Implementation of Anticorruption Policies in Reform-Era China: The Case of the 1993-97 "Anticorruption Struggle"

Issues and Studies

Volumn 37, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 49-72

  Cho, Young Nam ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Anticorruption campaign; Anticorruption policy; China; Corruption; Policy implementation

Indexed keywords

EID: 0346485989     PISSN: 10132511     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (123)

1. This article adopts a broad meaning of corruption: the behavior of government officials and party cadres who pursue private gains in ways that violate the state's laws and the party's rules, collectively and individually. In China, the party's rules, as well as laws, work as an important standard to judge whether the behavior of officials is corrupt. For more on the meaning of corruption in China, see Ting Gong, The Politics of Corruption in Contemporary China: An Analysis of Policy Outcomes (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1994), 3-11; Alan P.L. Liu, "The Politics of Corruption in the People's Republic of China," American Political Science Review 77, no. 3 (1983): 604; James T. Myers, "Modernization and 'Unhealthy Tendency'," Comparative Politics 21, no. 2 (January 1989): 196; Wang Bingji and Zhu Jingze, eds., Dangji guitiao tubiao jiexi (A chart and explanation of party discipline and rules) (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1993), 117-18; and Zhongyang jiwei jiancha zongheshi, ed., Fahui dangzheng jiandu zhengti youshi, geng youchengxiaodi fan fubai (Developing the strength of party and government supervision, more effectively conducting anticorruption) (Beijing: Zhongguo fangzheng chubanshe, 1995), 166.
2. This article adopts a broad meaning of corruption: the behavior of government officials and party cadres who pursue private gains in ways that violate the state's laws and the party's rules, collectively and individually. In China, the party's rules, as well as laws, work as an important standard to judge whether the behavior of officials is corrupt. For more on the meaning of corruption in China, see Ting Gong, The Politics of Corruption in Contemporary China: An Analysis of Policy Outcomes (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1994), 3-11; Alan P.L. Liu, "The Politics of Corruption in the People's Republic of China," American Political Science Review 77, no. 3 (1983): 604; James T. Myers, "Modernization and 'Unhealthy Tendency'," Comparative Politics 21, no. 2 (January 1989): 196; Wang Bingji and Zhu Jingze, eds., Dangji guitiao tubiao jiexi (A chart and explanation of party discipline and rules) (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1993), 117-18; and Zhongyang jiwei jiancha zongheshi, ed., Fahui dangzheng jiandu zhengti youshi, geng youchengxiaodi fan fubai (Developing the strength of party and government supervision, more effectively conducting anticorruption) (Beijing: Zhongguo fangzheng chubanshe, 1995), 166.
3. This article adopts a broad meaning of corruption: the behavior of government officials and party cadres who pursue private gains in ways that violate the state's laws and the party's rules, collectively and individually. In China, the party's rules, as well as laws, work as an important standard to judge whether the behavior of officials is corrupt. For more on the meaning of corruption in China, see Ting Gong, The Politics of Corruption in Contemporary China: An Analysis of Policy Outcomes (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1994), 3-11; Alan P.L. Liu, "The Politics of Corruption in the People's Republic of China," American Political Science Review 77, no. 3 (1983): 604; James T. Myers, "Modernization and 'Unhealthy Tendency'," Comparative Politics 21, no. 2 (January 1989): 196; Wang Bingji and Zhu Jingze, eds., Dangji guitiao tubiao jiexi (A chart and explanation of party discipline and rules) (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1993), 117-18; and Zhongyang jiwei jiancha zongheshi, ed., Fahui dangzheng jiandu zhengti youshi, geng youchengxiaodi fan fubai (Developing the strength of party and government supervision, more effectively conducting anticorruption) (Beijing: Zhongguo fangzheng chubanshe, 1995), 166.
4. This article adopts a broad meaning of corruption: the behavior of government officials and party cadres who pursue private gains in ways that violate the state's laws and the party's rules, collectively and individually. In China, the party's rules, as well as laws, work as an important standard to judge whether the behavior of officials is corrupt. For more on the meaning of corruption in China, see Ting Gong, The Politics of Corruption in Contemporary China: An Analysis of Policy Outcomes (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1994), 3-11; Alan P.L. Liu, "The Politics of Corruption in the People's Republic of China," American Political Science Review 77, no. 3 (1983): 604; James T. Myers, "Modernization and 'Unhealthy Tendency'," Comparative Politics 21, no. 2 (January 1989): 196; Wang Bingji and Zhu Jingze, eds., Dangji guitiao tubiao jiexi (A chart and explanation of party discipline and rules) (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1993), 117-18; and Zhongyang jiwei jiancha zongheshi, ed., Fahui dangzheng jiandu zhengti youshi, geng youchengxiaodi fan fubai (Developing the strength of party and government supervision, more effectively conducting anticorruption) (Beijing: Zhongguo fangzheng chubanshe, 1995), 166.
5. This article adopts a broad meaning of corruption: the behavior of government officials and party cadres who pursue private gains in ways that violate the state's laws and the party's rules, collectively and individually. In China, the party's rules, as well as laws, work as an important standard to judge whether the behavior of officials is corrupt. For more on the meaning of corruption in China, see Ting Gong, The Politics of Corruption in Contemporary China: An Analysis of Policy Outcomes (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1994), 3-11; Alan P.L. Liu, "The Politics of Corruption in the People's Republic of China," American Political Science Review 77, no. 3 (1983): 604; James T. Myers, "Modernization and 'Unhealthy Tendency'," Comparative Politics 21, no. 2 (January 1989): 196; Wang Bingji and Zhu Jingze, eds., Dangji guitiao tubiao jiexi (A chart and explanation of party discipline and rules) (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1993), 117-18; and Zhongyang jiwei jiancha zongheshi, ed., Fahui dangzheng jiandu zhengti youshi, geng youchengxiaodi fan fubai (Developing the strength of party and government supervision, more effectively conducting anticorruption) (Beijing: Zhongguo fangzheng chubanshe, 1995), 166.
6. See Richard Baum, Burying Mao: Chinese Politics in the Age of Deng Xiaoping, fourth edition (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1996), 202;
7. Van Sun, "The Chinese Protests of 1989: The Issue of Corruption," Asian Survey 31, no. 8 (August 1991): 763;
8. Andrew Wedeman, "Stealing from the Farmers: Institutional Corruption and the 1992 IOU Crisis," The China Quarterly, no. 152 (December 1997): 805-31 ;
9. and Thomas P. Bernstein, "Farmers Discontent and Regime Response," in The Paradox of China's Post-Mao Reforms, ed. Merle Goldman and Roderick MacFarquhar (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), 197-219.
10. Zengke He, "Corruption and Anticorruption in Reform China," Communist and Post-Communist Studies 33 (2000): 260-69; Sun, "The Chinese Protests of 1989," 768-71; and James Mulvenon, "Military Corruption in China: A Conceptual Examination," Problems of Post-Communism 45, no. 2 (March/April 1998): 18-19.
11. Zengke He, "Corruption and Anticorruption in Reform China," Communist and Post- Communist Studies 33 (2000): 260-69; Sun, "The Chinese Protests of 1989," 768-71; and James Mulvenon, "Military Corruption in China: A Conceptual Examination," Problems of Post-Communism 45, no. 2 (March/April 1998): 18-19.
12. Zengke He, "Corruption and Anticorruption in Reform China," Communist and Post- Communist Studies 33 (2000): 260-69; Sun, "The Chinese Protests of 1989," 768-71; and James Mulvenon, "Military Corruption in China: A Conceptual Examination," Problems of Post-Communism 45, no. 2 (March/April 1998): 18-19.
13. Yang Hongmin, "A Brief Description of the CCP's Anticorruption Struggle since Reform and Opening-Up Policy," Xuexi (Study) (Beijing), 1993, no. 12, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi (Chinese Politics) (Zhongguo renmin daxue shubao ziliao zhongxin), 1994, no. 2: 93-94; Zhonggong zhongyang jilii jiancha weiyuanhui, "Work Report of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection to the CCP's Fifteenth National Congress," in Zhongguo gongchandang shiwuci quanguo daibiao dahui wenxian huibian (A collection of the CCP's Fifteenth National Congress documents) (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1997), 91, 104; Xian Qi, Lianzheng Zhongguo (Clean government of China) (Chengdu: Sichuan renmin chubanshe, 1997), 19-28, 55-60, 367-424; and Luo Chongmin, "A Preliminary Analysis of the Current Anticorruption Phenomena," Zhonghua hun (Chinese Spirit) (Beijing), 1998, no. 5, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1998, no. 5:68-77.
14. Yang Hongmin, "A Brief Description of the CCP's Anticorruption Struggle since Reform and Opening-Up Policy," Xuexi (Study) (Beijing), 1993, no. 12, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi (Chinese Politics) (Zhongguo renmin daxue shubao ziliao zhongxin), 1994, no. 2: 93-94; Zhonggong zhongyang jilii jiancha weiyuanhui, "Work Report of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection to the CCP's Fifteenth National Congress," in Zhongguo gongchandang shiwuci quanguo daibiao dahui wenxian huibian (A collection of the CCP's Fifteenth National Congress documents) (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1997), 91, 104; Xian Qi, Lianzheng Zhongguo (Clean government of China) (Chengdu: Sichuan renmin chubanshe, 1997), 19-28, 55-60, 367-424; and Luo Chongmin, "A Preliminary Analysis of the Current Anticorruption Phenomena," Zhonghua hun (Chinese Spirit) (Beijing), 1998, no. 5, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1998, no. 5:68-77.
15. Yang Hongmin, "A Brief Description of the CCP's Anticorruption Struggle since Reform and Opening-Up Policy," Xuexi (Study) (Beijing), 1993, no. 12, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi (Chinese Politics) (Zhongguo renmin daxue shubao ziliao zhongxin), 1994, no. 2: 93-94; Zhonggong zhongyang jilii jiancha weiyuanhui, "Work Report of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection to the CCP's Fifteenth National Congress," in Zhongguo gongchandang shiwuci quanguo daibiao dahui wenxian huibian (A collection of the CCP's Fifteenth National Congress documents) (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1997), 91, 104; Xian Qi, Lianzheng Zhongguo (Clean government of China) (Chengdu: Sichuan renmin chubanshe, 1997), 19-28, 55-60, 367-424; and Luo Chongmin, "A Preliminary Analysis of the Current Anticorruption Phenomena," Zhonghua hun (Chinese Spirit) (Beijing), 1998, no. 5, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1998, no. 5:68-77.
16. Yang Hongmin, "A Brief Description of the CCP's Anticorruption Struggle since Reform and Opening-Up Policy," Xuexi (Study) (Beijing), 1993, no. 12, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi (Chinese Politics) (Zhongguo renmin daxue shubao ziliao zhongxin), 1994, no. 2: 93-94; Zhonggong zhongyang jilii jiancha weiyuanhui, "Work Report of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection to the CCP's Fifteenth National Congress," in Zhongguo gongchandang shiwuci quanguo daibiao dahui wenxian huibian (A collection of the CCP's Fifteenth National Congress documents) (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1997), 91, 104; Xian Qi, Lianzheng Zhongguo (Clean government of China) (Chengdu: Sichuan renmin chubanshe, 1997), 19-28, 55-60, 367-424; and Luo Chongmin, "A Preliminary Analysis of the Current Anticorruption Phenomena," Zhonghua hun (Chinese Spirit) (Beijing), 1998, no. 5, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1998, no. 5:68-77.
17. Yang Hongmin, "A Brief Description of the CCP's Anticorruption Struggle since Reform and Opening-Up Policy," Xuexi (Study) (Beijing), 1993, no. 12, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi (Chinese Politics) (Zhongguo renmin daxue shubao ziliao zhongxin), 1994, no. 2: 93-94; Zhonggong zhongyang jilii jiancha weiyuanhui, "Work Report of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection to the CCP's Fifteenth National Congress," in Zhongguo gongchandang shiwuci quanguo daibiao dahui wenxian huibian (A collection of the CCP's Fifteenth National Congress documents) (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1997), 91, 104; Xian Qi, Lianzheng Zhongguo (Clean government of China) (Chengdu: Sichuan renmin chubanshe, 1997), 19-28, 55-60, 367-424; and Luo Chongmin, "A Preliminary Analysis of the Current Anticorruption Phenomena," Zhonghua hun (Chinese Spirit) (Beijing), 1998, no. 5, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1998, no. 5:68-77.
18. Yang Hongmin, "A Brief Description of the CCP's Anticorruption Struggle since Reform and Opening-Up Policy," Xuexi (Study) (Beijing), 1993, no. 12, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi (Chinese Politics) (Zhongguo renmin daxue shubao ziliao zhongxin), 1994, no. 2: 93-94; Zhonggong zhongyang jilii jiancha weiyuanhui, "Work Report of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection to the CCP's Fifteenth National Congress," in Zhongguo gongchandang shiwuci quanguo daibiao dahui wenxian huibian (A collection of the CCP's Fifteenth National Congress documents) (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1997), 91, 104; Xian Qi, Lianzheng Zhongguo (Clean government of China) (Chengdu: Sichuan renmin chubanshe, 1997), 19-28, 55-60, 367-424; and Luo Chongmin, "A Preliminary Analysis of the Current Anticorruption Phenomena," Zhonghua hun (Chinese Spirit) (Beijing), 1998, no. 5, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1998, no. 5:68-77.
19. Sun Fuhai, "A Research on the Present Corruption and Socialist Supervision System," Beijing shehui kexue (Beijing Social Science), 1995, no. 2, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1995, no. 6:67-68; Yang Jiliang, Fubai lun (On corruption) (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1997), 457-59; Luo, "A Preliminary Analysis of the Current Anticorruption Phenomena," 83-85; and Chin Pingqi, "An Analysis of the Prospects for Clean Government in China," Shehuizhuyiyanjiu (Research on Socialism) (Wuhan), 1996, no. 2, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1996, no. 6:99-100.
20. Sun Fuhai, "A Research on the Present Corruption and Socialist Supervision System," Beijing shehui kexue (Beijing Social Science), 1995, no. 2, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1995, no. 6:67-68; Yang Jiliang, Fubai lun (On corruption) (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1997), 457-59; Luo, "A Preliminary Analysis of the Current Anticorruption Phenomena," 83-85; and Chin Pingqi, "An Analysis of the Prospects for Clean Government in China," Shehuizhuyiyanjiu (Research on Socialism) (Wuhan), 1996, no. 2, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1996, no. 6:99-100.
21. Sun Fuhai, "A Research on the Present Corruption and Socialist Supervision System," Beijing shehui kexue (Beijing Social Science), 1995, no. 2, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1995, no. 6:67-68; Yang Jiliang, Fubai lun (On corruption) (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1997), 457-59; Luo, "A Preliminary Analysis of the Current Anticorruption Phenomena," 83-85; and Chin Pingqi, "An Analysis of the Prospects for Clean Government in China," Shehuizhuyiyanjiu (Research on Socialism) (Wuhan), 1996, no. 2, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1996, no. 6:99-100.
22. Sun Fuhai, "A Research on the Present Corruption and Socialist Supervision System," Beijing shehui kexue (Beijing Social Science), 1995, no. 2, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1995, no. 6:67-68; Yang Jiliang, Fubai lun (On corruption) (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1997), 457-59; Luo, "A Preliminary Analysis of the Current Anticorruption Phenomena," 83-85; and Chin Pingqi, "An Analysis of the Prospects for Clean Government in China," Shehuizhuyiyanjiu (Research on Socialism) (Wuhan), 1996, no. 2, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1996, no. 6:99-100.
23. Sun Fuhai, "A Research on the Present Corruption and Socialist Supervision System," Beijing shehui kexue (Beijing Social Science), 1995, no. 2, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1995, no. 6:67-68; Yang Jiliang, Fubai lun (On corruption) (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1997), 457-59; Luo, "A Preliminary Analysis of the Current Anticorruption Phenomena," 83-85; and Chin Pingqi, "An Analysis of the Prospects for Clean Government in China," Shehuizhuyiyanjiu (Research on Socialism) (Wuhan), 1996, no. 2, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1996, no. 6:99-100.
24. Sun Fuhai, "A Research on the Present Corruption and Socialist Supervision System," Beijing shehui kexue (Beijing Social Science), 1995, no. 2, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1995, no. 6:67-68; Yang Jiliang, Fubai lun (On corruption) (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1997), 457-59; Luo, "A Preliminary Analysis of the Current Anticorruption Phenomena," 83-85; and Chin Pingqi, "An Analysis of the Prospects for Clean Government in China," Shehuizhuyiyanjiu (Research on Socialism) (Wuhan), 1996, no. 2, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1996, no. 6:99-100.
25. Liu, "The Politics of Corruption," 602-23; Connie Squires Meaney, "Market Reform and Disintegrative Corruption in Urban China," in Reform and Reaction in Post-Mao China: The Road to Tiananmen, ed. Richard Baum (New York: Routledge, 1991), 124-42; Jean C. Oi, "Partial Market Reform and Corruption in Rural China," ibid., 143-61; Yufan Hao and Michael Johnston, "Reform at the Crossroads: An Analysis of Chinese Corruption," Asian Perspective 19, no. 1 (Spring/Summer 1995): 121-36; and He, "Corruption and Anticorruption," 248-56.
26. Liu, "The Politics of Corruption," 602-23; Connie Squires Meaney, "Market Reform and Disintegrative Corruption in Urban China," in Reform and Reaction in Post-Mao China: The Road to Tiananmen, ed. Richard Baum (New York: Routledge, 1991), 124-42; Jean C. Oi, "Partial Market Reform and Corruption in Rural China," ibid., 143-61; Yufan Hao and Michael Johnston, "Reform at the Crossroads: An Analysis of Chinese Corruption," Asian Perspective 19, no. 1 (Spring/Summer 1995): 121-36; and He, "Corruption and Anticorruption," 248-56.
27. Liu, "The Politics of Corruption," 602-23; Connie Squires Meaney, "Market Reform and Disintegrative Corruption in Urban China," in Reform and Reaction in Post-Mao China: The Road to Tiananmen, ed. Richard Baum (New York: Routledge, 1991), 124-42; Jean C. Oi, "Partial Market Reform and Corruption in Rural China," ibid., 143-61; Yufan Hao and Michael Johnston, "Reform at the Crossroads: An Analysis of Chinese Corruption," Asian Perspective 19, no. 1 (Spring/Summer 1995): 121-36; and He, "Corruption and Anticorruption," 248-56.
28. Liu, "The Politics of Corruption," 602-23; Connie Squires Meaney, "Market Reform and Disintegrative Corruption in Urban China," in Reform and Reaction in Post-Mao China: The Road to Tiananmen, ed. Richard Baum (New York: Routledge, 1991), 124-42; Jean C. Oi, "Partial Market Reform and Corruption in Rural China," ibid., 143-61; Yufan Hao and Michael Johnston, "Reform at the Crossroads: An Analysis of Chinese Corruption," Asian Perspective 19, no. 1 (Spring/Summer 1995): 121-36; and He, "Corruption and Anticorruption," 248-56.
29. Liu, "The Politics of Corruption," 602-23; Connie Squires Meaney, "Market Reform and Disintegrative Corruption in Urban China," in Reform and Reaction in Post-Mao China: The Road to Tiananmen, ed. Richard Baum (New York: Routledge, 1991), 124-42; Jean C. Oi, "Partial Market Reform and Corruption in Rural China," ibid., 143-61; Yufan Hao and Michael Johnston, "Reform at the Crossroads: An Analysis of Chinese Corruption," Asian Perspective 19, no. 1 (Spring/Summer 1995): 121-36; and He, "Corruption and Anticorruption," 248-56.
30. There are of course exceptions. For example, Manion examines corruption control in post-Mao China. See Melanie Manion, "Issues in Corruption Control in Post-Mao China," Issues & Studies 34, no. 9 (September 1998): 1-21.
31. David M. Lampton, "The Implementation Problem in Post-Mao China," in Policy Implementation in Post-Mao China, ed. David M. Lampton (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1987), 4.
32. Merilee S. Grindle, "Policy Content and Context in Implementation," in Politics and Policy Implementation in the Third World, ed. Merilee S. Grindle (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1980), 11; and Peter S. Cleaves, "Implementation Amidst Scarcity and Apathy: Political Power and Policy Design," ibid., 281.
33. Merilee S. Grindle, "Policy Content and Context in Implementation," in Politics and Policy Implementation in the Third World, ed. Merilee S. Grindle (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1980), 11; and Peter S. Cleaves, "Implementation Amidst Scarcity and Apathy: Political Power and Policy Design," ibid., 281.
34. Zhongyang jiwei yanjiushi, ed., Wunian jinji wunian sisuo: Shisida yilai fan fubai douzheng huigu (Five years of attack, five years of thinking: A retrospect on anticorruption struggle since the CCP's Fourteenth National Congress) (Beijing: Zhongguo fangzheng chubanshe, 1997), 57-58.
35. Chung classifies policies into three categories based on three factors: (1) the number of policy targets (encompassing/selective), (2) the extent to which the policy entails resource allocation (allocative/nonallocative), and (3) the degree to which the policy departs from the status quo (radical/routinized). The more encompassing a policy is, the more restrictive is local discretion. Nonallocative policy may require much higher and stricter compliance on the part of the locals mainly because policy implementation is simply a matter of compliance and, therefore, is more likely to be dictated by political value. See Jae Ho Chung, "Studies of Central-Provincial Relations in the People's Republic of China: A Mid-Term Appraisal," The China Quarterly, no. 142 (June 1995): 504-6.
36. Yang Shuang, "Anticorruption: The Situation is Serious and Awaiting Reform," in 1996-97-nian Zhongguo fazhan qingquang yu qushi (China's development and trends in 1996-97), ed. Weng Jieming et al. (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui chubanshe, 1997), 88.
37. Liu Zhifeng, ed., Diqici geming: 1998-nian Zhongguo zhengfujigou gaige beiwanglu (The seventh revolution: A memorandum on the reform of China's government structure in 1998) (Beijing: Jingji ribao chubanshe, 1998).
38. Melanie Manion, "The Behavior of Middlemen in the Cadre Retirement Policy Process," in Bureaucracy, Politics, and Decision-making in Post-Mao China, ed. Kenneth G. Lieberthal and David M. Lampton (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1992), 216-44.
39. Lampton, "The Implementation Problem," 18-19; and Kenneth G. Lieberthal and Michel Oksenberg, Policy-making in China: Leaders, Structures, Processes (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1988), 3-4.
40. Lampton, "The Implementation Problem," 18-19; and Kenneth G. Lieberthal and Michel Oksenberg, Policy-making in China: Leaders, Structures, Processes (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1988), 3-4.
41. Kenneth G. Lieberthal, "The 'Fragmented Authoritarianism' Model and its Limitation," in Lieberthal and Lampton, Bureaucracy, Politics, and Decision-making, 1-30.
42. Huang argues, contrary to conventional wisdom, that the monitoring capacity of the center has not weakened even in regard to economic policy implementation. See Yasheng Huang, Inflation and Investment Controls in China: The Political Economy of Central-Local Relations during the Reform Era (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 89-126, and "Administrative Monitoring in China," The China Quarterly, no. 143 (September 1995): 825-43.
43. Huang argues, contrary to conventional wisdom, that the monitoring capacity of the center has not weakened even in regard to economic policy implementation. See Yasheng Huang, Inflation and Investment Controls in China: The Political Economy of Central-Local Relations during the Reform Era (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 89-126, and "Administrative Monitoring in China," The China Quarterly, no. 143 (September 1995): 825-43.
44. Zhongyang jiwei xuanjiaoshi, ed., Sikao yu duice (Reflection and countermeasures) (Beijing: Zhongguo fangzheng chubanshe, 1997), 292-94.
45. Ibid., 293.
46. Hu Xiumei et al., eds., Quanli jiandu lun (On power supervision) (Beijing: Zhongguo minzhu fazhi chubanshe, 1996), 84-87.
47. See Young Nam Cho, China's Political Reform and National People's Congress: The Transformation of Structure and Roles in the Reform Era (1978-98) (Seoul: Nanam Publisher, 2000) (in Korean), 339-404, and "The Oversight Activities of China's Local People's Congresses in the Reform Era," Korean Journal of International Relations (in Korean) 40, no. 2 (2000): 129-45.
48. See Young Nam Cho, China's Political Reform and National People's Congress: The Transformation of Structure and Roles in the Reform Era (1978-98) (Seoul: Nanam Publisher, 2000) (in Korean), 339-404, and "The Oversight Activities of China's Local People's Congresses in the Reform Era," Korean Journal of International Relations (in Korean) 40, no. 2 (2000): 129-45.
49. Manion, "The Behavior of Middlemen," 216-44.
50. Baum, Burying Mao, 385, 387.
51. Bruce Gilley, Tiger on the Brink: Jiang Zemin and China's New Elite (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1998), 207.
52. The CCP Central Committee and the State Council, "Decisions on the Recent Anticorruption Struggle Work," in Shisida yilai zhongyao wenxian xuanbian (shang) (A selection of important documents since the CCP's Fourteenth National Congress, vol. 1), ed. Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1996), 416-17; and the CCP Central Committee, "Some Guidelines on Clean Government for CCP Leadership Cadres" (For trial implementation), in Zhongguo gongchandangjilü chufen tiaoli (for trial implementation) xuexi wenda (Questions and answers for the study of the CCP discipline measures) (Beijing: Zhongguo minzhu fazhi chubanshe, 1997), 333-36.
53. The CCP Central Committee and the State Council, "Decisions on the Recent Anticorruption Struggle Work," in Shisida yilai zhongyao wenxian xuanbian (shang) (A selection of important documents since the CCP's Fourteenth National Congress, vol. 1), ed. Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1996), 416-17; and the CCP Central Committee, "Some Guidelines on Clean Government for CCP Leadership Cadres" (For trial implementation), in Zhongguo gongchandangjilü chufen tiaoli (for trial implementation) xuexi wenda (Questions and answers for the study of the CCP discipline measures) (Beijing: Zhongguo minzhu fazhi chubanshe, 1997), 333-36.
54. The CCP Central Committee and the State Council, "Decisions on the Recent Anticorruption Struggle Work," 417; and Wei Jianxing, "Deepening Work, Thorough Conducting, and Endeavoring to Get New Achievement in Anticorruption Struggle," Qiushi (Seeking Truth) (Beijing), 1995, no. 4, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1995, no. 4:75.
55. The CCP Central Committee and the State Council, "Decisions on the Recent Anticorruption Struggle Work," 417; and Wei Jianxing, "Deepening Work, Thorough Conducting, and Endeavoring to Get New Achievement in Anticorruption Struggle," Qiushi (Seeking Truth) (Beijing), 1995, no. 4, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1995, no. 4:75.
56. The CCP Central Committee and the State Council, "Decisions on the Recent Anticorruption Struggle Work," 417; and Wei Jianxing, "Deepening Work, Thorough Conducting, and Endeavoring to Get New Achievement in Anticorruption Struggle," Qiushi (Seeking Truth) (Beijing), 1995, no. 4, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1995, no. 4:75.
57. Huang Xiurong and Liu Songbin, eds., Zhongguo gongchandang lianzheng fanfu shiji (Achievements of the CCP's clean government and anticorruption) (Beijing: Zhongguo fangzheng chubanshe, 1997), 443; and Liu Xi, "1995 Retrospect of the Chief of the Anticorruption General Office," Zhongguo shehuibao (China Society) (Beijing), January 30, 1996, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1996, no. 2:51.
58. Huang Xiurong and Liu Songbin, eds., Zhongguo gongchandang lianzheng fanfu shiji (Achievements of the CCP's clean government and anticorruption) (Beijing: Zhongguo fangzheng chubanshe, 1997), 443; and Liu Xi, "1995 Retrospect of the Chief of the Anticorruption General Office," Zhongguo shehuibao (China Society) (Beijing), January 30, 1996, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1996, no. 2:51.
59. Huang Xiurong and Liu Songbin, eds., Zhongguo gongchandang lianzheng fanfu shiji (Achievements of the CCP's clean government and anticorruption) (Beijing: Zhongguo fangzheng chubanshe, 1997), 443; and Liu Xi, "1995 Retrospect of the Chief of the Anticorruption General Office," Zhongguo shehuibao (China Society) (Beijing), January 30, 1996, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1996, no. 2:51.
60. The CCP Central Committee and the State Council, "Decisions on the Recent Anticorruption Struggle Work," 417-18; and Zhongyangjiwei xuanjiaoshi, Sikao yu duice, 112-13.
61. The CCP Central Committee and the State Council, "Decisions on the Recent Anticorruption Struggle Work," 417-18; and Zhongyangjiwei xuanjiaoshi, Sikao yu duice, 112-13.
62. Zhongyang jiwei and Jianchabu zhifa jianchashi, eds., Zhifa jiancha lilunyu shijian (The theory and practice of law enforcement supervision) (Beijing: Zhongguo fangzheng chubanshe, 1997), 171.
63. Sun Fei and Zhang Bowen, eds., Dangfeng lianzheng jianshe zerenzhi jianghua (Speeches on the responsibility system for building clean party work style and integrity) (Beijing: Hongqi chubanshe, 2000), 109.
64. Zhongyang jiwei jiancha zongheshi, Fahui dangzhengjiandu zhengli youshi, 16-17; and Wei Jianxing, "Further Strengthening Anticorruption Struggle," Qiushi, 1996, no. 4, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1996, no. 4:97.
65. Zhongyang jiwei jiancha zongheshi, Fahui dangzhengjiandu zhengli youshi, 16-17; and Wei Jianxing, "Further Strengthening Anticorruption Struggle," Qiushi, 1996, no. 4, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1996, no. 4:97.
66. Zhongyang jiwei jiancha zongheshi, Fahui dangzhengjiandu zhengli youshi, 16-17; and Wei Jianxing, "Further Strengthening Anticorruption Struggle," Qiushi, 1996, no. 4, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1996, no. 4:97.
67. See Zhongyang jiwei jiancha zongheshi, Fahui dangzhengjiandu zhengti youshi, 50, 94. For specific regional cases, see Zhongyang jiwei yanjiushi, Wunianjinji wunian sisuo.
68. See Zhongyang jiwei jiancha zongheshi, Fahui dangzhengjiandu zhengti youshi, 50, 94. For specific regional cases, see Zhongyang jiwei yanjiushi, Wunianjinji wunian sisuo.
69. See Jiang Zemin, "Strengthening Anticorruption, Making Progress in Building Party Work Style and Integrity," in Shisida yilai, 409; and the CCP Central Committee and the Satte Council, "Decisions on the Recent Anticorruption Struggle Work," 419.
70. See Jiang Zemin, "Strengthening Anticorruption, Making Progress in Building Party Work Style and Integrity," in Shisida yilai, 409; and the CCP Central Committee and the Satte Council, "Decisions on the Recent Anticorruption Struggle Work," 419.
71. Huang and Liu, Zhongguo gongchandang, 387; and Xian, Lianzheng Zhongguo, 363-64.
72. Huang and Liu, Zhongguo gongchandang, 387; and Xian, Lianzheng Zhongguo, 363-64.
73. Xian, Lianzheng Zhongguo, 22, 26, 314-15.
74. Wang and Zhu, Dangji guitiao tubiao jiexi, 179; and Zhonggong zhongyang zuzhibu zuzhiju, ed., Jiguan dangdejianshe gongzuo zhinan (A guide on the work of party building in institutions) (Beijing: Dangjian duwu chubanshe, 1997), 8-12, 42-7.
75. Wang and Zhu, Dangji guitiao tubiao jiexi, 179; and Zhonggong zhongyang zuzhibu zuzhiju, ed., Jiguan dangdejianshe gongzuo zhinan (A guide on the work of party building in institutions) (Beijing: Dangjian duwu chubanshe, 1997), 8-12, 42-7.
76. Li Yufu and Liang Xisheng, "Advocating Anticorruption and Integrity Received Worldwide Attention," Dangdai shijie yu shehuizhuyi (Current World and Socialism) (Beijing), 1995. no. 4 , reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1995, no. 11:56-57; and "Three Years of Anticorruption, Most Splendid in 1995," Zhongguo jiancha (China's Procurator) (Beijing), 1996. no. 2, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1996, no. 4:91-92.
77. Li Yufu and Liang Xisheng, "Advocating Anticorruption and Integrity Received Worldwide Attention," Dangdai shijie yu shehuizhuyi (Current World and Socialism) (Beijing), 1995. no. 4 , reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1995, no. 11:56-57; and "Three Years of Anticorruption, Most Splendid in 1995," Zhongguo jiancha (China's Procurator) (Beijing), 1996. no. 2, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1996, no. 4:91-92.
78. Li Yufu and Liang Xisheng, "Advocating Anticorruption and Integrity Received Worldwide Attention," Dangdai shijie yu shehuizhuyi (Current World and Socialism) (Beijing), 1995. no. 4 , reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1995, no. 11:56-57; and "Three Years of Anticorruption, Most Splendid in 1995," Zhongguo jiancha (China's Procurator) (Beijing), 1996. no. 2, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1996, no. 4:91-92.
79. Li Yufu and Liang Xisheng, "Advocating Anticorruption and Integrity Received Worldwide Attention," Dangdai shijie yu shehuizhuyi (Current World and Socialism) (Beijing), 1995. no. 4 , reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1995, no. 11:56-57; and "Three Years of Anticorruption, Most Splendid in 1995," Zhongguo jiancha (China's Procurator) (Beijing), 1996. no. 2, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1996, no. 4:91-92.
80. Xian, Lianzheng Zhongguo, 367-442.
81. Zhongyang jiwei and Jianchabu zhifajianchashi, Zhifa jiancha lilunyu shijian, 142.
82. Ibid., 73.
83. Lampton, "The Implementation Problem," 5-7.
84. "Work Report of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection to the CCP's Fifteenth National Congress," 91.
85. This is supported by the fact that the number of corruption cases prosecuted by people's procuratorates at all levels increased in the 1990s when compared to the 1980s. See Manion, "Issues in Corruption Control," 19.
86. Zhongyang jiwei yanjiushi, Wunian jinji wunian sisuo, 11.
87. Yang, "Anticorruption," 74, 88.
88. "Work Report of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection to the CCP's Fifteenth National Congress," 102, 104-10.
89. Ibid., 101-2; Ying Zi, "Nationwide Anticorruption Struggle Gets its First Achievement," Dangjian wenhui (Party Building Collection) (Shenyang), 1994, no. 1, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1994, no. 2:87; and "The Fifth Anticorruption Work Conference of the State Council Held," Zhongguo jiancha, 1997, no. 2, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1997, no. 4:78-79.
90. Ibid., 101-2; Ying Zi, "Nationwide Anticorruption Struggle Gets its First Achievement," Dangjian wenhui (Party Building Collection) (Shenyang), 1994, no. 1, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1994, no. 2:87; and "The Fifth Anticorruption Work Conference of the State Council Held," Zhongguo jiancha, 1997, no. 2, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1997, no. 4:78-79.
91. Ibid., 101-2; Ying Zi, "Nationwide Anticorruption Struggle Gets its First Achievement," Dangjian wenhui (Party Building Collection) (Shenyang), 1994, no. 1, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1994, no. 2:87; and "The Fifth Anticorruption Work Conference of the State Council Held," Zhongguo jiancha, 1997, no. 2, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1997, no. 4:78-79.
92. Ibid., 101-2; Ying Zi, "Nationwide Anticorruption Struggle Gets its First Achievement," Dangjian wenhui (Party Building Collection) (Shenyang), 1994, no. 1, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1994, no. 2:87; and "The Fifth Anticorruption Work Conference of the State Council Held," Zhongguo jiancha, 1997, no. 2, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1997, no. 4:78-79.
93. Ibid., 101-2; Ying Zi, "Nationwide Anticorruption Struggle Gets its First Achievement," Dangjian wenhui (Party Building Collection) (Shenyang), 1994, no. 1, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1994, no. 2:87; and "The Fifth Anticorruption Work Conference of the State Council Held," Zhongguo jiancha, 1997, no. 2, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1997, no. 4:78-79.
94. Hsi-sheng Ch'i, Politics of Disillusionment: The Chinese Communist Party under Deng Xiaoping, 1978-89 (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1991), 195.
95. Dai Ran, "Small Collectivism: The Hotbed of Passive Corruption," Dangjian yanjiu (Research on Party Building) (Beijing), 1994, no. 9, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1994, no. 10:6-7; Chen Jianxin, "Collective Corruption: New Type of Current Corruption," Datequ dangfeng (Party Work Style in Big Special Economic Zones) (Haikou), 1997, no. 6, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1997, no. 9:102-4; and Yang, Fubai lun, 223-25.
96. Dai Ran, "Small Collectivism: The Hotbed of Passive Corruption," Dangjian yanjiu (Research on Party Building) (Beijing), 1994, no. 9, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1994, no. 10:6-7; Chen Jianxin, "Collective Corruption: New Type of Current Corruption," Datequ dangfeng (Party Work Style in Big Special Economic Zones) (Haikou), 1997, no. 6, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1997, no. 9:102-4; and Yang, Fubai lun, 223-25.
97. Dai Ran, "Small Collectivism: The Hotbed of Passive Corruption," Dangjian yanjiu (Research on Party Building) (Beijing), 1994, no. 9, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1994, no. 10:6-7; Chen Jianxin, "Collective Corruption: New Type of Current Corruption," Datequ dangfeng (Party Work Style in Big Special Economic Zones) (Haikou), 1997, no. 6, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1997, no. 9:102-4; and Yang, Fubai lun, 223-25.
98. Dai Ran, "Small Collectivism: The Hotbed of Passive Corruption," Dangjian yanjiu (Research on Party Building) (Beijing), 1994, no. 9, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1994, no. 10:6-7; Chen Jianxin, "Collective Corruption: New Type of Current Corruption," Datequ dangfeng (Party Work Style in Big Special Economic Zones) (Haikou), 1997, no. 6, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1997, no. 9:102-4; and Yang, Fubai lun, 223-25.
99. Dai Ran, "Small Collectivism: The Hotbed of Passive Corruption," Dangjian yanjiu (Research on Party Building) (Beijing), 1994, no. 9, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1994, no. 10:6-7; Chen Jianxin, "Collective Corruption: New Type of Current Corruption," Datequ dangfeng (Party Work Style in Big Special Economic Zones) (Haikou), 1997, no. 6, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1997, no. 9:102-4; and Yang, Fubai lun, 223-25.
100. Zhonggong zhongyang zhengfa weiyuanhui yanjiushi, "Resolutely Enforcing Law, Thoroughly Erasing Local and Sectoral Protectionism," Fazhi ribao (Law Daily) (Beijing), May 2, 1997, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1997, no. 5:70-71; and Yang Minzhi, "Oppose Corruptive Protectionism," Liaowang (Outlook Weekly) (Beijing), 1997, no. 31, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1997, no. 8:103-5.
101. Zhonggong zhongyang zhengfa weiyuanhui yanjiushi, "Resolutely Enforcing Law, Thoroughly Erasing Local and Sectoral Protectionism," Fazhi ribao (Law Daily) (Beijing), May 2, 1997, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1997, no. 5:70-71; and Yang Minzhi, "Oppose Corruptive Protectionism," Liaowang (Outlook Weekly) (Beijing), 1997, no. 31, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1997, no. 8:103-5.
102. Zhonggong zhongyang zhengfa weiyuanhui yanjiushi, "Resolutely Enforcing Law, Thoroughly Erasing Local and Sectoral Protectionism," Fazhi ribao (Law Daily) (Beijing), May 2, 1997, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1997, no. 5:70-71; and Yang Minzhi, "Oppose Corruptive Protectionism," Liaowang (Outlook Weekly) (Beijing), 1997, no. 31, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1997, no. 8:103-5.
103. Zhonggong zhongyang zhengfa weiyuanhui yanjiushi, "Resolutely Enforcing Law, Thoroughly Erasing Local and Sectoral Protectionism," Fazhi ribao (Law Daily) (Beijing), May 2, 1997, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1997, no. 5:70-71; and Yang Minzhi, "Oppose Corruptive Protectionism," Liaowang (Outlook Weekly) (Beijing), 1997, no. 31, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1997, no. 8:103-5.
104. Jianchabu faguisi, ed., Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xingzhengjianchafa shiyi (An explanation of the PRC's administrative supervision law) (Beijing: Zhongguo fangzheng chubanshe, 1997), 101; and Hu, Quanlijiandu lun, 173-74.
105. Jianchabu faguisi, ed., Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xingzhengjianchafa shiyi (An explanation of the PRC's administrative supervision law) (Beijing: Zhongguo fangzheng chubanshe, 1997), 101; and Hu, Quanlijiandu lun, 173-74.
106. Richard Levy, "Corruption, Economic Crime and Social Transformation Since the Reform: The Debate in China," The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, no. 33 (January 1995): 9-20; Gong, Politics of Corruption, 136; and Ch'i, Politics of Disillusionment, 188-89.
107. Richard Levy, "Corruption, Economic Crime and Social Transformation Since the Reform: The Debate in China," The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, no. 33 (January 1995): 9-20; Gong, Politics of Corruption, 136; and Ch'i, Politics of Disillusionment, 188-89.
108. Richard Levy, "Corruption, Economic Crime and Social Transformation Since the Reform: The Debate in China," The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, no. 33 (January 1995): 9-20; Gong, Politics of Corruption, 136; and Ch'i, Politics of Disillusionment, 188-89.
109. Baum, Burying Mao, 174-78.
110. Jiang Nanchun, "Why the Phenomenon of Corruption Occurs," Zhenli de zhuiqiu (Pursuit of Truth) (Beijing), 1995, no. 10, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1995, no. 11:62-65; and Zheng Tianxiang, "On Anticorruption," Qiushi, 1995, no. 13, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1995, no. 7:68-80.
111. Jiang Nanchun, "Why the Phenomenon of Corruption Occurs," Zhenli de zhuiqiu (Pursuit of Truth) (Beijing), 1995, no. 10, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1995, no. 11:62-65; and Zheng Tianxiang, "On Anticorruption," Qiushi, 1995, no. 13, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1995, no. 7:68-80.
112. Jiang Nanchun, "Why the Phenomenon of Corruption Occurs," Zhenli de zhuiqiu (Pursuit of Truth) (Beijing), 1995, no. 10, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1995, no. 11:62-65; and Zheng Tianxiang, "On Anticorruption," Qiushi, 1995, no. 13, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1995, no. 7:68-80.
113. Jiang Nanchun, "Why the Phenomenon of Corruption Occurs," Zhenli de zhuiqiu (Pursuit of Truth) (Beijing), 1995, no. 10, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1995, no. 11:62-65; and Zheng Tianxiang, "On Anticorruption," Qiushi, 1995, no. 13, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1995, no. 7:68-80.
114. Wu Jinglian, "Establishing Equal and Competitive Market Economic Order, Erasing the Origin of Widespread Corruption," Makesizhuyi yu xianshi (Marxism and Reality) (Beijing), reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1994, no. 1:103-7; and Hu Angang and Kang Xiaoguang, "Terminating Corruption by Institutional Renovation," Gaigeyu lilun (Reform and Theory) (Beijing), 1995, no. 3, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1995, no. 5:69-75.
115. Wu Jinglian, "Establishing Equal and Competitive Market Economic Order, Erasing the Origin of Widespread Corruption," Makesizhuyi yu xianshi (Marxism and Reality) (Beijing), reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1994, no. 1:103-7; and Hu Angang and Kang Xiaoguang, "Terminating Corruption by Institutional Renovation," Gaigeyu lilun (Reform and Theory) (Beijing), 1995, no. 3, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1995, no. 5:69-75.
116. Wu Jinglian, "Establishing Equal and Competitive Market Economic Order, Erasing the Origin of Widespread Corruption," Makesizhuyi yu xianshi (Marxism and Reality) (Beijing), reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1994, no. 1:103-7; and Hu Angang and Kang Xiaoguang, "Terminating Corruption by Institutional Renovation," Gaigeyu lilun (Reform and Theory) (Beijing), 1995, no. 3, reprinted in Zhongguo zhengzhi, 1995, no. 5:69-75.
117. Jiang, "Strengthening Anticorruption," 405-7.
118. Gilley, Tiger on the Brink, 242-46.
119. Jiang, "Strengthening Anticorruption," 404.
120. The CCP Central Committee and the State Council, "Decisions on the Recent Anticorruption Struggle Work," 418.
121. Zhongyang jiwei yanjiushi, Wunianjinji wunian sisuo, 74-75.
122. Huang Weiping, ed., Zhongguo jiceng minzhu fazhan de zuixin tupo (Recent breakthroughs in the development of China's grass-roots democracy) (Beijing: Shehui kexue wenxian chubanshe, 2000); and Shi Weimin, Gongxuan yu zhixuan: Xiangzhen renda xuanju zhidu yanjiu (Public elections and direct elections: Research on the township-level people's congress election system) (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 2000), 335-453.
123. Huang Weiping, ed., Zhongguo jiceng minzhu fazhan de zuixin tupo (Recent breakthroughs in the development of China's grass-roots democracy) (Beijing: Shehui kexue wenxian chubanshe, 2000); and Shi Weimin, Gongxuan yu zhixuan: Xiangzhen renda xuanju zhidu yanjiu (Public elections and direct elections: Research on the township-level people's congress election system) (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 2000), 335-453.