The significance of variation in local states: The case of twentieth century China

Comparative Politics

Volumn 34, Issue 4, 2002, Pages 399-418

  Remick, Elizabeth J ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0036637910     PISSN: 00104159     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/4146945     Document Type: Review

References (86)

1. Charles Tilly, ed., The Formation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975); Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990-1990 (Cambridge, Mass.: Basil Blackwell, 1990); Barrington Moore, Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966); Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979).
2. Charles Tilly, ed., The Formation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975); Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990-1990 (Cambridge, Mass.: Basil Blackwell, 1990); Barrington Moore, Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966); Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979).
3. Charles Tilly, ed., The Formation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975); Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990-1990 (Cambridge, Mass.: Basil Blackwell, 1990); Barrington Moore, Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966); Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979).
4. Charles Tilly, ed., The Formation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975); Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990-1990 (Cambridge, Mass.: Basil Blackwell, 1990); Barrington Moore, Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966); Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979).
5. Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1976).
6. Atul Kohli, The State and Poverty in India: The Politics of Reform (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); Robert D. Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993).; Richard M. Locke, Remaking the Italian Economy (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995).
7. Atul Kohli, The State and Poverty in India: The Politics of Reform (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); Robert D. Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993).; Richard M. Locke, Remaking the Italian Economy (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995).
8. Atul Kohli, The State and Poverty in India: The Politics of Reform (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); Robert D. Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993).; Richard M. Locke, Remaking the Italian Economy (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995).
9. Judith Tendler, Good Government in the Tropics (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), pp. 146-57, argues that central intervention was crucial in creating local good government outcomes in the Brazilian state of Ceará.
10. Richard Snyder, Politics after Neoliberalism: Reregulation in Mexico (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
11. Frances Hagopian, Traditional Politics and Regime Change in Brazil (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 16.
12. Elizabeth J. Perry, "Trends in the Study of Chinese Politics: State-Society Relations," The China Quarterly, 139 (September 1994), 704-13.
13. Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol, eds., Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
14. Rebecca Neaera Abers, Inventing Local Democracy: Grassroots Politics in Brazil (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2000).
15. G. William Skinner, "Marketing and Social Structure in Rural China, Part 1," Journal of Asian Studies, 24 (November 1964), 3-43; G. William Skinner, "Regional Urbanization in Nineteenth-Century China," in G. William Skinner, ed., The City in Late Imperial China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1977), pp. 211-49. Single case regional studies include Elizabeth J. Perry, Rebels and Revolutionaries in North China, 1845-1945 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1980); Mary Backus Rankin, Elite Activism and Political Transformation in China: Zhejiang Province, 1865-1911 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1986); William T. Rowe, Hankow: Commerce and Society in a Chinese City, 1796-1889 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1984); and R. Keith Schoppa, Chinese Elites and Political Change: Zhejiang Province in the Early Twentieth Century (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982). Recent comparative studies illustrating local states' effects on policy implementation include Eric Thun, "Changing Lanes in China: Industrial Development in a Transitional Economy" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1999); Kellee Tsai, "Banking behind the State: Private Entrepreneurs and the Political Economy of Informal Finance in China, 1978-1998" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1999).
16. G. William Skinner, "Marketing and Social Structure in Rural China, Part 1," Journal of Asian Studies, 24 (November 1964), 3-43; G. William Skinner, "Regional Urbanization in Nineteenth-Century China," in G. William Skinner, ed., The City in Late Imperial China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1977), pp. 211-49. Single case regional studies include Elizabeth J. Perry, Rebels and Revolutionaries in North China, 1845-1945 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1980); Mary Backus Rankin, Elite Activism and Political Transformation in China: Zhejiang Province, 1865-1911 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1986); William T. Rowe, Hankow: Commerce and Society in a Chinese City, 1796-1889 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1984); and R. Keith Schoppa, Chinese Elites and Political Change: Zhejiang Province in the Early Twentieth Century (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982). Recent comparative studies illustrating local states' effects on policy implementation include Eric Thun, "Changing Lanes in China: Industrial Development in a Transitional Economy" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1999); Kellee Tsai, "Banking behind the State: Private Entrepreneurs and the Political Economy of Informal Finance in China, 1978-1998" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1999).
17. G. William Skinner, "Marketing and Social Structure in Rural China, Part 1," Journal of Asian Studies, 24 (November 1964), 3-43; G. William Skinner, "Regional Urbanization in Nineteenth-Century China," in G. William Skinner, ed., The City in Late Imperial China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1977), pp. 211-49. Single case regional studies include Elizabeth J. Perry, Rebels and Revolutionaries in North China, 1845-1945 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1980); Mary Backus Rankin, Elite Activism and Political Transformation in China: Zhejiang Province, 1865-1911 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1986); William T. Rowe, Hankow: Commerce and Society in a Chinese City, 1796-1889 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1984); and R. Keith Schoppa, Chinese Elites and Political Change: Zhejiang Province in the Early Twentieth Century (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982). Recent comparative studies illustrating local states' effects on policy implementation include Eric Thun, "Changing Lanes in China: Industrial Development in a Transitional Economy" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1999); Kellee Tsai, "Banking behind the State: Private Entrepreneurs and the Political Economy of Informal Finance in China, 1978-1998" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1999).
18. G. William Skinner, "Marketing and Social Structure in Rural China, Part 1," Journal of Asian Studies, 24 (November 1964), 3-43; G. William Skinner, "Regional Urbanization in Nineteenth-Century China," in G. William Skinner, ed., The City in Late Imperial China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1977), pp. 211-49. Single case regional studies include Elizabeth J. Perry, Rebels and Revolutionaries in North China, 1845-1945 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1980); Mary Backus Rankin, Elite Activism and Political Transformation in China: Zhejiang Province, 1865-1911 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1986); William T. Rowe, Hankow: Commerce and Society in a Chinese City, 1796-1889 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1984); and R. Keith Schoppa, Chinese Elites and Political Change: Zhejiang Province in the Early Twentieth Century (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982). Recent comparative studies illustrating local states' effects on policy implementation include Eric Thun, "Changing Lanes in China: Industrial Development in a Transitional Economy" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1999); Kellee Tsai, "Banking behind the State: Private Entrepreneurs and the Political Economy of Informal Finance in China, 1978-1998" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1999).
19. G. William Skinner, "Marketing and Social Structure in Rural China, Part 1," Journal of Asian Studies, 24 (November 1964), 3-43; G. William Skinner, "Regional Urbanization in Nineteenth-Century China," in G. William Skinner, ed., The City in Late Imperial China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1977), pp. 211-49. Single case regional studies include Elizabeth J. Perry, Rebels and Revolutionaries in North China, 1845-1945 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1980); Mary Backus Rankin, Elite Activism and Political Transformation in China: Zhejiang Province, 1865-1911 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1986); William T. Rowe, Hankow: Commerce and Society in a Chinese City, 1796-1889 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1984); and R. Keith Schoppa, Chinese Elites and Political Change: Zhejiang Province in the Early Twentieth Century (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982). Recent comparative studies illustrating local states' effects on policy implementation include Eric Thun, "Changing Lanes in China: Industrial Development in a Transitional Economy" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1999); Kellee Tsai, "Banking behind the State: Private Entrepreneurs and the Political Economy of Informal Finance in China, 1978-1998" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1999).
20. G. William Skinner, "Marketing and Social Structure in Rural China, Part 1," Journal of Asian Studies, 24 (November 1964), 3-43; G. William Skinner, "Regional Urbanization in Nineteenth-Century China," in G. William Skinner, ed., The City in Late Imperial China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1977), pp. 211-49. Single case regional studies include Elizabeth J. Perry, Rebels and Revolutionaries in North China, 1845-1945 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1980); Mary Backus Rankin, Elite Activism and Political Transformation in China: Zhejiang Province, 1865-1911 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1986); William T. Rowe, Hankow: Commerce and Society in a Chinese City, 1796-1889 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1984); and R. Keith Schoppa, Chinese Elites and Political Change: Zhejiang Province in the Early Twentieth Century (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982). Recent comparative studies illustrating local states' effects on policy implementation include Eric Thun, "Changing Lanes in China: Industrial Development in a Transitional Economy" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1999); Kellee Tsai, "Banking behind the State: Private Entrepreneurs and the Political Economy of Informal Finance in China, 1978-1998" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1999).
21. G. William Skinner, "Marketing and Social Structure in Rural China, Part 1," Journal of Asian Studies, 24 (November 1964), 3-43; G. William Skinner, "Regional Urbanization in Nineteenth-Century China," in G. William Skinner, ed., The City in Late Imperial China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1977), pp. 211-49. Single case regional studies include Elizabeth J. Perry, Rebels and Revolutionaries in North China, 1845-1945 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1980); Mary Backus Rankin, Elite Activism and Political Transformation in China: Zhejiang Province, 1865-1911 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1986); William T. Rowe, Hankow: Commerce and Society in a Chinese City, 1796-1889 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1984); and R. Keith Schoppa, Chinese Elites and Political Change: Zhejiang Province in the Early Twentieth Century (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982). Recent comparative studies illustrating local states' effects on policy implementation include Eric Thun, "Changing Lanes in China: Industrial Development in a Transitional Economy" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1999); Kellee Tsai, "Banking behind the State: Private Entrepreneurs and the Political Economy of Informal Finance in China, 1978-1998" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1999).
22. G. William Skinner, "Marketing and Social Structure in Rural China, Part 1," Journal of Asian Studies, 24 (November 1964), 3-43; G. William Skinner, "Regional Urbanization in Nineteenth-Century China," in G. William Skinner, ed., The City in Late Imperial China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1977), pp. 211-49. Single case regional studies include Elizabeth J. Perry, Rebels and Revolutionaries in North China, 1845-1945 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1980); Mary Backus Rankin, Elite Activism and Political Transformation in China: Zhejiang Province, 1865-1911 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1986); William T. Rowe, Hankow: Commerce and Society in a Chinese City, 1796-1889 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1984); and R. Keith Schoppa, Chinese Elites and Political Change: Zhejiang Province in the Early Twentieth Century (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982). Recent comparative studies illustrating local states' effects on policy implementation include Eric Thun, "Changing Lanes in China: Industrial Development in a Transitional Economy" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1999); Kellee Tsai, "Banking behind the State: Private Entrepreneurs and the Political Economy of Informal Finance in China, 1978-1998" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1999).
23. For predatory, see Jonathan Unger, "State and Peasants in Post-Revolutionary China," Journal of Peasant Studies, 17 (October 1989), 114-36; Jean C. Oi, State and Peasant in Contemporary China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); For protective, see Vivienne Shue, The Reach of the State (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988). On the post-Mao era, see Jean C. Oi, Rural China Takes Off (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999); Marc Blecher and Vivienne Shue, Tethered Deer: Government and Economy in a Chinese County (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996); Yali Peng, "The Politics of Tobacco: Relations between Farmers and Local Governments in China's Southwest," The China Journal, 36 (July 1996), 67-82; Richard Baum and Alexei Shevchenko, "The 'State of the State,'" in Merle Goldman and Roderick MacFarquhar, eds., The Paradox of China's Post-Mao Reforms (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), pp. 333-60.
24. For predatory, see Jonathan Unger, "State and Peasants in Post-Revolutionary China," Journal of Peasant Studies, 17 (October 1989), 114-36; Jean C. Oi, State and Peasant in Contemporary China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); For protective, see Vivienne Shue, The Reach of the State (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988). On the post-Mao era, see Jean C. Oi, Rural China Takes Off (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999); Marc Blecher and Vivienne Shue, Tethered Deer: Government and Economy in a Chinese County (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996); Yali Peng, "The Politics of Tobacco: Relations between Farmers and Local Governments in China's Southwest," The China Journal, 36 (July 1996), 67-82; Richard Baum and Alexei Shevchenko, "The 'State of the State,'" in Merle Goldman and Roderick MacFarquhar, eds., The Paradox of China's Post-Mao Reforms (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), pp. 333-60.
25. For predatory, see Jonathan Unger, "State and Peasants in Post-Revolutionary China," Journal of Peasant Studies, 17 (October 1989), 114-36; Jean C. Oi, State and Peasant in Contemporary China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); For protective, see Vivienne Shue, The Reach of the State (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988). On the post-Mao era, see Jean C. Oi, Rural China Takes Off (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999); Marc Blecher and Vivienne Shue, Tethered Deer: Government and Economy in a Chinese County (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996); Yali Peng, "The Politics of Tobacco: Relations between Farmers and Local Governments in China's Southwest," The China Journal, 36 (July 1996), 67-82; Richard Baum and Alexei Shevchenko, "The 'State of the State,'" in Merle Goldman and Roderick MacFarquhar, eds., The Paradox of China's Post-Mao Reforms (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), pp. 333-60.
26. For predatory, see Jonathan Unger, "State and Peasants in Post-Revolutionary China," Journal of Peasant Studies, 17 (October 1989), 114-36; Jean C. Oi, State and Peasant in Contemporary China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); For protective, see Vivienne Shue, The Reach of the State (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988). On the post-Mao era, see Jean C. Oi, Rural China Takes Off (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999); Marc Blecher and Vivienne Shue, Tethered Deer: Government and Economy in a Chinese County (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996); Yali Peng, "The Politics of Tobacco: Relations between Farmers and Local Governments in China's Southwest," The China Journal, 36 (July 1996), 67-82; Richard Baum and Alexei Shevchenko, "The 'State of the State,'" in Merle Goldman and Roderick MacFarquhar, eds., The Paradox of China's Post-Mao Reforms (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), pp. 333-60.
27. For predatory, see Jonathan Unger, "State and Peasants in Post-Revolutionary China," Journal of Peasant Studies, 17 (October 1989), 114-36; Jean C. Oi, State and Peasant in Contemporary China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); For protective, see Vivienne Shue, The Reach of the State (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988). On the post-Mao era, see Jean C. Oi, Rural China Takes Off (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999); Marc Blecher and Vivienne Shue, Tethered Deer: Government and Economy in a Chinese County (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996); Yali Peng, "The Politics of Tobacco: Relations between Farmers and Local Governments in China's Southwest," The China Journal, 36 (July 1996), 67-82; Richard Baum and Alexei Shevchenko, "The 'State of the State,'" in Merle Goldman and Roderick MacFarquhar, eds., The Paradox of China's Post-Mao Reforms (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), pp. 333-60.
28. For predatory, see Jonathan Unger, "State and Peasants in Post-Revolutionary China," Journal of Peasant Studies, 17 (October 1989), 114-36; Jean C. Oi, State and Peasant in Contemporary China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); For protective, see Vivienne Shue, The Reach of the State (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988). On the post-Mao era, see Jean C. Oi, Rural China Takes Off (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999); Marc Blecher and Vivienne Shue, Tethered Deer: Government and Economy in a Chinese County (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996); Yali Peng, "The Politics of Tobacco: Relations between Farmers and Local Governments in China's Southwest," The China Journal, 36 (July 1996), 67-82; Richard Baum and Alexei Shevchenko, "The 'State of the State,'" in Merle Goldman and Roderick MacFarquhar, eds., The Paradox of China's Post-Mao Reforms (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), pp. 333-60.
29. For predatory, see Jonathan Unger, "State and Peasants in Post-Revolutionary China," Journal of Peasant Studies, 17 (October 1989), 114-36; Jean C. Oi, State and Peasant in Contemporary China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); For protective, see Vivienne Shue, The Reach of the State (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988). On the post-Mao era, see Jean C. Oi, Rural China Takes Off (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999); Marc Blecher and Vivienne Shue, Tethered Deer: Government and Economy in a Chinese County (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996); Yali Peng, "The Politics of Tobacco: Relations between Farmers and Local Governments in China's Southwest," The China Journal, 36 (July 1996), 67-82; Richard Baum and Alexei Shevchenko, "The 'State of the State,'" in Merle Goldman and Roderick MacFarquhar, eds., The Paradox of China's Post-Mao Reforms (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), pp. 333-60.
30. William Hinton, Fanshen (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1966); Prasenjit Duara, Culture, Power, and the Stale: Rural North China, 1900-1942 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988); Rankin; Schoppa.
31. William Hinton, Fanshen (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1966); Prasenjit Duara, Culture, Power, and the Stale: Rural North China, 1900-1942 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988); Rankin; Schoppa.
32. On the New Life Movement, see Lloyd E. Eastman, "Nationalist China during the Nanking Decade, 1927-1937," in Jerome Chen, Lloyd E. Eastman, Suzanne Pepper, and Lyman P. Van Slyke, eds., The Nationalist Era in China 1927-1949 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 31; on modernization, see also Prasenjit Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); and John Fitzgerald, Awakening China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996).
33. On the New Life Movement, see Lloyd E. Eastman, "Nationalist China during the Nanking Decade, 1927-1937," in Jerome Chen, Lloyd E. Eastman, Suzanne Pepper, and Lyman P. Van Slyke, eds., The Nationalist Era in China 1927-1949 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 31; on modernization, see also Prasenjit Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); and John Fitzgerald, Awakening China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996).
34. On the New Life Movement, see Lloyd E. Eastman, "Nationalist China during the Nanking Decade, 1927-1937," in Jerome Chen, Lloyd E. Eastman, Suzanne Pepper, and Lyman P. Van Slyke, eds., The Nationalist Era in China 1927-1949 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 31; on modernization, see also Prasenjit Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); and John Fitzgerald, Awakening China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996).
35. On brokerage, see Duara, "Culture Power and the State."
36. A good example of county leaders' clear enunciation of their aspirations is a book published and written by the Nanxiong county, Guangdong, government, Chen Feng and Fan Ying, eds., Nanxiong Tese Yanjiu [Research on Nanxiong's Special Characteristics] (Shaoguan: Renmin Chubanshe, 1987).
37. Tilly, The Formation of National States.
38. Margaret Levi, Of Rule and Revenue (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988); Gabriel Ardant, "Financial Policy and Economic Infrastructure of Modern States and Nations," in Tilly, ed.. The Formation of National States, pp. 164-97; and Rudolf Braun, "Taxation, Sociopolitical Structure, and State-Building: Great Britain and Brandenburg-Prussia," in ibid., pp. 243-327.
39. Margaret Levi, Of Rule and Revenue (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988); Gabriel Ardant, "Financial Policy and Economic Infrastructure of Modern States and Nations," in Tilly, ed.. The Formation of National States, pp. 164-97; and Rudolf Braun, "Taxation, Sociopolitical Structure, and State-Building: Great Britain and Brandenburg-Prussia," in ibid., pp. 243-327.
40. Margaret Levi, Of Rule and Revenue (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988); Gabriel Ardant, "Financial Policy and Economic Infrastructure of Modern States and Nations," in Tilly, ed.. The Formation of National States, pp. 164-97; and Rudolf Braun, "Taxation, Sociopolitical Structure, and State-Building: Great Britain and Brandenburg-Prussia," in ibid., pp. 243-327.
41. The work is based on interview and archival research in Kaiping and Nanxiong counties in Guangdong province and Jixian and Jinghai counties in the Tianjin/Hebei region from 1991 to 1993. For the Republican period, it also draws on secondary research on Dingxian county, Hebei.
42. Julia C. Strauss, Strong Institutions in Weak Polities: State Building in Republican China, 1927-1940 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).
43. Qin Qingjun, "Minguo Shiqi Guangdong Caizheng Shiliao 1911-1949" [Historical Materials on Public Finance from Republican-Era Guangdong, 1911-1949], Guangzhou Wenshi Ziliao, 29 (1983), 1-115.
44. John Fitzgerald, "A Greater Disunity: The Politics and Finance of Guangdong Separatism, 1926-1936," Modern Asian Studies, 24 (October 1990), 768. See also Guangzhoushi Zhengxie Wenshi Ziliao Yanjiu Weiyuanhui, ed., Nantian Suiyue [Years in the South] (Guangzhou: Guangdong Renmin Chubanshe, 1987), pp. 143-268.
45. John Fitzgerald, "A Greater Disunity: The Politics and Finance of Guangdong Separatism, 1926-1936," Modern Asian Studies, 24 (October 1990), 768. See also Guangzhoushi Zhengxie Wenshi Ziliao Yanjiu Weiyuanhui, ed., Nantian Suiyue [Years in the South] (Guangzhou: Guangdong Renmin Chubanshe, 1987), pp. 143-268.
46. Guangdong Minzhengting, ed., Guangdongsheng Wunianlai Minzheng Gaikuang [Outline of Civil Affairs Administration in Guangdong during the Last Five Years] (Guangzhou: Guangdong Minzhengting, 1936).
47. Guangdong Caizhengting Mishuchu, ed., Guangdong Caizheng Jiyao [Important Facts about Guangdong Public Finance] (Guangzhou: Guangdongsheng Caizhengting, 1937), pp. 106-8, 138; Guangdong Sheng Diaocha Tongjiju, Tongji Yuekan [Statistical Monthly] (January 1935), 20, 35; Tongji Yuekan, Feb. 1936, pp. 18-19; Tongji Yuekan (March 1937), 23.
48. Guangdong Caizhengting Mishuchu, ed., Guangdong Caizheng Jiyao [Important Facts about Guangdong Public Finance] (Guangzhou: Guangdongsheng Caizhengting, 1937), pp. 106-8, 138; Guangdong Sheng Diaocha Tongjiju, Tongji Yuekan [Statistical Monthly] (January 1935), 20, 35; Tongji Yuekan, Feb. 1936, pp. 18-19; Tongji Yuekan (March 1937), 23.
49. Guangdong Caizhengting Mishuchu, ed., Guangdong Caizheng Jiyao [Important Facts about Guangdong Public Finance] (Guangzhou: Guangdongsheng Caizhengting, 1937), pp. 106-8, 138; Guangdong Sheng Diaocha Tongjiju, Tongji Yuekan [Statistical Monthly] (January 1935), 20, 35; Tongji Yuekan, Feb. 1936, pp. 18-19; Tongji Yuekan (March 1937), 23.
50. Guangdong Caizhengting Mishuchu, ed., Guangdong Caizheng Jiyao [Important Facts about Guangdong Public Finance] (Guangzhou: Guangdongsheng Caizhengting, 1937), pp. 106-8, 138; Guangdong Sheng Diaocha Tongjiju, Tongji Yuekan [Statistical Monthly] (January 1935), 20, 35; Tongji Yuekan, Feb. 1936, pp. 18-19; Tongji Yuekan (March 1937), 23.
51. Guangdong Minzhengting, pp. 54-69.
52. Rankin; Duara, Culture, Power and the State; Schoppa; Philip A. Kuhn, "The Development of Local Government," in John K. Fairbank and Albert Feuerwerker, eds., The Cambridge History of China: Republican China 1912-1949, Part 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 329-60.
53. Rankin; Duara, Culture, Power and the State; Schoppa; Philip A. Kuhn, "The Development of Local Government," in John K. Fairbank and Albert Feuerwerker, eds., The Cambridge History of China: Republican China 1912-1949, Part 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 329-60.
54. Chen Boren, Huang Minglun, Li Xiaofen, and Liang Zugao, "Caizheng he Shuijuan" [Public Finance and Taxes], in Guangzhoushi Zhengxie Wenshi Ziliao Yanjiu Weiyuanhui, p. 298; Fitzgerald, "A Greater Disunity," p. 766.
55. Chen Boren, Huang Minglun, Li Xiaofen, and Liang Zugao, "Caizheng he Shuijuan" [Public Finance and Taxes], in Guangzhoushi Zhengxie Wenshi Ziliao Yanjiu Weiyuanhui, p. 298; Fitzgerald, "A Greater Disunity," p. 766.
56. Yuen-fong Woon, Social Organization in South China, 1911-1949: The Case of the Kuan Lineage in K'ai-p'ing County (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Center for Chinese Studies, 1984), pp. 62-65.
57. Duara, Culture, Power, and the State.
58. Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States.
59. Guangdong Caizhengting Mishuchu; Guangdong Caizheng Tepaiyuan Gongshu and Guangdongsheng Zhengfu Caizhengting, eds., Guangdongsheng Caizheng Jishi [Notes on the Realities of Guangdong Province Public Finance] (Guangzhou: Guangdongsheng Zhengfu Caizhengting, 1934); Pan Lesheng, "Jiu Shehui Zhaoshang Chengban Shuijuan de Heimu" [The Inside Story of Recruiting Merchants to Contract Taxes in the Old Society], Guangdong Gongshang Shiliao Jilu, 1 (1987), 273-76.
60. Guangdong Caizhengting Mishuchu; Guangdong Caizheng Tepaiyuan Gongshu and Guangdongsheng Zhengfu Caizhengting, eds., Guangdongsheng Caizheng Jishi [Notes on the Realities of Guangdong Province Public Finance] (Guangzhou: Guangdongsheng Zhengfu Caizhengting, 1934); Pan Lesheng, "Jiu Shehui Zhaoshang Chengban Shuijuan de Heimu" [The Inside Story of Recruiting Merchants to Contract Taxes in the Old Society], Guangdong Gongshang Shiliao Jilu, 1 (1987), 273-76.
61. Li Jinghan, ed., Dingxian Shehui Gaikuang Diaocha [Investigation into the Overall Situation of Dingxian Society] (Dingxian: Zhonghua Pingmin Jiaoyu Cujinhui, 1933); Hebei Caizhengting, Caizheng Jiyao [Important Notes on Public Finance] (Beiping: Hebei Caizhengting, 1929).
62. Li Jinghan, ed., Dingxian Shehui Gaikuang Diaocha [Investigation into the Overall Situation of Dingxian Society] (Dingxian: Zhonghua Pingmin Jiaoyu Cujinhui, 1933); Hebei Caizhengting, Caizheng Jiyao [Important Notes on Public Finance] (Beiping: Hebei Caizhengting, 1929).
63. See for example Nanxiong Caishui Zhi Bianzuan Lingdao Xiaozu, ed., Nanxiong Caishui Zhi [Nanxiong Public Finance and Tax Gazetteer] (Nanxiong, Guangdong: 1988) p. 47; interview NX-FN-01.
64. Nanxiong Caishui Zhi Bianzuan Lingdao Xiaozu, p. 49.
65. Michel Oksenberg and James Tong, "The Evolution of Central-Provincial Fiscal Relations in China, 1971-1984,_ The China Quarterly, 125 (March 1991), 1-32; Christine P. W. Wong, "Central-Local Relations in an Era of Fiscal Decline: The Paradox of Fiscal Decentralization in Post-Mao China," The China Quarterly, 128 (December 1991), 691-715; Christine P. W. Wong, ed., Financing Local Government in the People's Republic of China (Hong Kong: Published for the Asian Development Bank by Oxford University Press, 1997).
66. Michel Oksenberg and James Tong, "The Evolution of Central-Provincial Fiscal Relations in China, 1971-1984,_ The China Quarterly, 125 (March 1991), 1-32; Christine P. W. Wong, "Central-Local Relations in an Era of Fiscal Decline: The Paradox of Fiscal Decentralization in Post-Mao China," The China Quarterly, 128 (December 1991), 691-715; Christine P. W. Wong, ed., Financing Local Government in the People's Republic of China (Hong Kong: Published for the Asian Development Bank by Oxford University Press, 1997).
67. Michel Oksenberg and James Tong, "The Evolution of Central-Provincial Fiscal Relations in China, 1971-1984,_ The China Quarterly, 125 (March 1991), 1-32; Christine P. W. Wong, "Central-Local Relations in an Era of Fiscal Decline: The Paradox of Fiscal Decentralization in Post-Mao China," The China Quarterly, 128 (December 1991), 691-715; Christine P. W. Wong, ed., Financing Local Government in the People's Republic of China (Hong Kong: Published for the Asian Development Bank by Oxford University Press, 1997).
68. Ezra F. Vogel, One Step Ahead in China: Guangdong under Reform (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989), ch. 3.
69. Dangdai Zhongguo Congshu Bianji Weiyuanhui, ed., Dangdai Zhongguo de Guangdong [Modern China's Guangdong] (Beijing: Dangdai Zhongguo Chubanshe, 1991), p. 687; Zhu Jiajian, "Guangdong's Economic Relationships with Central Government and with Other Provinces/Municipalities," in Toyojiro Maruya, ed., Guangdong: "Open Door" Economic Development Strategy (Hong Kong and Tokyo: Centre of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong, and Institute of Developing Economies, Tokyo, 1992), pp. 102-3; Guangdong Nianjian Bianzuan Weiyuanhui, ed., Guangdong Nianjian 1991 [Guangdong Yearbook 1991] (Guangzhou: Guangdong Renmin Chubanshe, 1991), p. 308.
70. Dangdai Zhongguo Congshu Bianji Weiyuanhui, ed., Dangdai Zhongguo de Guangdong [Modern China's Guangdong] (Beijing: Dangdai Zhongguo Chubanshe, 1991), p. 687; Zhu Jiajian, "Guangdong's Economic Relationships with Central Government and with Other Provinces/Municipalities," in Toyojiro Maruya, ed., Guangdong: "Open Door" Economic Development Strategy (Hong Kong and Tokyo: Centre of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong, and Institute of Developing Economies, Tokyo, 1992), pp. 102-3; Guangdong Nianjian Bianzuan Weiyuanhui, ed., Guangdong Nianjian 1991 [Guangdong Yearbook 1991] (Guangzhou: Guangdong Renmin Chubanshe, 1991), p. 308.
71. Dangdai Zhongguo Congshu Bianji Weiyuanhui, ed., Dangdai Zhongguo de Guangdong [Modern China's Guangdong] (Beijing: Dangdai Zhongguo Chubanshe, 1991), p. 687; Zhu Jiajian, "Guangdong's Economic Relationships with Central Government and with Other Provinces/Municipalities," in Toyojiro Maruya, ed., Guangdong: "Open Door" Economic Development Strategy (Hong Kong and Tokyo: Centre of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong, and Institute of Developing Economies, Tokyo, 1992), pp. 102-3; Guangdong Nianjian Bianzuan Weiyuanhui, ed., Guangdong Nianjian 1991 [Guangdong Yearbook 1991] (Guangzhou: Guangdong Renmin Chubanshe, 1991), p. 308.
72. Dangdai Zhongguo Congshu Bianjibu. ed., Dangdai Zhongguo de Tianjin [Modern China's Tianjin] (Beijing: Zhongguo Shehui Kexue Chubanshe, 1989), pp. 465-66; Li Kejian, ed., Tianjin Quan Shu [Tianjin Encyclopedia] (Tianjin: Tianjin Renmin Chubanshe, 1991), p. 328.
73. Dangdai Zhongguo Congshu Bianjibu. ed., Dangdai Zhongguo de Tianjin [Modern China's Tianjin] (Beijing: Zhongguo Shehui Kexue Chubanshe, 1989), pp. 465-66; Li Kejian, ed., Tianjin Quan Shu [Tianjin Encyclopedia] (Tianjin: Tianjin Renmin Chubanshe, 1991), p. 328.
74. The percentages of retained revenue in the late 1980s varied considerably, from 53 percent of all revenues in richer Jinghai county to 86 percent in poorer Jixian. Interviews JH-FN-01 and JX-FN-01.
75. Extrabudgetary funds are revenues raised by an enterprise or government office for its own use, not subject to sharing with, or sometimes even reporting to, superordinate levels. Usually acceptable sources are specified by the superordinate level.
76. Interviews JX-FN-01 and JH-FN-06.
77. Interview KP-TX-02.
78. For more discussion of the "peasant burden" and the central government's attempts to limit it to 5 percent of annual peasant incomes, see Xiaobo Lu, "The Politics of Peasant Burden in Reform China," Journal of Peasant Studies, 25 (October 1997), 113-38; Wong, Financing Local Government; Andrew Wedeman, "Stealing from the Farmers: Institutional Corruption and the 1992 IOU Crisis," The China Quarterly, 152 (December 1997), 805-31.
79. For more discussion of the "peasant burden" and the central government's attempts to limit it to 5 percent of annual peasant incomes, see Xiaobo Lu, "The Politics of Peasant Burden in Reform China," Journal of Peasant Studies, 25 (October 1997), 113-38; Wong, Financing Local Government; Andrew Wedeman, "Stealing from the Farmers: Institutional Corruption and the 1992 IOU Crisis," The China Quarterly, 152 (December 1997), 805-31.
80. For more discussion of the "peasant burden" and the central government's attempts to limit it to 5 percent of annual peasant incomes, see Xiaobo Lu, "The Politics of Peasant Burden in Reform China," Journal of Peasant Studies, 25 (October 1997), 113-38; Wong, Financing Local Government; Andrew Wedeman, "Stealing from the Farmers: Institutional Corruption and the 1992 IOU Crisis," The China Quarterly, 152 (December 1997), 805-31.
81. Interview NX-TX-01.
82. Guangdong provincial leaders emphasized a professional, laissez-faire ideological approach to local state administration as they sought to become the most politically and economically "liberated" province. See Vogel. This ideological difference is a better explanation of the different levels of coercion in the two localities than is levels of wealth, because Jinghai county, Tianjin, relied heavily on coercion in spite of the fact that it was a wealthy county, containing at that time the wealthiest village in the whole country, Daqiuzhuang.
83. Interviews JX-TB-02 and JH-TB-06.
84. Interviews JH-TB-01 and JH-TB-06.
85. See the essays in Elizabeth J. Perry and Mark Selden, eds., Chinese Society: Change, Conflict and Resistance (London: Routledge, 2000).
86. See Abers.