Feitelson, E. and Haddad, M. (Eds.) (1997) Joint Management of Shared Aquifers, Vol. 3, Palestine Consultancy Group and the Harry S. Truman Institute for the Advancement of Peace at the Hebrew University, 1994 and 1995 in Elmusa, S., Water Conflict: Economics, Politics, Law and Palestinian-Israeli Water Resources, Institute for Palestine Studies, Washington, DC, p.329.
117. Ostrom, E. (1990) Governing the Commons: the Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp.90 and 101.
118. Haddad, M., Feitelson, E., Arolosoroff, S. and Nassereddin, T. (2001) 'A proposed agenda for joint Israeli-Palestinian management of shared groundwater', in Feitelson, E. and Haddad, M. (Eds.): Management of Shared Groundwater Resources: the Israeli-Palestinian Case with an International Perspective, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, Dordecht, London.
119. Feitelson, E. and Haddad, M. (2001) 'A sequential flexible approach to the management of shared aquifers', in Feitelson, E. and Haddad M. (Eds.): Management of Shared Groundwater Resources: The Israeli-Palestinian Case with an international Perspective, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, Dordecht, London, p.464.
120. Item 8 of Article 40 marks that "The provisions of paragraph 6-7 {where the interim water divisions and allotments are discussed} shall not prejudice the provisions of paragraph 1 {where Israel recognizes Palestinian water rights in the West Bank and it is agreed that these rights are to be negotiated in the final status negotiations}."
121. Haas [121, pp.1-35] defines epistemic communities as a professional and knowledge based group that believe in the same cause and effect relationships, truth tests to assess them and share common values and a common interpretive framework.
122. Haas, P. (1992) 'Introduction: epistemic communities and international policy coordination', International Organization, Vol. 46, No. 1, (Winter).
123. Milner, H. (1992) 'International theories of cooperation among nations: strengths and weaknesses', Review Article, World Politics, Vol. 44, No. 3.
124. Part of this paragraph is taken from: El-Ashry, M.T. Finding Solutions to Water Disputes, Water and Dispute Prevention: South Perspective, Centre for the Global South, American University, Washington, DC, 1998, pp.6-7.
125. Browder, G. (1998) 'Negotiating an international regime for water allocation in the Mekong River Basin', Ph.D. Dissertation, Stanford University, February, p.118.
126. Dinar, A., Alison, K. and Wolf, A. 'Resolving water disputes: the process of dispute resolution in the Danube River Basin', Research Proposal Submitted to the World Bank Research Committee, Unpublished Paper.
127. Biswas, A. (1999) 'Management of international waters: opportunities and constraints', Water Resources Development, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp.435-437.
128. USAID has financed a pilot desalination effort at the Gaza Industrial Estate. Available from: www.usaid.gov/wbg/program_water.htm
129. Reidel, B. 'Camp David: Two Years Later', www.bitterlemons.org, July 15, 2002, Edition 26 available from www.bitterlemons.org/previous/bl150702ed26extra. html
130. References [130, 131; 7, pp.57-113] offer a detailed account of both demand side and supply side projects; Lonergan [67, pp.57-58] provides a brief yet comprehensive discussion on the pros and cons of water pricing in the Israeli-Palestinian arena.
131. Wolf, A. and Ross, J. (1992) 'The impact of scarce water resources on the Arab-Israeli conflict', Natural Resources Journal, Vol. 32, (Fall), pp.948-955.
132. Wolf, A. and Lonergan, S. (1995) 'Resolving conflict over water disputes in the jordan river basin', in Dinar, A. and Loehman, E. (Eds.): Water Quantity/Quality Management and Conflict Resolution: Institutions, Processes and Economic Analyses, Praeger, Westport, Connecticut, London, pp.183-186.
133. Waterbury, J. (1997) 'Between unilateralism and comprehensive accords', Water Resources Development, Vol. 13, No. 3, p.287.
134. I refer to the articles by Schwabach [90] and McCaffrey and Sinjela [83]. Both articles prescribe to a differing view.
135. These points are taken from McCaffrey and Sinjela [83, p.106].