Military corruption in China: A conceptual examination

Problems of Post-Communism

Volumn 45, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 12-21

  Mulvenon, James ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0009887910     PISSN: 10758216     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10758216.1998.11655777     Document Type: Article

References (121)

1. These include Alan Liu, "The Politics of Corruption in the People's Republic of China," American Political Science Review 77 (September 1983): 602-23; Stephen Ma, "Reform Corruption: A Discussion on China's Current Development," Pacific Affairs 62, no. 1 (spring 1989): 40-52; Leong H. Liew, "Rent-Seeking and the Two-Track Price System in China," Public Choice 77, no. 2 (October 1993): 359-75; Melanie Manion, "Corruption by Design: Bribery in Chinese Enterprise Licensing," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, New York, September 1994; and Richard Levy, "Corruption, Economic Crime and Social Transformation Since the Reforms: The Debate in China," Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 33 (January 1995): 1-25.
2. These include Alan Liu, "The Politics of Corruption in the People's Republic of China," American Political Science Review 77 (September 1983): 602-23; Stephen Ma, "Reform Corruption: A Discussion on China's Current Development," Pacific Affairs 62, no. 1 (spring 1989): 40-52; Leong H. Liew, "Rent-Seeking and the Two-Track Price System in China," Public Choice 77, no. 2 (October 1993): 359-75; Melanie Manion, "Corruption by Design: Bribery in Chinese Enterprise Licensing," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, New York, September 1994; and Richard Levy, "Corruption, Economic Crime and Social Transformation Since the Reforms: The Debate in China," Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 33 (January 1995): 1-25.
3. These include Alan Liu, "The Politics of Corruption in the People's Republic of China," American Political Science Review 77 (September 1983): 602-23; Stephen Ma, "Reform Corruption: A Discussion on China's Current Development," Pacific Affairs 62, no. 1 (spring 1989): 40-52; Leong H. Liew, "Rent-Seeking and the Two-Track Price System in China," Public Choice 77, no. 2 (October 1993): 359-75; Melanie Manion, "Corruption by Design: Bribery in Chinese Enterprise Licensing," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, New York, September 1994; and Richard Levy, "Corruption, Economic Crime and Social Transformation Since the Reforms: The Debate in China," Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 33 (January 1995): 1-25.
4. These include Alan Liu, "The Politics of Corruption in the People's Republic of China," American Political Science Review 77 (September 1983): 602-23; Stephen Ma, "Reform Corruption: A Discussion on China's Current Development," Pacific Affairs 62, no. 1 (spring 1989): 40-52; Leong H. Liew, "Rent-Seeking and the Two-Track Price System in China," Public Choice 77, no. 2 (October 1993): 359-75; Melanie Manion, "Corruption by Design: Bribery in Chinese Enterprise Licensing," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, New York, September 1994; and Richard Levy, "Corruption, Economic Crime and Social Transformation Since the Reforms: The Debate in China," Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 33 (January 1995): 1-25.
5. These include Alan Liu, "The Politics of Corruption in the People's Republic of China," American Political Science Review 77 (September 1983): 602-23; Stephen Ma, "Reform Corruption: A Discussion on China's Current Development," Pacific Affairs 62, no. 1 (spring 1989): 40-52; Leong H. Liew, "Rent-Seeking and the Two-Track Price System in China," Public Choice 77, no. 2 (October 1993): 359-75; Melanie Manion, "Corruption by Design: Bribery in Chinese Enterprise Licensing," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, New York, September 1994; and Richard Levy, "Corruption, Economic Crime and Social Transformation Since the Reforms: The Debate in China," Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 33 (January 1995): 1-25.
6. Some notable exceptions are June Teufel Dreyer, "Corruption in the People's Republic of China: For Good or For Evil?" paper presented at the fifth annual American Enterprise Institute Conference on the People's Liberation Army, Staunton Hill, June 17-19, 1994; and David Goodman, "Corruption in the People's Liberation Army: Structural Imperatives in the Transformation of the Party-State," paper presented at the International Institute for Strategic Studies/Chinese Council of Advanced Policy Studies Conference "Chinese Economic Reform: The Impact on Security Policy," Hong Kong, July 8-10, 1994.
7. Some notable exceptions are June Teufel Dreyer, "Corruption in the People's Republic of China: For Good or For Evil?" paper presented at the fifth annual American Enterprise Institute Conference on the People's Liberation Army, Staunton Hill, June 17-19, 1994; and David Goodman, "Corruption in the People's Liberation Army: Structural Imperatives in the Transformation of the Party-State," paper presented at the International Institute for Strategic Studies/Chinese Council of Advanced Policy Studies Conference "Chinese Economic Reform: The Impact on Security Policy," Hong Kong, July 8-10, 1994.
8. Ibid.
9. Indeed, Graeme Moodie asserts that confusion over the nature of corruption persists in part "because writers have been loathe to sacrifice the element of moral disapproval inseparable from the word itself." See Graeme Moodie, "On Political Scandals and Corruption," Government and Opposition 15 (spring 1980): 208-10.
10. David Bayley, "The Effects of Corruption in a Developing Nation," Western Political Quarterly 19, no.4 (December 1966): 719-32, reprinted in Political Corruption: A Handbook, ed. Arnold J. Heidenheimer, Michael Johnston, and Victor T. Levine (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1989), pp. 935-52.
11. David Bayley, "The Effects of Corruption in a Developing Nation," Western Political Quarterly 19, no.4 (December 1966): 719-32, reprinted in Political Corruption: A Handbook, ed. Arnold J. Heidenheimer, Michael Johnston, and Victor T. Levine (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1989), pp. 935-52.
12. A few examples of the public office-legalist school are ibid.; Joseph Nye, "Corruption and Political Development: A Cost-Benefit Analysis," American Political Science Review 61, no. 2 (June 1967): 417-27, reprinted in Heidenheimer et al., Political Corruption: A Handbook, pp. 963-83; James Bryce, Modern Democracies, vol. 2 (New York: Macmillan, 1921); and M. McMullan, "A Theory of Corruption," Sociological Review 9, no. 2 (June 1961): 181-200, reprinted in Political Corruption: Readings in Comparative Analysis, ed. Arnold J. Heidenheimer (New York: Holt, Reinhart and Winston, 1970), pp. 317-30.
13. A few examples of the public office-legalist school are ibid.; Joseph Nye, "Corruption and Political Development: A Cost-Benefit Analysis," American Political Science Review 61, no. 2 (June 1967): 417-27, reprinted in Heidenheimer et al., Political Corruption: A Handbook, pp. 963-83; James Bryce, Modern Democracies, vol. 2 (New York: Macmillan, 1921); and M. McMullan, "A Theory of Corruption," Sociological Review 9, no. 2 (June 1961): 181-200, reprinted in Political Corruption: Readings in Comparative Analysis, ed. Arnold J. Heidenheimer (New York: Holt, Reinhart and Winston, 1970), pp. 317-30.
14. A few examples of the public office-legalist school are ibid.; Joseph Nye, "Corruption and Political Development: A Cost-Benefit Analysis," American Political Science Review 61, no. 2 (June 1967): 417-27, reprinted in Heidenheimer et al., Political Corruption: A Handbook, pp. 963-83; James Bryce, Modern Democracies, vol. 2 (New York: Macmillan, 1921); and M. McMullan, "A Theory of Corruption," Sociological Review 9, no. 2 (June 1961): 181-200, reprinted in Political Corruption: Readings in Comparative Analysis, ed. Arnold J. Heidenheimer (New York: Holt, Reinhart and Winston, 1970), pp. 317-30.
15. A few examples of the public office-legalist school are ibid.; Joseph Nye, "Corruption and Political Development: A Cost-Benefit Analysis," American Political Science Review 61, no. 2 (June 1967): 417-27, reprinted in Heidenheimer et al., Political Corruption: A Handbook, pp. 963-83; James Bryce, Modern Democracies, vol. 2 (New York: Macmillan, 1921); and M. McMullan, "A Theory of Corruption," Sociological Review 9, no. 2 (June 1961): 181-200, reprinted in Political Corruption: Readings in Comparative Analysis, ed. Arnold J. Heidenheimer (New York: Holt, Reinhart and Winston, 1970), pp. 317-30.
16. A few examples of the public office-legalist school are ibid.; Joseph Nye, "Corruption and Political Development: A Cost-Benefit Analysis," American Political Science Review 61, no. 2 (June 1967): 417-27, reprinted in Heidenheimer et al., Political Corruption: A Handbook, pp. 963-83; James Bryce, Modern Democracies, vol. 2 (New York: Macmillan, 1921); and M. McMullan, "A Theory of Corruption," Sociological Review 9, no. 2 (June 1961): 181-200, reprinted in Political Corruption: Readings in Comparative Analysis, ed. Arnold J. Heidenheimer (New York: Holt, Reinhart and Winston, 1970), pp. 317-30.
17. A few examples of the public office-legalist school are ibid.; Joseph Nye, "Corruption and Political Development: A Cost-Benefit Analysis," American Political Science Review 61, no. 2 (June 1967): 417-27, reprinted in Heidenheimer et al., Political Corruption: A Handbook, pp. 963-83; James Bryce, Modern Democracies, vol. 2 (New York: Macmillan, 1921); and M. McMullan, "A Theory of Corruption," Sociological Review 9, no. 2 (June 1961): 181-200, reprinted in Political Corruption: Readings in Comparative Analysis, ed. Arnold J. Heidenheimer (New York: Holt, Reinhart and Winston, 1970), pp. 317-30.
18. Bryce, Modern Democracies, p. 121.
19. Nye, "Corruption and Political Development," p. 966.
20. Goodman, "Corruption in the People's Liberation Army," p. 2.
21. John Kramer, "Political Corruption in the USSR," Western Political Quarterly 30 (June 1977): 218.
22. Michael Johnston, Political Corruption and Public Policy in America (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1982).
23. H.A. Brasz, "Some Notes on the Sociology of Corruption," Sociologica Neerlandica 1, no. 2 (autumn 1963): 111-17, reprinted in Heidenheimer, Political Corruption: Readings, pp. 41-45.
24. H.A. Brasz, "Some Notes on the Sociology of Corruption," Sociologica Neerlandica 1, no. 2 (autumn 1963): 111-17, reprinted in Heidenheimer, Political Corruption: Readings, pp. 41-45.
25. Carl J. Friedrich, "Corruption Concepts in Historical Perspective," in Heidenheimer et al., Political Corruption: A Handbook, p. 17.
26. "Corruption is essentially a contested concept in the contemporary PRC even though there are some activities and behaviors that may be universally agreed to be corrupt. . . . In the recent past, the CCP has frequently used the designation of corruption as a political weapon and demonstrated its facility for branding as corrupt behavior that it has ex post facto decided to criticize." See Goodman, "Corruption in the People's Liberation Army," pp. 1-2.
27. Samuel Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968), pp. 59-71.
28. For a lengthy and detailed discussion of the military procuracy system, see Dangdai Zhongguo de jiancha zhidu (Contemporary China's Procuracy System) (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1987), chap. 6. The relationship of the military procurate to economic crimes in the PLA is specifically discussed on pages 371-75.
29. Hubei ribao (March 5, 1985), translated in Joint Publications Research Service (June 14, 1985): 95-96; and Hainan Radio (March 2, 1985), translated in Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Daily Report, China (hereafter, FBIS:CHI) (March 6, 1985): P1-2.
30. Hubei ribao (March 5, 1985), translated in Joint Publications Research Service (June 14, 1985): 95-96; and Hainan Radio (March 2, 1985), translated in Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Daily Report, China (hereafter, FBIS:CHI) (March 6, 1985): P1-2.
31. Xinhua (November 2, 1988), in FBIS:CHI (November 7, 1988): 39. See also Jiefangjun bao (Liberation Army Daily) (June 26, 1990), in FBIS:CHI (July 20, 1990): 35.
32. Xinhua (November 2, 1988), in FBIS:CHI (November 7, 1988): 39. See also Jiefangjun bao (Liberation Army Daily) (June 26, 1990), in FBIS:CHI (July 20, 1990): 35.
33. "An Opinion Concerning the Problem of Repeatedly Being Unable to Prohibit Successfully," Junshi jingji yanjiu (Military Economic Studies), no. 9 (1989): 96.
34. Xinhua (July 21, 1993), in FBIS:CHI (July 26, 1993): 32-33.
35. Jacob van Klaveren, "The Concept of Corruption," in Heidenheimer, Political Corruption: Readings, pp. 38-40.
36. The major works of the "market-centered" school are van Klaveren, "The Concept of Corruption"; and Robert O. Tilman, "Emergence of Black-Market Bureaucracy: Administration, Development, and Corruption in the New States," Public Administration Review 28, no. 5 (September-October 1968): 440-42, reprinted in Heidenheimer, Political Corruption: Readings, pp. 62-64.
37. The major works of the "market-centered" school are van Klaveren, "The Concept of Corruption"; and Robert O. Tilman, "Emergence of Black-Market Bureaucracy: Administration, Development, and Corruption in the New States," Public Administration Review 28, no. 5 (September-October 1968): 440-42, reprinted in Heidenheimer, Political Corruption: Readings, pp. 62-64.
38. The major works of the "market-centered" school are van Klaveren, "The Concept of Corruption"; and Robert O. Tilman, "Emergence of Black-Market Bureaucracy: Administration, Development, and Corruption in the New States," Public Administration Review 28, no. 5 (September-October 1968): 440-42, reprinted in Heidenheimer, Political Corruption: Readings, pp. 62-64.
39. Edward Banfield, "Corruption as a Feature of Governmental Organization," Journal of Law and Economics 18 (1975): 595. A very similar argument is made in Vilfredo Pareto, Manual of Political Economy (New York: A.M. Kelley, 1971), p. 196.
40. Edward Banfield, "Corruption as a Feature of Governmental Organization," Journal of Law and Economics 18 (1975): 595. A very similar argument is made in Vilfredo Pareto, Manual of Political Economy (New York: A.M. Kelley, 1971), p. 196.
41. Samuel Huntington, Soldier and the State (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1958), p. 15. Elements of the Chinese military also understand this, as seen in a Liberation Army Daily editorial: "The Army is part of the superstructure of society and does not directly participate in economic construction and in the production of material wealth. The purpose that the Army should not pursue should not be economic yields but national security." See Jiefangjun bao (February 9, 1989), in FBIS:CHI (February 17, 1989): 35-37.
42. Samuel Huntington, Soldier and the State (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1958), p. 15. Elements of the Chinese military also understand this, as seen in a Liberation Army Daily editorial: "The Army is part of the superstructure of society and does not directly participate in economic construction and in the production of material wealth. The purpose that the Army should not pursue should not be economic yields but national security." See Jiefangjun bao (February 9, 1989), in FBIS:CHI (February 17, 1989): 35-37.
43. See Max Weber, Economy and Society, vol. 2 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), p. 956. The major works of this school include Carl Friedrich, Man and His Government (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963); Carl Friedrich, "Political Pathology," Political Quarterly 37 (January-March 1966): 70-85; and Arnold A. Rogow and Harold D. Lasswell, Power, Corruption, and Rectitude (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1963).
44. See Max Weber, Economy and Society, vol. 2 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), p. 956. The major works of this school include Carl Friedrich, Man and His Government (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963); Carl Friedrich, "Political Pathology," Political Quarterly 37 (January-March 1966): 70-85; and Arnold A. Rogow and Harold D. Lasswell, Power, Corruption, and Rectitude (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1963).
45. See Max Weber, Economy and Society, vol. 2 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), p. 956. The major works of this school include Carl Friedrich, Man and His Government (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963); Carl Friedrich, "Political Pathology," Political Quarterly 37 (January-March 1966): 70-85; and Arnold A. Rogow and Harold D. Lasswell, Power, Corruption, and Rectitude (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1963).
46. See Max Weber, Economy and Society, vol. 2 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), p. 956. The major works of this school include Carl Friedrich, Man and His Government (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963); Carl Friedrich, "Political Pathology," Political Quarterly 37 (January-March 1966): 70-85; and Arnold A. Rogow and Harold D. Lasswell, Power, Corruption, and Rectitude (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1963).
47. A pre-bureaucratic system, by contrast, is characterized by weak centralization, non-restrictive hierarchy, badly defined roles, personalism, and an ambiguous relationship between government officials and the private sector.
48. Rogow and Lasswell, Power, Corruption, and Rectitude, p. 54.
49. Banfield, "Corruption as a Feature," pp. 587-88.
50. Bayley, "The Effects of Corruption," p. 937.
51. This discussion is taken from Dreyer, "Corruption in the People's Republic of China," pp. 8-12.
52. Ming Pao (August 27, 1985), in FBIS:CHI (August 28, 1985): W1-2.
53. "Economic Crimes in the Military: Causes and Countermeasures," Junshi jingji yanjiu yuebao (Military Economic Research Monthly) (November 1989): 37-39.
54. I would like to thank one of the anonymous reviewers for providing me with this observation.
55. See Tai Ming Cheung, "Profits Over Professionalism: The People's Liberation Army's Economic Activities and Its Impact on Military Unity," paper presented at the "Conference on Security Dimensions of Chinese Regionalism," International Institute for Strategic Studies and the Chinese Council of Advanced Policy Studies, Hong Kong, June 25-27, 1993.
56. "Economic Crimes in the Military," pp. 37-39.
57. The PLA has been involved in economic production since the 1920s, when it was forced to maintain its own farms and ordnance factories (this infrastructure was the foundation of China's nascent military-industrial complex after liberation in 1949). The PLA continued to run its own farms after 1949 and was a key provider of labor for China's large infrastructure projects, building hundreds of bridges, dams, airports, railroads, and so on. While these activities still continue in the post-Mao period, there is now an emphasis on profit that was unthinkable during the Maoist era. In addition, PLA participation in the economy is far larger than before and includes a much wider variety of enterprises. See "A New Problem, Which We Should Bear in Mind and Guard Against," Junshi jingji yanjiu (Military Economic Studies), no. 9 (1989): 50-51.
58. "Economic Crimes in the Military," pp. 37-39; and Renmin ribao (October 1, 1988), in FBIS:CHI (October 4, 1988): 24.
59. "Economic Crimes in the Military," pp. 37-39; and Renmin ribao (October 1, 1988), in FBIS:CHI (October 4, 1988): 24.
60. Interviews in Beijing, February-March 1997. Since 1995, it has become clear that the "warfighters" in the PLA, such as Zhang Wannian, are very serious about firewalling the PLA from its business operations. As a result, interviews suggest that the only remaining operations below the level of group army are illegal in nature, though lower-level unit's previous involvement in production certainly influenced their continuing corrupt behavior.
61. For example, Gen. Ding Henggao, former director of COSTIND, Lt. Gen. Nie Li, former official of COSTIND, and Maj. Gen. Qi Jun, former deputy chief of staff of COSTIND, have been recently investigated (and, in the case of Maj. Gen. Qi, arrested) for economic crimes involving millions of dollars. Interviews in Beijing, March 1997.
62. Dreyer, "Corruption in the People's Republic of China," p. 12.
63. Hsin pao (November 22, 1993), in FBIS:CHI (December 3, 1993): 32-33.
64. Lin Chung-hsing, "Regularization of Military Legislative System: Legal Bureau of Central Military Commission Starts Functioning," Junshi jingji yanjiu (1993): 34-36.
65. Renmin gongan bao (December 6, 1994), in FBIS:CHI (March 2, 1995): 29. For further discussion of the use of military license plates in corruption, see Beijing Central Television Program (May 1, 1995), in FBIS:CHI (May 2, 1995): 31; Ta kung pao (February 24, 1994), in FBIS:CHI (April 5, 1994): 44-45; and Ming pao (September 6, 1991), in FBIS:CHI (September 11, 1991): 31-32.
66. Renmin gongan bao (December 6, 1994), in FBIS:CHI (March 2, 1995): 29. For further discussion of the use of military license plates in corruption, see Beijing Central Television Program (May 1, 1995), in FBIS:CHI (May 2, 1995): 31; Ta kung pao (February 24, 1994), in FBIS:CHI (April 5, 1994): 44-45; and Ming pao (September 6, 1991), in FBIS:CHI (September 11, 1991): 31-32.
67. Renmin gongan bao (December 6, 1994), in FBIS:CHI (March 2, 1995): 29. For further discussion of the use of military license plates in corruption, see Beijing Central Television Program (May 1, 1995), in FBIS:CHI (May 2, 1995): 31; Ta kung pao (February 24, 1994), in FBIS:CHI (April 5, 1994): 44-45; and Ming pao (September 6, 1991), in FBIS:CHI (September 11, 1991): 31-32.
68. Renmin gongan bao (December 6, 1994), in FBIS:CHI (March 2, 1995): 29. For further discussion of the use of military license plates in corruption, see Beijing Central Television Program (May 1, 1995), in FBIS:CHI (May 2, 1995): 31; Ta kung pao (February 24, 1994), in FBIS:CHI (April 5, 1994): 44-45; and Ming pao (September 6, 1991), in FBIS:CHI (September 11, 1991): 31-32.
69. See Andrew Wedeman, "Bamboo Walls and Brick Ramparts" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California at Los Angeles, 1995).
70. South China Morning Post (December 9, 1993), in FBIS:CHI (December 9, 1993): 20-21.
71. Ta kung pao (April 13, 1994), in FBIS:CHI (May 5, 1994): 67; and South China Morning Post (June 24, 1993), in FBIS:CHI (June 24, 1993): 33.
72. Ta kung pao (April 13, 1994), in FBIS:CHI (May 5, 1994): 67; and South China Morning Post (June 24, 1993), in FBIS:CHI (June 24, 1993): 33.
73. Dangdai Zhongguo jundui de houqin gongzuo (Contemporary Chinese Military Logistics Work) (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1987).
74. Some Western estimates place this number closer to 40 percent and are critical of the overall quality of the effort and product. See Ronald Humble, "Science, Technology and China's Defense Industrial Base," Jane 's Intelligence Review (January 1992): 3-11; and R. Bates Gill, "China," in SIPRI Yearbook (New York: Humanities Press, 1992), pp. 370-76.
75. Some Western estimates place this number closer to 40 percent and are critical of the overall quality of the effort and product. See Ronald Humble, "Science, Technology and China's Defense Industrial Base," Jane 's Intelligence Review (January 1992): 3-11; and R. Bates Gill, "China," in SIPRI Yearbook (New York: Humanities Press, 1992), pp. 370-76.
76. Dreyer, "Corruption in the People's Republic of China," p. 11.
77. Zhongguo tongxun she (July 11, 1989), in FBIS:CHI(July 13, 1989): 46.
78. Jiefangjun bao (November 23, 1989), in FBIS:CHI (December 19, 1989): 27-28.
79. See Dangdai Zhongguo de jiancha zhidu, pp. 371-75.
80. For examples of this phenomena, see Ming pao (November 6, 1985), in FBIS:CHI (November 7, 1985): W1-2.
81. Kyodo News Service (October 25, 1993), in FBIS:CHI (October 26, 1993): 20.
82. This account is taken from Jiefangjun bao (October 7, 1988), in FBIS:CHI (October 24, 1988): 32-33.
83. Steven J. Staats, "Corruption in the Soviet System," Problems of Communism 21, no. 1 (January-February 1972): 40. See also South China Morning Post (December 29, 1993), in FBIS:CHI (December 29, 1993): 34-35.
84. Steven J. Staats, "Corruption in the Soviet System," Problems of Communism 21, no. 1 (January-February 1972): 40. See also South China Morning Post (December 29, 1993), in FBIS:CHI (December 29, 1993): 34-35.
85. Lowell Dittmer, "Chinese Informal Politics," China Journal, no. 34 (July 1995): 1-34.
86. Clemens Stubbe Østergaard, "Explaining China's Recent Political Corruption: Patterns, Remedies, and Counterstrategies at the Local Level," Corruption and Reform no. 1: 221.
87. The Chinese proverb "shaji, xia hou" (kill the chicken to frighten the monkey) is particularly appropriate in this case.
88. Dreyer, "Corruption in the People's Republic of China," p. 11.
89. Ta kung pao (April 13, 1994), in FBIS:CHI (May 5, 1994): 67; and South China Morning Post (June 24, 1993), in FBIS:CHI (June 24, 1993): 33.
90. Ta kung pao (April 13, 1994), in FBIS:CHI (May 5, 1994): 67; and South China Morning Post (June 24, 1993), in FBIS:CHI (June 24, 1993): 33.
91. Confirmed during interviews in Beijing, February-March 1997.
92. Jiefangjun bao (March 15, 1986); Kunming Yunnan Provincial Service (June 11, 1986), in FBIS:CHI (June 18, 1986): Q4; Ming pao (June 25, 1986), in Joint Publications Research Service (April 11, 1986): 90-91.
93. Jiefangjun bao (March 15, 1986); Kunming Yunnan Provincial Service (June 11, 1986), in FBIS:CHI (June 18, 1986): Q4; Ming pao (June 25, 1986), in Joint Publications Research Service (April 11, 1986): 90-91.
94. Jiefangjun bao (March 15, 1986); Kunming Yunnan Provincial Service (June 11, 1986), in FBIS:CHI (June 18, 1986): Q4; Ming pao (June 25, 1986), in Joint Publications Research Service (April 11, 1986): 90-91.
95. Michael Johnston, "The Political Consequences of Corruption: A Reassessment," Comparative Politics 18 (July 1986): 464.
96. Arnold Heidenheimer, "Corruption and Reform: An Editorial Essay," Corruption and Reform 1 (1986): 3.
97. Johnston, "The Political Consequences of Corruption," pp. 461-62. See also Bayley, "The Effects of Corruption," p. 944.
98. Johnston, "The Political Consequences of Corruption," pp. 461-62. See also Bayley, "The Effects of Corruption," p. 944.
99. James T. Myers, "Modernization and 'Unhealthy Tendencies,' " Comparative Politics 21 (January 1989): 203. See also Nye, "Corruption and Political Development," p. 968.
100. James T. Myers, "Modernization and 'Unhealthy Tendencies,' " Comparative Politics 21 (January 1989): 203. See also Nye, "Corruption and Political Development," p. 968.
101. Gregory Grossman, "The 'Second Economy' of the USSR," Problems of Communism 26, no. 5 (September-October 1977): 37.
102. Staats, "Corruption in the Soviet System," p. 46.
103. Ma, "Reform Corruption," p. 47; and Goodman, "Corruption in the People's Liberation Army," pp. 2-3
104. Ma, "Reform Corruption," p. 47; and Goodman, "Corruption in the People's Liberation Army," pp. 2-3
105. Nye, "Corruption and Political Development," pp. 967-68.
106. Ibid., pp. 970-72.
107. Dreyer, "Corruption in the People's Republic of China"; and Goodman, "Corruption in the People's Liberation Army."
108. Dreyer, "Corruption in the People's Republic of China"; and Goodman, "Corruption in the People's Liberation Army."
109. Dreyer, "Corruption in the People's Republic of China," pp. 16-18.
110. Corruption undermines many of these efforts because corruption leads to non-rational investment of resources and systemic breakdown.
111. Goodman, "Corruption in the People's Liberation Army," p. 3.
112. S.E. Finer, The Man on Horseback: The Role of the Military in Politics (New York: Praeger, 1962), pp. 6-22; and Huntington, Soldier and the State, pp. 7-97.
113. S.E. Finer, The Man on Horseback: The Role of the Military in Politics (New York: Praeger, 1962), pp. 6-22; and Huntington, Soldier and the State, pp. 7-97.
114. Emile Durkheim, The Division of Labor in Society (New York: Free Press, 1984).
115. The remainder of this discussion is taken from Finer, Man on Horseback, p. 9.
116. In the PLA, this trend is particularly serious, given the legacy of Tiananmen.
117. On the other hand, a significant percentage of PLA corruption does not involve state expenditures, since it is derived from "created value." I am grateful to one of the anonymous reviewers for this observation.
118. For a more detailed discussion on the effect of corruption upon administration costs, see Banfield, "Corruption as a Feature," p. 589.
119. Jiefangjun bao (March 11, 1988), in FBIS:CHI (March 23, 1988): 21-22.
120. See Hongkong Standard (April 3, 1990), in FBIS:CHI (April 3, 1990): 39-40.
121. Staats, "Corruption in the Soviet System," p. 47.