Analysis in Limbo: Contemporary Chinese Politics Amid the Maturation of Reform

Issues and Studies

Volumn 38, Issue 1, 2002, Pages 11-48

  Dittmer, Lowell ^a   Hurst, William ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

China; Levels of analysis; Political science; Politics; Reform; State of the field; State society relations

Indexed keywords

EID: 0347607286     PISSN: 10132511     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (156)

1. See, for example: Franz Schurmann, Ideology and Organization in Communist China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968); Benjamin I. Schwartz, Communism and China: Ideology in Flux (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968); Stuart R. Schram, The Thought of Mao Tse-tung (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); and Tang Tsou, The Cultural Revolution and Post-Mao Reforms (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986).
2. See, for example: Franz Schurmann, Ideology and Organization in Communist China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968); Benjamin I. Schwartz, Communism and China: Ideology in Flux (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968); Stuart R. Schram, The Thought of Mao Tse-tung (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); and Tang Tsou, The Cultural Revolution and Post-Mao Reforms (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986).
3. See, for example: Franz Schurmann, Ideology and Organization in Communist China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968); Benjamin I. Schwartz, Communism and China: Ideology in Flux (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968); Stuart R. Schram, The Thought of Mao Tse-tung (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); and Tang Tsou, The Cultural Revolution and Post-Mao Reforms (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986).
4. See, for example: Franz Schurmann, Ideology and Organization in Communist China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968); Benjamin I. Schwartz, Communism and China: Ideology in Flux (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968); Stuart R. Schram, The Thought of Mao Tse-tung (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); and Tang Tsou, The Cultural Revolution and Post-Mao Reforms (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986).
5. By which we simply mean, consistent with ordinary language usage, the implementation of the systematic planning of change in order to reduce uncertainty and risk. Thus institutionalization is often linked to rationalization and routinization.
6. Roderick MacFarquhar, The Origins of the Cultural Revolution, vol. 3: The Coming of the Cataclysm, 1961-1966 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997).
7. E.g., cf. Roderick MacFarquhar, The Hundred Flowers (London: Stevens, 1960).
8. Volume 3 departs from the previously exclusive top-down approach in affording a somewhat greater role to society, especially in the agrarian crisis that followed the Great Leap Forward.
9. Jin Qiu, The Culture of Power: The Lin Biao Incident in the Cultural Revolution (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999); and Frederick Teiwes with Warren Sun, The Tragedy of Lin Biao: Riding the Tiger during the Cultural Revolution, 1966-1971 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1996).
10. Jin Qiu, The Culture of Power: The Lin Biao Incident in the Cultural Revolution (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999); and Frederick Teiwes with Warren Sun, The Tragedy of Lin Biao: Riding the Tiger during the Cultural Revolution, 1966-1971 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1996).
11. Jing Huang, Factionalism in Chinese Communist Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
12. David Bachman, Bureaucracy, Economy and Leadership in China: The Institutional Origins of the Great Leap Forward (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
13. Susan Shirk, The Political Logic of Economic Reform in China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).
14. See Joseph Fewsmith: Dilemmas of Reform in China: Political Conflict and Economic Debate (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1994); Elite Politics in Contemporary China (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2001); and China Since Tiananmen: The Politics of Transition (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
15. See Joseph Fewsmith: Dilemmas of Reform in China: Political Conflict and Economic Debate (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1994); Elite Politics in Contemporary China (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2001); and China Since Tiananmen: The Politics of Transition (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
16. See Joseph Fewsmith: Dilemmas of Reform in China: Political Conflict and Economic Debate (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1994); Elite Politics in Contemporary China (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2001); and China Since Tiananmen: The Politics of Transition (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
17. Richard Baum, Burying Mao: Chinese Politics in the Age of Deng Xiaoping (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994).
18. Cheng Li, China's Leaders: The New Generation (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2001).
19. William W. Whitson, The Chinese High Command (New York: Praeger, 1973). The concept was since further developed by Hong Yung Lee, From Revolutionary Cadres to Party Technocrats in Socialist China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), and by Xiaowei Zang, Children of the Cultural Revolution: Family Life and Political Behavior in Mao's China (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 2000), inter alia.
20. William W. Whitson, The Chinese High Command (New York: Praeger, 1973). The concept was since further developed by Hong Yung Lee, From Revolutionary Cadres to Party Technocrats in Socialist China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), and by Xiaowei Zang, Children of the Cultural Revolution: Family Life and Political Behavior in Mao's China (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 2000), inter alia.
21. William W. Whitson, The Chinese High Command (New York: Praeger, 1973). The concept was since further developed by Hong Yung Lee, From Revolutionary Cadres to Party Technocrats in Socialist China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), and by Xiaowei Zang, Children of the Cultural Revolution: Family Life and Political Behavior in Mao's China (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 2000), inter alia.
22. Kevin J. O'Brien, Reform Without Liberalization: China's National People's Congress and the Politics of institutional Change (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); and Murray Scot Tanner, The Politics of Lawmaking in Post-Mao China: Institutions, Processes, and Democratic Prospects (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).
23. Kevin J. O'Brien, Reform Without Liberalization: China's National People's Congress and the Politics of institutional Change (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); and Murray Scot Tanner, The Politics of Lawmaking in Post-Mao China: Institutions, Processes, and Democratic Prospects (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).
24. See Hans Hendricksche and Feng Chongyi, eds., The Political Economy of China's Provinces: Comparative and Competitive Leadership (London: Routledge, 1999); Peter T.Y. Cheung, Jae Ho Chung, and Zhimin Lin, eds., Provincial Strategies of Economic Reform in Post-Mao China (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1998); Linda Chelan Li, Centre and Provinces: China 1978-1993, Power as Non-Zero-Sum (London: Clarendon, 1998); Zhiyue Bo, Chinese Provincial Leaders: Economic Performance and Political Mobility since 1949 (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2002); Yasheng Huang, Inflation and Investment Controls in China: The Political Economy of Central-Local Relations During the Reform Era (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); and John Fitzgerald, ed., Rethinking China's Provinces (New York: Routledge, 2002). The journal Provincial China has been published by the Institute for International Studies at the University of Technology, Sydney since 1997.
25. See Hans Hendricksche and Feng Chongyi, eds., The Political Economy of China's Provinces: Comparative and Competitive Leadership (London: Routledge, 1999); Peter T.Y. Cheung, Jae Ho Chung, and Zhimin Lin, eds., Provincial Strategies of Economic Reform in Post-Mao China (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1998); Linda Chelan Li, Centre and Provinces: China 1978-1993, Power as Non-Zero-Sum (London: Clarendon, 1998); Zhiyue Bo, Chinese Provincial Leaders: Economic Performance and Political Mobility since 1949 (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2002); Yasheng Huang, Inflation and Investment Controls in China: The Political Economy of Central-Local Relations During the Reform Era (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); and John Fitzgerald, ed., Rethinking China's Provinces (New York: Routledge, 2002). The journal Provincial China has been published by the Institute for International Studies at the University of Technology, Sydney since 1997.
26. See Hans Hendricksche and Feng Chongyi, eds., The Political Economy of China's Provinces: Comparative and Competitive Leadership (London: Routledge, 1999); Peter T.Y. Cheung, Jae Ho Chung, and Zhimin Lin, eds., Provincial Strategies of Economic Reform in Post-Mao China (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1998); Linda Chelan Li, Centre and Provinces: China 1978-1993, Power as Non-Zero-Sum (London: Clarendon, 1998); Zhiyue Bo, Chinese Provincial Leaders: Economic Performance and Political Mobility since 1949 (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2002); Yasheng Huang, Inflation and Investment Controls in China: The Political Economy of Central-Local Relations During the Reform Era (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); and John Fitzgerald, ed., Rethinking China's Provinces (New York: Routledge, 2002). The journal Provincial China has been published by the Institute for International Studies at the University of Technology, Sydney since 1997.
27. See Hans Hendricksche and Feng Chongyi, eds., The Political Economy of China's Provinces: Comparative and Competitive Leadership (London: Routledge, 1999); Peter T.Y. Cheung, Jae Ho Chung, and Zhimin Lin, eds., Provincial Strategies of Economic Reform in Post-Mao China (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1998); Linda Chelan Li, Centre and Provinces: China 1978-1993, Power as Non-Zero-Sum (London: Clarendon, 1998); Zhiyue Bo, Chinese Provincial Leaders: Economic Performance and Political Mobility since 1949 (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2002); Yasheng Huang, Inflation and Investment Controls in China: The Political Economy of Central-Local Relations During the Reform Era (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); and John Fitzgerald, ed., Rethinking China's Provinces (New York: Routledge, 2002). The journal Provincial China has been published by the Institute for International Studies at the University of Technology, Sydney since 1997.
28. See Hans Hendricksche and Feng Chongyi, eds., The Political Economy of China's Provinces: Comparative and Competitive Leadership (London: Routledge, 1999); Peter T.Y. Cheung, Jae Ho Chung, and Zhimin Lin, eds., Provincial Strategies of Economic Reform in Post-Mao China (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1998); Linda Chelan Li, Centre and Provinces: China 1978-1993, Power as Non-Zero-Sum (London: Clarendon, 1998); Zhiyue Bo, Chinese Provincial Leaders: Economic Performance and Political Mobility since 1949 (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2002); Yasheng Huang, Inflation and Investment Controls in China: The Political Economy of Central-Local Relations During the Reform Era (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); and John Fitzgerald, ed., Rethinking China's Provinces (New York: Routledge, 2002). The journal Provincial China has been published by the Institute for International Studies at the University of Technology, Sydney since 1997.
29. See Hans Hendricksche and Feng Chongyi, eds., The Political Economy of China's Provinces: Comparative and Competitive Leadership (London: Routledge, 1999); Peter T.Y. Cheung, Jae Ho Chung, and Zhimin Lin, eds., Provincial Strategies of Economic Reform in Post-Mao China (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1998); Linda Chelan Li, Centre and Provinces: China 1978-1993, Power as Non-Zero-Sum (London: Clarendon, 1998); Zhiyue Bo, Chinese Provincial Leaders: Economic Performance and Political Mobility since 1949 (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2002); Yasheng Huang, Inflation and Investment Controls in China: The Political Economy of Central-Local Relations During the Reform Era (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); and John Fitzgerald, ed., Rethinking China's Provinces (New York: Routledge, 2002). The journal Provincial China has been published by the Institute for International Studies at the University of Technology, Sydney since 1997.
30. Notwithstanding visions of "Chinese-style federalism," provincial representation on the Central Committee has statistically declined from the Cultural Revolution period through the reform era, though this trend seems to have been arrested at the 16th Party Congress. See Bo, Chinese Provincial Leaders.
31. Yan Sun, The Chinese Reassessment of Socialism, 1986-1992 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995).
32. Feng Chen, Economic Transition and Political Legitimacy in Post-Mao China: Ideology and Reform (Albany, N.Y.: University of New York Press, 1995), 209.
33. For a recent contribution more alert to this tendency, see Kalpana Misra, From Post-Maoism to Post-Marxism (New York: Routledge, 1998).
34. See, for example, Thomas Luckman, The Invisible Religion: The Problem of Religion in Modern Society (New York: Macmillan, 1967); and Steve Bruce, ed., Religion and Modernization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).
35. See, for example, Thomas Luckman, The Invisible Religion: The Problem of Religion in Modern Society (New York: Macmillan, 1967); and Steve Bruce, ed., Religion and Modernization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).
36. See, for example, the articles by Kam Louie, Godwin C. Chu, and Roger T. Ames in Shiping Hua, ed., Chinese Political Culture, 1989-2000 (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2001).
37. Lucian Pye makes a valiant (and quite insightful) attempt in "On Chinese Pragmatism in the 1980s," The China Quarterly, no. 106 (June 1986): 207-34.
38. Thus both Lucian Pye's The Spirit of Chinese Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1968) and Richard Solomon's magnum opus, Mao's Revolution and Chinese Political Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), focused largely on the Cultural Revolution. The last set of books to define culture in this way focused on the 1989 demonstrations. Particularly noteworthy is the anthology by Jeffrey Wasserstrom and Elizabeth Perry, eds., Popular Protest and Political Culture in Modern China (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1992), which coins the concept of "political theater."
39. Thus both Lucian Pye's The Spirit of Chinese Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1968) and Richard Solomon's magnum opus, Mao's Revolution and Chinese Political Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), focused largely on the Cultural Revolution. The last set of books to define culture in this way focused on the 1989 demonstrations. Particularly noteworthy is the anthology by Jeffrey Wasserstrom and Elizabeth Perry, eds., Popular Protest and Political Culture in Modern China (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1992), which coins the concept of "political theater."
40. Thus both Lucian Pye's The Spirit of Chinese Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1968) and Richard Solomon's magnum opus, Mao's Revolution and Chinese Political Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), focused largely on the Cultural Revolution. The last set of books to define culture in this way focused on the 1989 demonstrations. Particularly noteworthy is the anthology by Jeffrey Wasserstrom and Elizabeth Perry, eds., Popular Protest and Political Culture in Modern China (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1992), which coins the concept of "political theater."
41. Fewsmith, China Since Tiananmen.
42. See David E. Apter and Tony Saich, Revolutionary Discourse in Mao's Republic (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994); Frank Dikotter, The Discourse of Race in Modern China (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1992); and Michael J. Sullivan, "The Impact of Western Political Thought on Chinese Political Discourse on Transitions from Leninism, 1986-1992," World Affairs 137, no. 2 (Fall 1994): 79-92. See also Neil Renwick and Qing Cao, "China's Political Discourse towards the 21st Century: Victimhood, Identity, and Political Power," East Asia 17, no. 14 (Winter 1999): 111 ff.
43. See David E. Apter and Tony Saich, Revolutionary Discourse in Mao's Republic (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994); Frank Dikotter, The Discourse of Race in Modern China (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1992); and Michael J. Sullivan, "The Impact of Western Political Thought on Chinese Political Discourse on Transitions from Leninism, 1986-1992," World Affairs 137, no. 2 (Fall 1994): 79-92. See also Neil Renwick and Qing Cao, "China's Political Discourse towards the 21st Century: Victimhood, Identity, and Political Power," East Asia 17, no. 14 (Winter 1999): 111 ff.
44. See David E. Apter and Tony Saich, Revolutionary Discourse in Mao's Republic (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994); Frank Dikotter, The Discourse of Race in Modern China (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1992); and Michael J. Sullivan, "The Impact of Western Political Thought on Chinese Political Discourse on Transitions from Leninism, 1986-1992," World Affairs 137, no. 2 (Fall 1994): 79-92. See also Neil Renwick and Qing Cao, "China's Political Discourse towards the 21st Century: Victimhood, Identity, and Political Power," East Asia 17, no. 14 (Winter 1999): 111 ff.
45. See David E. Apter and Tony Saich, Revolutionary Discourse in Mao's Republic (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994); Frank Dikotter, The Discourse of Race in Modern China (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1992); and Michael J. Sullivan, "The Impact of Western Political Thought on Chinese Political Discourse on Transitions from Leninism, 1986-1992," World Affairs 137, no. 2 (Fall 1994): 79-92. See also Neil Renwick and Qing Cao, "China's Political Discourse towards the 21st Century: Victimhood, Identity, and Political Power," East Asia 17, no. 14 (Winter 1999): 111 ff.
46. Murray Scot Tanner, "Ideological Struggle over Police Reform, 1988-1993," in Transition from Communism in China: Institutional and Comparative Analyses, ed. Edwin A. Winkler (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1999), 111-28; and Murray Scot Tanner, "State Coercion and the Balance of Awe: The 1983-1986 'Stern Blows' Anti-Crime Campaign," The China Journal, no. 44 (July 2000): 93-125.
47. Murray Scot Tanner, "Ideological Struggle over Police Reform, 1988-1993," in Transition from Communism in China: Institutional and Comparative Analyses, ed. Edwin A. Winkler (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1999), 111-28; and Murray Scot Tanner, "State Coercion and the Balance of Awe: The 1983-1986 'Stern Blows' Anti-Crime Campaign," The China Journal, no. 44 (July 2000): 93-125.
48. David Shambaugh, Modernizing China's Military: Progress, Problems, and Prospects (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003).
49. See You Ji, The Armed Forces of China (London: I.B. Tauris, 1999).
50. See James C. Mulvenon, Soldiers of Fortune: The Rise and Fall of the Chinese Military-Business Complex, 1978-1998 (Armonk, N.Y.: ME. Sharpe, 2001). See also Solomon Carmel, China and the People's Liberation Army: Great Power or Struggling Developing State? (New York: Palgrave/Macmillan, 2000). We concur that the proportion of the central government's budget spent on the military as a whole over the 1990s has been rising by most estimates. Yet the economic position of police and soldiers themselves has stagnated or fallen over the same period.
51. See James C. Mulvenon, Soldiers of Fortune: The Rise and Fall of the Chinese Military- Business Complex, 1978-1998 (Armonk, N.Y.: ME. Sharpe, 2001). See also Solomon Carmel, China and the People's Liberation Army: Great Power or Struggling Developing State? (New York: Palgrave/Macmillan, 2000). We concur that the proportion of the central government's budget spent on the military as a whole over the 1990s has been rising by most estimates. Yet the economic position of police and soldiers themselves has stagnated or fallen over the same period.
52. "Workers" and "working class" are meant here to refer primarily to the socialist proletariat as conceptualized by the CCP prior to the late 1980s - in other words, workers in state-owned and urban collective firms.
53. These two terms are not entirely satisfactory, nor is their usage by most scholars in the field. The concept of "rights consciousness" is certainly much less restrictive than that of "legal consciousness," and most would likely agree that "rights consciousness" could easily exist in the absence of any rule of law. "Legal consciousness," on the other hand, seems to imply a widespread knowledge of the law, accessibility of courts or other legal fora, and a shared belief in the efficacy and fairness of the legal system. These conditions have not been demonstrated to exist in the case of Chinese workers, and the indiscriminate use of the concepts of "rights consciousness" and "legal consciousness" by Western scholars only obfuscates the empirical findings of their research.
54. Marc J. Blecher, "Hegemony and Workers' Politics in China," The China Quarterly, no. 170 (June 2002): 283-303.
55. Blecher does not use the precise term of "rights consciousness," but his conception of hegemony seems to amount to the suppression of rights consciousness for workers.
56. Ching Kwan Lee, "The 'Revenge of History': Collective Memories and Labor Protests in Northeastern China," Ethnography 1, no. 2 (December 2000): 217-37.
57. See Mary Gallagher, "Grafted Capitalism: Ownership Change and Labor Relations in Chinese Firms" (Paper presented at the 2001 Annual Meeting of the Association for Asian Studies, Chicago, March 22-25, 2001), as well as Mary E. Gallagher, "Contagious Capitalism: Globalization and the Politics of Labor in China" (Ph.D. dissertation in Political Science, Princeton University, 2001).
58. See Mary Gallagher, "Grafted Capitalism: Ownership Change and Labor Relations in Chinese Firms" (Paper presented at the 2001 Annual Meeting of the Association for Asian Studies, Chicago, March 22-25, 2001), as well as Mary E. Gallagher, "Contagious Capitalism: Globalization and the Politics of Labor in China" (Ph.D. dissertation in Political Science, Princeton University, 2001).
59. See Feng Chen, "Subsistence Crises, Managerial Corruption, and Labour Protests in China," The China Journal, no. 44 (July 2000): 41-63; and William Hurst and Kevin J. O'Brien, "China's Contentious Pensioners," The China Quarterly, no. 170 (June 2002): 345-60.
60. See Feng Chen, "Subsistence Crises, Managerial Corruption, and Labour Protests in China," The China Journal, no. 44 (July 2000): 41-63; and William Hurst and Kevin J. O'Brien, "China's Contentious Pensioners," The China Quarterly, no. 170 (June 2002): 345-60.
61. See, for example, Dorothy J. Solinger: "Labour Market Reform and the Plight of the Laidoff Proletariat," The China Quarterly, no. 170 (June 2002): 304-26; "Why We Cannot Count the 'Unemployed'," ibid., no. 167 (September 2001): 671-88; and "The View from Wuhan: China's Uncountable Unemployed," China Economic Quarterly 6, no. 4 (2002): 34-39.
62. See, for example, Dorothy J. Solinger: "Labour Market Reform and the Plight of the Laidoff Proletariat," The China Quarterly, no. 170 (June 2002): 304-26; "Why We Cannot Count the 'Unemployed'," ibid., no. 167 (September 2001): 671-88; and "The View from Wuhan: China's Uncountable Unemployed," China Economic Quarterly 6, no. 4 (2002): 34-39.
63. See, for example, Dorothy J. Solinger: "Labour Market Reform and the Plight of the Laidoff Proletariat," The China Quarterly, no. 170 (June 2002): 304-26; "Why We Cannot Count the 'Unemployed'," ibid., no. 167 (September 2001): 671-88; and "The View from Wuhan: China's Uncountable Unemployed," China Economic Quarterly 6, no. 4 (2002): 34-39.
64. Thomas Bernstein and Xiaobo Lu, Taxation without Representation in Rural China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
65. For a sampling of the rich literature on village elections in China, see: Melanie Manion, "Chinese Democratization in Perspective: Electorates and Selectorates at the Township Level," The China Quarterly, no. 163 (September 2000): 764-82; Melanie Manion, "The Electoral Connection in the Chinese Countryside," American Political Science Review 90, no. 4 (December 1996): 736-48; Lianjiang Li and Kevin J. O'Brien, "The Struggle over Village Elections," in The Paradox of China's, Post-Mao Reforms, ed. Merle Goldman and Roderick MacFarquhar (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), 129-44; Kevin J. O'Brien and Lianjiang Li, "Accommodating 'Democracy' in a One-Party State: Introducing Village Elections in China," The China Quarterly, no. 162 (June 2000): 465-89; Jean C. Oi and Scott Rozelle, "Elections and Power: The Locus of Decision-Making in Chinese Villages," ibid., 513-39; and Anne F. Thurston, "Rural Rule, Village Elections: Experiments in Governance," China Rights Forum, Summer-Fall 2000, 4-11.
66. For a sampling of the rich literature on village elections in China, see: Melanie Manion, "Chinese Democratization in Perspective: Electorates and Selectorates at the Township Level," The China Quarterly, no. 163 (September 2000): 764-82; Melanie Manion, "The Electoral Connection in the Chinese Countryside," American Political Science Review 90, no. 4 (December 1996): 736-48; Lianjiang Li and Kevin J. O'Brien, "The Struggle over Village Elections," in The Paradox of China's, Post-Mao Reforms, ed. Merle Goldman and Roderick MacFarquhar (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), 129-44; Kevin J. O'Brien and Lianjiang Li, "Accommodating 'Democracy' in a One-Party State: Introducing Village Elections in China," The China Quarterly, no. 162 (June 2000): 465-89; Jean C. Oi and Scott Rozelle, "Elections and Power: The Locus of Decision-Making in Chinese Villages," ibid., 513-39; and Anne F. Thurston, "Rural Rule, Village Elections: Experiments in Governance," China Rights Forum, Summer-Fall 2000, 4-11.
67. For a sampling of the rich literature on village elections in China, see: Melanie Manion, "Chinese Democratization in Perspective: Electorates and Selectorates at the Township Level," The China Quarterly, no. 163 (September 2000): 764-82; Melanie Manion, "The Electoral Connection in the Chinese Countryside," American Political Science Review 90, no. 4 (December 1996): 736-48; Lianjiang Li and Kevin J. O'Brien, "The Struggle over Village Elections," in The Paradox of China's, Post-Mao Reforms, ed. Merle Goldman and Roderick MacFarquhar (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), 129-44; Kevin J. O'Brien and Lianjiang Li, "Accommodating 'Democracy' in a One-Party State: Introducing Village Elections in China," The China Quarterly, no. 162 (June 2000): 465-89; Jean C. Oi and Scott Rozelle, "Elections and Power: The Locus of Decision-Making in Chinese Villages," ibid., 513-39; and Anne F. Thurston, "Rural Rule, Village Elections: Experiments in Governance," China Rights Forum, Summer-Fall 2000, 4-11.
68. For a sampling of the rich literature on village elections in China, see: Melanie Manion, "Chinese Democratization in Perspective: Electorates and Selectorates at the Township Level," The China Quarterly, no. 163 (September 2000): 764-82; Melanie Manion, "The Electoral Connection in the Chinese Countryside," American Political Science Review 90, no. 4 (December 1996): 736-48; Lianjiang Li and Kevin J. O'Brien, "The Struggle over Village Elections," in The Paradox of China's, Post-Mao Reforms, ed. Merle Goldman and Roderick MacFarquhar (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), 129-44; Kevin J. O'Brien and Lianjiang Li, "Accommodating 'Democracy' in a One-Party State: Introducing Village Elections in China," The China Quarterly, no. 162 (June 2000): 465-89; Jean C. Oi and Scott Rozelle, "Elections and Power: The Locus of Decision-Making in Chinese Villages," ibid., 513-39; and Anne F. Thurston, "Rural Rule, Village Elections: Experiments in Governance," China Rights Forum, Summer-Fall 2000, 4-11.
69. For a sampling of the rich literature on village elections in China, see: Melanie Manion, "Chinese Democratization in Perspective: Electorates and Selectorates at the Township Level," The China Quarterly, no. 163 (September 2000): 764-82; Melanie Manion, "The Electoral Connection in the Chinese Countryside," American Political Science Review 90, no. 4 (December 1996): 736-48; Lianjiang Li and Kevin J. O'Brien, "The Struggle over Village Elections," in The Paradox of China's, Post-Mao Reforms, ed. Merle Goldman and Roderick MacFarquhar (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), 129-44; Kevin J. O'Brien and Lianjiang Li, "Accommodating 'Democracy' in a One-Party State: Introducing Village Elections in China," The China Quarterly, no. 162 (June 2000): 465-89; Jean C. Oi and Scott Rozelle, "Elections and Power: The Locus of Decision-Making in Chinese Villages," ibid., 513-39; and Anne F. Thurston, "Rural Rule, Village Elections: Experiments in Governance," China Rights Forum, Summer-Fall 2000, 4-11.
70. For a sampling of the rich literature on village elections in China, see: Melanie Manion, "Chinese Democratization in Perspective: Electorates and Selectorates at the Township Level," The China Quarterly, no. 163 (September 2000): 764-82; Melanie Manion, "The Electoral Connection in the Chinese Countryside," American Political Science Review 90, no. 4 (December 1996): 736-48; Lianjiang Li and Kevin J. O'Brien, "The Struggle over Village Elections," in The Paradox of China's, Post-Mao Reforms, ed. Merle Goldman and Roderick MacFarquhar (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), 129-44; Kevin J. O'Brien and Lianjiang Li, "Accommodating 'Democracy' in a One-Party State: Introducing Village Elections in China," The China Quarterly, no. 162 (June 2000): 465-89; Jean C. Oi and Scott Rozelle, "Elections and Power: The Locus of Decision-Making in Chinese Villages," ibid., 513-39; and Anne F. Thurston, "Rural Rule, Village Elections: Experiments in Governance," China Rights Forum, Summer-Fall 2000, 4-11.
71. A nice summary of this literature can be found in Kevin J. O'Brien, "Collective Action in the Chinese Countryside," The China Journal, no. 48 (July 2002): 139-54. See also: Jing Jun, "Environmental Protests in Rural China," in Chinese Society: Change, Conflict, and Resistance, ed. Elizabeth J. Perry and Mark Selden (London/New York: Routledge, 2000), 143-60; Lianjiang Li and Kevin J. O'Brien, "Villagers and Popular Resistance in Contemporary China," Modern China 22, no. 1 (January 1996): 28-61; Kevin J. O'Brien, "Rightful Resistance," World Politics 49, no. 1 (October 1996): 31-55; Elizabeth J. Perry, "Rural Violence in Socialist China," The China Quarterly, no. 103 (September 1985): 414-40; Jonathan Unger, "Power, Patronage, and Protest in Rural China," in China Briefing 2000: The Continuing Transformation, ed. Tyrene White (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2000), 71-94; and Xueguang Zhou, "Unorganized Interests and Collective Action in Communist China," American Sociological Review 58, no. 1 (February 1993): 54-73.
72. A nice summary of this literature can be found in Kevin J. O'Brien, "Collective Action in the Chinese Countryside," The China Journal, no. 48 (July 2002): 139-54. See also: Jing Jun, "Environmental Protests in Rural China," in Chinese Society: Change, Conflict, and Resistance, ed. Elizabeth J. Perry and Mark Selden (London/New York: Routledge, 2000), 143-60; Lianjiang Li and Kevin J. O'Brien, "Villagers and Popular Resistance in Contemporary China," Modern China 22, no. 1 (January 1996): 28-61; Kevin J. O'Brien, "Rightful Resistance," World Politics 49, no. 1 (October 1996): 31-55; Elizabeth J. Perry, "Rural Violence in Socialist China," The China Quarterly, no. 103 (September 1985): 414-40; Jonathan Unger, "Power, Patronage, and Protest in Rural China," in China Briefing 2000: The Continuing Transformation, ed. Tyrene White (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2000), 71-94; and Xueguang Zhou, "Unorganized Interests and Collective Action in Communist China," American Sociological Review 58, no. 1 (February 1993): 54-73.
73. A nice summary of this literature can be found in Kevin J. O'Brien, "Collective Action in the Chinese Countryside," The China Journal, no. 48 (July 2002): 139-54. See also: Jing Jun, "Environmental Protests in Rural China," in Chinese Society: Change, Conflict, and Resistance, ed. Elizabeth J. Perry and Mark Selden (London/New York: Routledge, 2000), 143-60; Lianjiang Li and Kevin J. O'Brien, "Villagers and Popular Resistance in Contemporary China," Modern China 22, no. 1 (January 1996): 28-61; Kevin J. O'Brien, "Rightful Resistance," World Politics 49, no. 1 (October 1996): 31-55; Elizabeth J. Perry, "Rural Violence in Socialist China," The China Quarterly, no. 103 (September 1985): 414-40; Jonathan Unger, "Power, Patronage, and Protest in Rural China," in China Briefing 2000: The Continuing Transformation, ed. Tyrene White (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2000), 71-94; and Xueguang Zhou, "Unorganized Interests and Collective Action in Communist China," American Sociological Review 58, no. 1 (February 1993): 54-73.
74. A nice summary of this literature can be found in Kevin J. O'Brien, "Collective Action in the Chinese Countryside," The China Journal, no. 48 (July 2002): 139-54. See also: Jing Jun, "Environmental Protests in Rural China," in Chinese Society: Change, Conflict, and Resistance, ed. Elizabeth J. Perry and Mark Selden (London/New York: Routledge, 2000), 143-60; Lianjiang Li and Kevin J. O'Brien, "Villagers and Popular Resistance in Contemporary China," Modern China 22, no. 1 (January 1996): 28-61; Kevin J. O'Brien, "Rightful Resistance," World Politics 49, no. 1 (October 1996): 31-55; Elizabeth J. Perry, "Rural Violence in Socialist China," The China Quarterly, no. 103 (September 1985): 414-40; Jonathan Unger, "Power, Patronage, and Protest in Rural China," in China Briefing 2000: The Continuing Transformation, ed. Tyrene White (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2000), 71-94; and Xueguang Zhou, "Unorganized Interests and Collective Action in Communist China," American Sociological Review 58, no. 1 (February 1993): 54-73.
75. A nice summary of this literature can be found in Kevin J. O'Brien, "Collective Action in the Chinese Countryside," The China Journal, no. 48 (July 2002): 139-54. See also: Jing Jun, "Environmental Protests in Rural China," in Chinese Society: Change, Conflict, and Resistance, ed. Elizabeth J. Perry and Mark Selden (London/New York: Routledge, 2000), 143-60; Lianjiang Li and Kevin J. O'Brien, "Villagers and Popular Resistance in Contemporary China," Modern China 22, no. 1 (January 1996): 28-61; Kevin J. O'Brien, "Rightful Resistance," World Politics 49, no. 1 (October 1996): 31-55; Elizabeth J. Perry, "Rural Violence in Socialist China," The China Quarterly, no. 103 (September 1985): 414-40; Jonathan Unger, "Power, Patronage, and Protest in Rural China," in China Briefing 2000: The Continuing Transformation, ed. Tyrene White (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2000), 71-94; and Xueguang Zhou, "Unorganized Interests and Collective Action in Communist China," American Sociological Review 58, no. 1 (February 1993): 54-73.
76. A nice summary of this literature can be found in Kevin J. O'Brien, "Collective Action in the Chinese Countryside," The China Journal, no. 48 (July 2002): 139-54. See also: Jing Jun, "Environmental Protests in Rural China," in Chinese Society: Change, Conflict, and Resistance, ed. Elizabeth J. Perry and Mark Selden (London/New York: Routledge, 2000), 143-60; Lianjiang Li and Kevin J. O'Brien, "Villagers and Popular Resistance in Contemporary China," Modern China 22, no. 1 (January 1996): 28-61; Kevin J. O'Brien, "Rightful Resistance," World Politics 49, no. 1 (October 1996): 31-55; Elizabeth J. Perry, "Rural Violence in Socialist China," The China Quarterly, no. 103 (September 1985): 414-40; Jonathan Unger, "Power, Patronage, and Protest in Rural China," in China Briefing 2000: The Continuing Transformation, ed. Tyrene White (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2000), 71-94; and Xueguang Zhou, "Unorganized Interests and Collective Action in Communist China," American Sociological Review 58, no. 1 (February 1993): 54-73.
77. A nice summary of this literature can be found in Kevin J. O'Brien, "Collective Action in the Chinese Countryside," The China Journal, no. 48 (July 2002): 139-54. See also: Jing Jun, "Environmental Protests in Rural China," in Chinese Society: Change, Conflict, and Resistance, ed. Elizabeth J. Perry and Mark Selden (London/New York: Routledge, 2000), 143-60; Lianjiang Li and Kevin J. O'Brien, "Villagers and Popular Resistance in Contemporary China," Modern China 22, no. 1 (January 1996): 28-61; Kevin J. O'Brien, "Rightful Resistance," World Politics 49, no. 1 (October 1996): 31-55; Elizabeth J. Perry, "Rural Violence in Socialist China," The China Quarterly, no. 103 (September 1985): 414-40; Jonathan Unger, "Power, Patronage, and Protest in Rural China," in China Briefing 2000: The Continuing Transformation, ed. Tyrene White (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2000), 71-94; and Xueguang Zhou, "Unorganized Interests and Collective Action in Communist China," American Sociological Review 58, no. 1 (February 1993): 54-73.
78. Dorothy J. Solinger, Contesting Citizenship in Urban China: Peasant Migrants, the State, and the Logic of the Market (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999). See also Hein Mallee, Reform of the Hukou System (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1996), and H. Mallee and Frank Pieke, Internal and International Migration: Chinese Perspectives (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, 1999).
79. Dorothy J. Solinger, Contesting Citizenship in Urban China: Peasant Migrants, the State, and the Logic of the Market (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999). See also Hein Mallee, Reform of the Hukou System (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1996), and H. Mallee and Frank Pieke, Internal and International Migration: Chinese Perspectives (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, 1999).
80. Dorothy J. Solinger, Contesting Citizenship in Urban China: Peasant Migrants, the State, and the Logic of the Market (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999). See also Hein Mallee, Reform of the Hukou System (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1996), and H. Mallee and Frank Pieke, Internal and International Migration: Chinese Perspectives (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, 1999).
81. This is not to say that every rural resident is now better off than before reform, but only that significant gains have been made in absolute terms by farmers and villagers as a group since 1978.
82. See Li Zhang, Strangers in the City: Reconfigurations of Space, Power, and Social Networks within China's Floating Population (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2001).
83. See Lowell Dittmer and Xiaobo Lu, "Organizational Involution and Socioeconomic Reform in China: An Analysis of the Work Unit," in Informal Politics in East Asia, ed. Lowell Dittmer, Haruhiro Fukui, and Peter N.S. Lee (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 185-214; Xiaobo Lu, Cadres and Corruption: The Organizational Involution of the Chinese Communist Party (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2000); and Xiaobo Lu, "Booty Socialism, Bureau-preneures, and the State in Transition: Organizational Corruption in China," Comparative Politics 32, no. 3 (April 2000): 273-94.
84. See Lowell Dittmer and Xiaobo Lu, "Organizational Involution and Socioeconomic Reform in China: An Analysis of the Work Unit," in Informal Politics in East Asia, ed. Lowell Dittmer, Haruhiro Fukui, and Peter N.S. Lee (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 185-214; Xiaobo Lu, Cadres and Corruption: The Organizational Involution of the Chinese Communist Party (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2000); and Xiaobo Lu, "Booty Socialism, Bureau-preneures, and the State in Transition: Organizational Corruption in China," Comparative Politics 32, no. 3 (April 2000): 273-94.
85. See Lowell Dittmer and Xiaobo Lu, "Organizational Involution and Socioeconomic Reform in China: An Analysis of the Work Unit," in Informal Politics in East Asia, ed. Lowell Dittmer, Haruhiro Fukui, and Peter N.S. Lee (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 185-214; Xiaobo Lu, Cadres and Corruption: The Organizational Involution of the Chinese Communist Party (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2000); and Xiaobo Lu, "Booty Socialism, Bureau-preneures, and the State in Transition: Organizational Corruption in China," Comparative Politics 32, no. 3 (April 2000): 273-94.
86. Jean C. Oi, Rural China Takes Off: Institutional Foundations of Economic Reform (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999). See also Jean C. Oi, "Fiscal Reform and the Economic Foundations of Local State Corporatism in China," World Politics 45, no. 1 (October 1992): 99-126.
87. Jean C. Oi, Rural China Takes Off: Institutional Foundations of Economic Reform (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999). See also Jean C. Oi, "Fiscal Reform and the Economic Foundations of Local State Corporatism in China," World Politics 45, no. 1 (October 1992): 99-126.
88. See Geremie R. Barmé, In the Red (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999), as well as Geremie R. Barmé, Shades of Mao (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1996).
89. See Geremie R. Barmé, In the Red (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999), as well as Geremie R. Barmé, Shades of Mao (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1996).
90. See Ethan Michelson: Lawyer Bao: Law and Morality in Contemporary China (Berkeley: University of California Press, forthcoming); "Tradition in the Shadow of Modern Legal Practice: Continuity and Change in the Delivery of Justice in China (I)," Chinese Law and Government 31, no. 5 (1998); and "Tradition in the Shadow of Modern Legal Practice: Continuity and Change in the Delivery of Justice in China (II)," ibid., no. 6 (1998).
91. See Ethan Michelson: Lawyer Bao: Law and Morality in Contemporary China (Berkeley: University of California Press, forthcoming); "Tradition in the Shadow of Modern Legal Practice: Continuity and Change in the Delivery of Justice in China (I)," Chinese Law and Government 31, no. 5 (1998); and "Tradition in the Shadow of Modern Legal Practice: Continuity and Change in the Delivery of Justice in China (II)," ibid., no. 6 (1998).
92. See Ethan Michelson: Lawyer Bao: Law and Morality in Contemporary China (Berkeley: University of California Press, forthcoming); "Tradition in the Shadow of Modern Legal Practice: Continuity and Change in the Delivery of Justice in China (I)," Chinese Law and Government 31, no. 5 (1998); and "Tradition in the Shadow of Modern Legal Practice: Continuity and Change in the Delivery of Justice in China (II)," ibid., no. 6 (1998).
93. Thomas B. Gold, "China's Private Entrepreneurs: Small-Scale Private Business Prospers under Socialism," China Business Review 12, no. 6 (November-December 1985): 46-50; Thomas B. Gold, "Guerrilla Interviewing among the Getihu," in Unofficial China: Popular Culture and Thought in the People's Republic, ed. Perry Link, Richard Madsen, and Paul G. Pickowicz (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1989), 175-92; Thomas B. Gold, "Urban Private Business in China," Studies in Comparative Communism 22, no. 2-3 (Summer 1989): 187-202; Thomas B. Gold, "Urban Private Business and Social Change," in Chinese Society on the Eve of Tiananmen: The Impact of Reform, ed. Deborah Davis and Ezra F. Vogel (Cambridge, Mass.: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1990), 157-78; Thomas B. Gold, "Urban Private Business and China's Reforms," in Reform and Reaction in Post-Mao China: The Road to Tiananmen, ed. Richard Baum (London: Routledge, 1991), 84-103; and Victoria E. Bonnel and Thomas B. Gold, eds., The New Entrepreneurs of Europe and Asia: Patterns of Business Development in Russia, Eastern Europe, and China (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2001).
94. Thomas B. Gold, "China's Private Entrepreneurs: Small-Scale Private Business Prospers under Socialism," China Business Review 12, no. 6 (November-December 1985): 46-50; Thomas B. Gold, "Guerrilla Interviewing among the Getihu," in Unofficial China: Popular Culture and Thought in the People's Republic, ed. Perry Link, Richard Madsen, and Paul G. Pickowicz (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1989), 175-92; Thomas B. Gold, "Urban Private Business in China," Studies in Comparative Communism 22, no. 2-3 (Summer 1989): 187-202; Thomas B. Gold, "Urban Private Business and Social Change," in Chinese Society on the Eve of Tiananmen: The Impact of Reform, ed. Deborah Davis and Ezra F. Vogel (Cambridge, Mass.: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1990), 157-78; Thomas B. Gold, "Urban Private Business and China's Reforms," in Reform and Reaction in Post-Mao China: The Road to Tiananmen, ed. Richard Baum (London: Routledge, 1991), 84-103; and Victoria E. Bonnel and Thomas B. Gold, eds., The New Entrepreneurs of Europe and Asia: Patterns of Business Development in Russia, Eastern Europe, and China (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2001).
95. Thomas B. Gold, "China's Private Entrepreneurs: Small-Scale Private Business Prospers under Socialism," China Business Review 12, no. 6 (November-December 1985): 46-50; Thomas B. Gold, "Guerrilla Interviewing among the Getihu," in Unofficial China: Popular Culture and Thought in the People's Republic, ed. Perry Link, Richard Madsen, and Paul G. Pickowicz (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1989), 175-92; Thomas B. Gold, "Urban Private Business in China," Studies in Comparative Communism 22, no. 2-3 (Summer 1989): 187-202; Thomas B. Gold, "Urban Private Business and Social Change," in Chinese Society on the Eve of Tiananmen: The Impact of Reform, ed. Deborah Davis and Ezra F. Vogel (Cambridge, Mass.: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1990), 157-78; Thomas B. Gold, "Urban Private Business and China's Reforms," in Reform and Reaction in Post-Mao China: The Road to Tiananmen, ed. Richard Baum (London: Routledge, 1991), 84-103; and Victoria E. Bonnel and Thomas B. Gold, eds., The New Entrepreneurs of Europe and Asia: Patterns of Business Development in Russia, Eastern Europe, and China (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2001).
96. Thomas B. Gold, "China's Private Entrepreneurs: Small-Scale Private Business Prospers under Socialism," China Business Review 12, no. 6 (November-December 1985): 46-50; Thomas B. Gold, "Guerrilla Interviewing among the Getihu," in Unofficial China: Popular Culture and Thought in the People's Republic, ed. Perry Link, Richard Madsen, and Paul G. Pickowicz (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1989), 175-92; Thomas B. Gold, "Urban Private Business in China," Studies in Comparative Communism 22, no. 2-3 (Summer 1989): 187-202; Thomas B. Gold, "Urban Private Business and Social Change," in Chinese Society on the Eve of Tiananmen: The Impact of Reform, ed. Deborah Davis and Ezra F. Vogel (Cambridge, Mass.: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1990), 157-78; Thomas B. Gold, "Urban Private Business and China's Reforms," in Reform and Reaction in Post-Mao China: The Road to Tiananmen, ed. Richard Baum (London: Routledge, 1991), 84-103; and Victoria E. Bonnel and Thomas B. Gold, eds., The New Entrepreneurs of Europe and Asia: Patterns of Business Development in Russia, Eastern Europe, and China (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2001).
97. Thomas B. Gold, "China's Private Entrepreneurs: Small-Scale Private Business Prospers under Socialism," China Business Review 12, no. 6 (November-December 1985): 46-50; Thomas B. Gold, "Guerrilla Interviewing among the Getihu," in Unofficial China: Popular Culture and Thought in the People's Republic, ed. Perry Link, Richard Madsen, and Paul G. Pickowicz (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1989), 175-92; Thomas B. Gold, "Urban Private Business in China," Studies in Comparative Communism 22, no. 2-3 (Summer 1989): 187-202; Thomas B. Gold, "Urban Private Business and Social Change," in Chinese Society on the Eve of Tiananmen: The Impact of Reform, ed. Deborah Davis and Ezra F. Vogel (Cambridge, Mass.: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1990), 157-78; Thomas B. Gold, "Urban Private Business and China's Reforms," in Reform and Reaction in Post-Mao China: The Road to Tiananmen, ed. Richard Baum (London: Routledge, 1991), 84-103; and Victoria E. Bonnel and Thomas B. Gold, eds., The New Entrepreneurs of Europe and Asia: Patterns of Business Development in Russia, Eastern Europe, and China (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2001).
98. Thomas B. Gold, "China's Private Entrepreneurs: Small-Scale Private Business Prospers under Socialism," China Business Review 12, no. 6 (November-December 1985): 46-50; Thomas B. Gold, "Guerrilla Interviewing among the Getihu," in Unofficial China: Popular Culture and Thought in the People's Republic, ed. Perry Link, Richard Madsen, and Paul G. Pickowicz (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1989), 175-92; Thomas B. Gold, "Urban Private Business in China," Studies in Comparative Communism 22, no. 2-3 (Summer 1989): 187-202; Thomas B. Gold, "Urban Private Business and Social Change," in Chinese Society on the Eve of Tiananmen: The Impact of Reform, ed. Deborah Davis and Ezra F. Vogel (Cambridge, Mass.: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1990), 157-78; Thomas B. Gold, "Urban Private Business and China's Reforms," in Reform and Reaction in Post-Mao China: The Road to Tiananmen, ed. Richard Baum (London: Routledge, 1991), 84-103; and Victoria E. Bonnel and Thomas B. Gold, eds., The New Entrepreneurs of Europe and Asia: Patterns of Business Development in Russia, Eastern Europe, and China (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2001).
99. David L. Wank, Commodifying Communism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999); and David L. Wank, "The Institutional Process of Market Clientelism: Guanxi and Private Business in a South China City," The China Quarterly, no. 147 (September 1996): 820-38.
100. David L. Wank, Commodifying Communism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999); and David L. Wank, "The Institutional Process of Market Clientelism: Guanxi and Private Business in a South China City," The China Quarterly, no. 147 (September 1996): 820-38.
101. Kenneth Foster, "Embedded within State Agencies: Business Associations in Yantai," The China Journal, no. 47 (January 2002): 41-66.
102. See also Christopher Nevitt, "Private Business Associations in China: Evidence of Civil Society or Local State Power," ibid., no. 36 (July 1996): 25-43.
103. For an articulate dissenting view, see Bruce Dickson, Red Capitalists in China: The Party, Private Entrepreneurs, and Prospects for Political Change (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
104. Edward S. Steinfeld, Forging Reform in China: The Fate of State-Owned Industry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
105. See Gordon G. Chang, The Coming Collapse of China (New York: Random House, 2001), for the direst interpretation of these implications. For an in-depth critique of this book, see Special Book Review Section: "Gordon G. Chang's The Coming Collapse of China," Issues & Studies 38, no. 2 (June 2002): 235-63.
106. See Gordon G. Chang, The Coming Collapse of China (New York: Random House, 2001), for the direst interpretation of these implications. For an in-depth critique of this book, see Special Book Review Section: "Gordon G. Chang's The Coming Collapse of China," Issues & Studies 38, no. 2 (June 2002): 235-63.
107. Margaret M. Pearson, Joint Ventures in the People's Republic of China: The Control of Foreign Direct Investment under Socialism (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1991); and Margaret M. Pearson, "The Janus Face of Business Associations in China: Socialist Corporatism in Foreign Enterprises," The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, no. 31 (January 1994): 25-46.
108. Margaret M. Pearson, Joint Ventures in the People's Republic of China: The Control of Foreign Direct Investment under Socialism (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1991); and Margaret M. Pearson, "The Janus Face of Business Associations in China: Socialist Corporatism in Foreign Enterprises," The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, no. 31 (January 1994): 25-46.
109. Anita Chan, China's Workers Under Assault (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1999).
110. Yasheng Huang, Selling China: Foreign Direct Investment During the Reform Era (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
111. There have been many statistical overviews and some fine-grained micro-level descriptions. There has been, however, no clear exposition of precisely what the social and political stakes and relationships surrounding the growth of FIEs are. Nor has there been any explanation of what new trajectories China may be embarking on at this critical juncture as a result of its increasing dependence on FDI. One example of such a work on this latter topic from the study of a different part of the world (and a different era) is Peter Evans, Dependent Development: The Alliance of Multinational, State, and Local Capital in Brazil (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1979). We hope the China field will be able to undertake a similar study in the near future.
112. Notable exceptions in their attempts at integration include Andrew J. Nathan and Robert S. Ross, The Great Wall and the Empty Fortress (New York: W.W. Norton, 1997); Lu Ming, The Dynamics of Foreign Policy Decision-Making in China (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1997); and two carefully edited anthologies: David M. Lampton, The Making of Chinese Foreign and Security Policy in the Era of Reform, 1978-2000 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2001); and Samuel S. Kim, China and the World (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1984, 1989, 1994, and 1998 editions). Note: David Lampton's edited volume is the subject of the Book Review Roundtable in this special issue.
113. Notable exceptions in their attempts at integration include Andrew J. Nathan and Robert S. Ross, The Great Wall and the Empty Fortress (New York: W.W. Norton, 1997); Lu Ming, The Dynamics of Foreign Policy Decision-Making in China (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1997); and two carefully edited anthologies: David M. Lampton, The Making of Chinese Foreign and Security Policy in the Era of Reform, 1978-2000 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2001); and Samuel S. Kim, China and the World (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1984, 1989, 1994, and 1998 editions). Note: David Lampton's edited volume is the subject of the Book Review Roundtable in this special issue.
114. Notable exceptions in their attempts at integration include Andrew J. Nathan and Robert S. Ross, The Great Wall and the Empty Fortress (New York: W.W. Norton, 1997); Lu Ming, The Dynamics of Foreign Policy Decision-Making in China (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1997); and two carefully edited anthologies: David M. Lampton, The Making of Chinese Foreign and Security Policy in the Era of Reform, 1978-2000 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2001); and Samuel S. Kim, China and the World (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1984, 1989, 1994, and 1998 editions). Note: David Lampton's edited volume is the subject of the Book Review Roundtable in this special issue.
115. Notable exceptions in their attempts at integration include Andrew J. Nathan and Robert S. Ross, The Great Wall and the Empty Fortress (New York: W.W. Norton, 1997); Lu Ming, The Dynamics of Foreign Policy Decision-Making in China (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1997); and two carefully edited anthologies: David M. Lampton, The Making of Chinese Foreign and Security Policy in the Era of Reform, 1978-2000 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2001); and Samuel S. Kim, China and the World (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1984, 1989, 1994, and 1998 editions). Note: David Lampton's edited volume is the subject of the Book Review Roundtable in this special issue.
116. Lowell Dittmer and Samuel S. Kim, eds., China's Quest for National Identity (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1993).
117. Yong Deng, "Escaping the Periphery," in China's International Relations in the 21st Century: Dynamics of Paradigm Shifts, ed. Weixing Hu, Gerald Chan, and Daojiang Zha (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2000), 41-70.
118. See Alastair lain Johnston, Cultural Realism: Strategic Culture and Grand Strategy in Chinese History (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995). See also Xuezhi Guo's important book, The Ideal Chinese Political Leader: A Historical and Cultural Perspective (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2002), which compares the realist and the Confucian perspectives (but is not limited to foreign policy).
119. See Alastair lain Johnston, Cultural Realism: Strategic Culture and Grand Strategy in Chinese History (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995). See also Xuezhi Guo's important book, The Ideal Chinese Political Leader: A Historical and Cultural Perspective (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2002), which compares the realist and the Confucian perspectives (but is not limited to foreign policy).
120. Michael Swaine and Ashley Tellis, Interpreting China's Grand Strategy: Past, Present, and Future (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 2000).
121. Allen S. Whiting, "China's Use of Force, 1950-1996, and Taiwan," International Security 26, no. 2 (Fall 2001): 103-32.
122. See Yongnian Zheng, Discovering Chinese Nationalism in China: Modernization, Identity, and International Relations (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999); and Baogang He and Yingjie Guo, Nationalism, National Identity and Democratization in China (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2000).
123. See Yongnian Zheng, Discovering Chinese Nationalism in China: Modernization, Identity, and International Relations (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999); and Baogang He and Yingjie Guo, Nationalism, National Identity and Democratization in China (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2000).
124. See Yufan Hao and Guocang Huan, eds., China Views the World (New York: Pantheon, 1989); Allen S. Whiting, China Eyes Japan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); David Shambaugh, Beautiful Imperialist: China Perceives America, 1972-1990 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1991); and Daojiang Zhu, "Chinese Understanding of International Political Economy," in Hu, Chan, and Zha, China's International Relations in the 21st Century, 117-42.
125. See Yufan Hao and Guocang Huan, eds., China Views the World (New York: Pantheon, 1989); Allen S. Whiting, China Eyes Japan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); David Shambaugh, Beautiful Imperialist: China Perceives America, 1972-1990 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1991); and Daojiang Zhu, "Chinese Understanding of International Political Economy," in Hu, Chan, and Zha, China's International Relations in the 21st Century, 117-42.
126. See Yufan Hao and Guocang Huan, eds., China Views the World (New York: Pantheon, 1989); Allen S. Whiting, China Eyes Japan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); David Shambaugh, Beautiful Imperialist: China Perceives America, 1972-1990 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1991); and Daojiang Zhu, "Chinese Understanding of International Political Economy," in Hu, Chan, and Zha, China's International Relations in the 21st Century, 117-42.
127. See Yufan Hao and Guocang Huan, eds., China Views the World (New York: Pantheon, 1989); Allen S. Whiting, China Eyes Japan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); David Shambaugh, Beautiful Imperialist: China Perceives America, 1972-1990 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1991); and Daojiang Zhu, "Chinese Understanding of International Political Economy," in Hu, Chan, and Zha, China's International Relations in the 21st Century, 117-42.
128. That is, a field in which much available data go unanalyzed - as opposed to a field in which much analysis is undertaken in the absence of data.
129. See Steinfeld, Forging Reform in China; and Dorothy J. Solinger, "Clashes between Reform and Opening: Labor Market Reform in Three Cities," in Remaking the Chinese State: Strategies, Society, and Security, ed. Bruce Dickson and Chao Chien-min (London: Routledge, 2001), 103-31.
130. See Steinfeld, Forging Reform in China; and Dorothy J. Solinger, "Clashes between Reform and Opening: Labor Market Reform in Three Cities," in Remaking the Chinese State: Strategies, Society, and Security, ed. Bruce Dickson and Chao Chien-min (London: Routledge, 2001), 103-31.
131. Steinfeld's work is extremely thin on the ground in all three of the cases he examines, but particularly in the case of Ma'An Shan; moreover, he does not do a very good job of linking back to any larger issues other than the already somewhat confused property rights debate. Solinger's work, moreover, is still based primarily on a single-city case study of Wuhan, and the other cities are added mostly in order to better situate this primary case.
132. There are, of course, a few important exceptions to this claim. Much of the work of William L. Parish, Martin King Whyte, and a number of economists (such as Thomas G. Rawski) was largely quantitative, even before 1990. Emerson Niou, moreover, has been a pioneer in the application of game theory and other sophisticated mathematical models to Chinese foreign policy and, more recently, village electoral politics. That aside, much of the earlier quantitative work was primarily based on descriptive statistics and the use of either émigré interviews or official statistical data.
133. See Andrew J. Nathan and Tianjian Shi, "Cultural Requisites for Democracy in China: Findings from a Survey," Daedelus 122, no. 2 (July 1993): 95-123; Andrew J. Nathan and Tianjian Shi, "Left and Right with Chinese Characteristics: Issues and Alignments in Deng Xiaoping's China," World Politics 48, no. 4 (July 1996): 522-50; Tianjian Shi, Political Participation in Beijing (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997); Melanie Manion, Retirement of Revolutionaries in China: Public Policies, Social Norms, Private Interests (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993); and Dali L. Yang, Calamity and Reform in China: State, Rural Society, and Institutional Change since the Great Leap Famine (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1996).
134. See Andrew J. Nathan and Tianjian Shi, "Cultural Requisites for Democracy in China: Findings from a Survey," Daedelus 122, no. 2 (July 1993): 95-123; Andrew J. Nathan and Tianjian Shi, "Left and Right with Chinese Characteristics: Issues and Alignments in Deng Xiaoping's China," World Politics 48, no. 4 (July 1996): 522-50; Tianjian Shi, Political Participation in Beijing (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997); Melanie Manion, Retirement of Revolutionaries in China: Public Policies, Social Norms, Private Interests (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993); and Dali L. Yang, Calamity and Reform in China: State, Rural Society, and Institutional Change since the Great Leap Famine (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1996).
135. See Andrew J. Nathan and Tianjian Shi, "Cultural Requisites for Democracy in China: Findings from a Survey," Daedelus 122, no. 2 (July 1993): 95-123; Andrew J. Nathan and Tianjian Shi, "Left and Right with Chinese Characteristics: Issues and Alignments in Deng Xiaoping's China," World Politics 48, no. 4 (July 1996): 522-50; Tianjian Shi, Political Participation in Beijing (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997); Melanie Manion, Retirement of Revolutionaries in China: Public Policies, Social Norms, Private Interests (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993); and Dali L. Yang, Calamity and Reform in China: State, Rural Society, and Institutional Change since the Great Leap Famine (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1996).
136. See Andrew J. Nathan and Tianjian Shi, "Cultural Requisites for Democracy in China: Findings from a Survey," Daedelus 122, no. 2 (July 1993): 95-123; Andrew J. Nathan and Tianjian Shi, "Left and Right with Chinese Characteristics: Issues and Alignments in Deng Xiaoping's China," World Politics 48, no. 4 (July 1996): 522-50; Tianjian Shi, Political Participation in Beijing (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997); Melanie Manion, Retirement of Revolutionaries in China: Public Policies, Social Norms, Private Interests (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993); and Dali L. Yang, Calamity and Reform in China: State, Rural Society, and Institutional Change since the Great Leap Famine (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1996).
137. See Andrew J. Nathan and Tianjian Shi, "Cultural Requisites for Democracy in China: Findings from a Survey," Daedelus 122, no. 2 (July 1993): 95-123; Andrew J. Nathan and Tianjian Shi, "Left and Right with Chinese Characteristics: Issues and Alignments in Deng Xiaoping's China," World Politics 48, no. 4 (July 1996): 522-50; Tianjian Shi, Political Participation in Beijing (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997); Melanie Manion, Retirement of Revolutionaries in China: Public Policies, Social Norms, Private Interests (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993); and Dali L. Yang, Calamity and Reform in China: State, Rural Society, and Institutional Change since the Great Leap Famine (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1996).
138. See Tianjian Shi, "Cultural Values and Democracy in the People's Republic of China," The China Quarterly, no. 162 (June 2000): 540-59; Dali L. Yang, BeyondBeijing: Liberalization and the Regions in China (London: Routledge, 1997); Manion, "Chinese Democratization in Perspective," 764-82; Wenfang Tang and William L. Parish, Chinese Urban Life under Reform: The Changing Social Contract (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Pierre Landry, "Markets, Performance, and the Political Fate of Chinese Mayors" (Paper presented at the 2002 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Boston, August 29-September 1, 2002); as well as Pierre Landry "Controlling Decentralization: The Party and Local Elites in Post-Mao Jiangsu (China)" (Ph.D. dissertation in Political Science, University of Michigan, 2000).
139. See Tianjian Shi, "Cultural Values and Democracy in the People's Republic of China," The China Quarterly, no. 162 (June 2000): 540-59; Dali L. Yang, BeyondBeijing: Liberalization and the Regions in China (London: Routledge, 1997); Manion, "Chinese Democratization in Perspective," 764-82; Wenfang Tang and William L. Parish, Chinese Urban Life under Reform: The Changing Social Contract (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Pierre Landry, "Markets, Performance, and the Political Fate of Chinese Mayors" (Paper presented at the 2002 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Boston, August 29-September 1, 2002); as well as Pierre Landry "Controlling Decentralization: The Party and Local Elites in Post-Mao Jiangsu (China)" (Ph.D. dissertation in Political Science, University of Michigan, 2000).
140. See Tianjian Shi, "Cultural Values and Democracy in the People's Republic of China," The China Quarterly, no. 162 (June 2000): 540-59; Dali L. Yang, BeyondBeijing: Liberalization and the Regions in China (London: Routledge, 1997); Manion, "Chinese Democratization in Perspective," 764-82; Wenfang Tang and William L. Parish, Chinese Urban Life under Reform: The Changing Social Contract (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Pierre Landry, "Markets, Performance, and the Political Fate of Chinese Mayors" (Paper presented at the 2002 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Boston, August 29-September 1, 2002); as well as Pierre Landry "Controlling Decentralization: The Party and Local Elites in Post-Mao Jiangsu (China)" (Ph.D. dissertation in Political Science, University of Michigan, 2000).
141. See Tianjian Shi, "Cultural Values and Democracy in the People's Republic of China," The China Quarterly, no. 162 (June 2000): 540-59; Dali L. Yang, BeyondBeijing: Liberalization and the Regions in China (London: Routledge, 1997); Manion, "Chinese Democratization in Perspective," 764-82; Wenfang Tang and William L. Parish, Chinese Urban Life under Reform: The Changing Social Contract (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Pierre Landry, "Markets, Performance, and the Political Fate of Chinese Mayors" (Paper presented at the 2002 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Boston, August 29-September 1, 2002); as well as Pierre Landry "Controlling Decentralization: The Party and Local Elites in Post-Mao Jiangsu (China)" (Ph.D. dissertation in Political Science, University of Michigan, 2000).
142. See Tianjian Shi, "Cultural Values and Democracy in the People's Republic of China," The China Quarterly, no. 162 (June 2000): 540-59; Dali L. Yang, BeyondBeijing: Liberalization and the Regions in China (London: Routledge, 1997); Manion, "Chinese Democratization in Perspective," 764-82; Wenfang Tang and William L. Parish, Chinese Urban Life under Reform: The Changing Social Contract (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Pierre Landry, "Markets, Performance, and the Political Fate of Chinese Mayors" (Paper presented at the 2002 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Boston, August 29-September 1, 2002); as well as Pierre Landry "Controlling Decentralization: The Party and Local Elites in Post-Mao Jiangsu (China)" (Ph.D. dissertation in Political Science, University of Michigan, 2000).
143. See Tianjian Shi, "Cultural Values and Democracy in the People's Republic of China," The China Quarterly, no. 162 (June 2000): 540-59; Dali L. Yang, BeyondBeijing: Liberalization and the Regions in China (London: Routledge, 1997); Manion, "Chinese Democratization in Perspective," 764-82; Wenfang Tang and William L. Parish, Chinese Urban Life under Reform: The Changing Social Contract (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Pierre Landry, "Markets, Performance, and the Political Fate of Chinese Mayors" (Paper presented at the 2002 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Boston, August 29-September 1, 2002); as well as Pierre Landry "Controlling Decentralization: The Party and Local Elites in Post-Mao Jiangsu (China)" (Ph.D. dissertation in Political Science, University of Michigan, 2000).
144. See Yongshun Cai, "The Silence of the Dislocated: Chinese Laid-off Employees in the Reform Period" (Ph.D. dissertation in Political Science, Stanford University, 2001).
145. This is not to say that there was none at all. Several important books published at the end of the 1980s or the beginning of the 1990s relied largely on interview research. See, for example, Kenneth Lieberthal and Michel Oksenberg, Policy Making in China: Leaders, Structures, and Processes (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1988); and Dorothy J. Solinger, From Lathes to Looms: China's Industrial Policy in Comparative Perspective, 1979-1982 (Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, 1991).
146. This is not to say that there was none at all. Several important books published at the end of the 1980s or the beginning of the 1990s relied largely on interview research. See, for example, Kenneth Lieberthal and Michel Oksenberg, Policy Making in China: Leaders, Structures, and Processes (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1988); and Dorothy J. Solinger, From Lathes to Looms: China's Industrial Policy in Comparative Perspective, 1979-1982 (Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, 1991).
147. See, for example, William L. Parish and Martin King Whyte, Village and Family in Contemporary China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); and Andrew G. Walder, Communist Neo-Traditionalism: Work and Authority in Chinese Industry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986).
148. See, for example, William L. Parish and Martin King Whyte, Village and Family in Contemporary China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); and Andrew G. Walder, Communist Neo-Traditionalism: Work and Authority in Chinese Industry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986).
149. E.g., Anita Chan, Richard Madsen, and Jonathan Unger, Chan Village under Mao and Deng, revised and enlarged edition (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992).
150. Susan Whiting, Power and Wealth in Rural China: The Political Economy of Institutional Change (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
151. See, for example, Elizabeth J. Perry, Shanghai on Strike: The Politics of Chinese Labor (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1993); and Elizabeth J. Perry and Li Xun, Proletarian Power: Shanghai in the Cultural Revolution (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1997).
152. See, for example, Elizabeth J. Perry, Shanghai on Strike: The Politics of Chinese Labor (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1993); and Elizabeth J. Perry and Li Xun, Proletarian Power: Shanghai in the Cultural Revolution (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1997).
153. See Elizabeth Remiek, "The Significance of Variation in Local States: The Case of Twentieth Century China," Comparative Politics 34, no. 4 (July 2002): 399-418; and Mark Frazier, The Making of the Chinese Industrial Workplace: State, Revolution, and Labor Management (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
154. See Elizabeth Remiek, "The Significance of Variation in Local States: The Case of Twentieth Century China," Comparative Politics 34, no. 4 (July 2002): 399-418; and Mark Frazier, The Making of the Chinese Industrial Workplace: State, Revolution, and Labor Management (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
155. On the other hand, we should not overlook the fact that these works still sometimes draw larger arguments than their evidence allows. In particular, Frazier's omission of the Northeast from his study of industrial organization in pre- and post-1949 China and Remick's similar failure to consider inland cities where little or no foreign influence occurred or to present any data from after 1949 both undermine attempts to make claims about processes that supposedly unfolded across the entire country in various periods.
156. Thus workers and peasants were typically assigned to units from which they had little prospect of transferring, organized in military fashion into teams and brigades, and mobilized for recurrent "campaigns" against designated adversaries. Closely monitored for deviation, the results were retained in confidential personnel files. Cadres were also subjected to organizational discipline, but in an overwhelmingly top-down system, the higher that one ascended the hierarchy the more invulnerable one became (but Mao Zedong - with his trains, pools, women, and villas - was clearly an extreme case).