Extreme-right parties in contemporary Estonia

Patterns of Prejudice

Volumn 37, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 401-414

  Kasekamp, Andres ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TARTU   (Estonia)

^b HUMBOLDT UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

Author keywords

Baltic states; ERPs; Estonia; Extreme right; Nationalism; Political parties

Indexed keywords

EID: 0345356481     PISSN: 0031322X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/0031322032000144483     Document Type: Article

References (54)

1. There are two main ethnic Russian extreme-right groups active in Estonia, both of which are local branches of the organizations Russian National Unity (established by Aleksandr Barkashov) and the National Bolshevik Party (founded by Eduard Limonov). See Toomas Sildam, 'Segane aeg tooks toetust mustsärklastele', Postimees, 10 May 2001, and Hannes Kont, 'Äärmusliikumised ja Eesti', Eesti Päevaleht, 12 May 2000. For the extreme right in Russia, see Stephen D. Shenfield, Russian Fascism: Traditions, Tendencies, Movements (London: M. E. Sharpe 2001).
2. There are two main ethnic Russian extreme-right groups active in Estonia, both of which are local branches of the organizations Russian National Unity (established by Aleksandr Barkashov) and the National Bolshevik Party (founded by Eduard Limonov). See Toomas Sildam, 'Segane aeg tooks toetust mustsärklastele', Postimees, 10 May 2001, and Hannes Kont, 'Äärmusliikumised ja Eesti', Eesti Päevaleht, 12 May 2000. For the extreme right in Russia, see Stephen D. Shenfield, Russian Fascism: Traditions, Tendencies, Movements (London: M. E. Sharpe 2001).
3. There are two main ethnic Russian extreme-right groups active in Estonia, both of which are local branches of the organizations Russian National Unity (established by Aleksandr Barkashov) and the National Bolshevik Party (founded by Eduard Limonov). See Toomas Sildam, 'Segane aeg tooks toetust mustsärklastele', Postimees, 10 May 2001, and Hannes Kont, 'Äärmusliikumised ja Eesti', Eesti Päevaleht, 12 May 2000. For the extreme right in Russia, see Stephen D. Shenfield, Russian Fascism: Traditions, Tendencies, Movements (London: M. E. Sharpe 2001).
4. Paul Hainsworth, 'Introduction: the extreme right', in Paul Hainsworth (ed.), The Politics of the Extreme Right: From the Margins to the Mainstream (London: Pinter 2000), 9.
5. Cas Mudde, 'Extreme-right parties in Eastern Europe', Patterns of Prejudice, vol. 34, no. 1, 2000, 5-27.
6. David J. Smith, Estonia: Independence and European Integration (London: Routledge 2001), 70.
7. See Andres Kasekamp, The Radical Right in Interwar Estonia (Basingstoke: Macmillan 2000); Tönu Parming, The Collapse of Liberal Democracy and Rise of Authoritarianism in Estonia (London: Sage 1975); Rein Marandi, Must-valge lipu all. Vabadussõjalaste liikumine Eestis 1929-1937. I. Legaalne periood (1929-1934), Studia Baltica Stockholmiensia 6 (Uppsala: Centre for Baltic Studies, Stockholm University 1991).
8. See Andres Kasekamp, The Radical Right in Interwar Estonia (Basingstoke: Macmillan 2000); Tönu Parming, The Collapse of Liberal Democracy and Rise of Authoritarianism in Estonia (London: Sage 1975); Rein Marandi, Must-valge lipu all. Vabadussõjalaste liikumine Eestis 1929-1937. I. Legaalne periood (1929-1934), Studia Baltica Stockholmiensia 6 (Uppsala: Centre for Baltic Studies, Stockholm University 1991).
9. See Andres Kasekamp, The Radical Right in Interwar Estonia (Basingstoke: Macmillan 2000); Tönu Parming, The Collapse of Liberal Democracy and Rise of Authoritarianism in Estonia (London: Sage 1975); Rein Marandi, Must-valge lipu all. Vabadussõjalaste liikumine Eestis 1929-1937. I. Legaalne periood (1929-1934), Studia Baltica Stockholmiensia 6 (Uppsala: Centre for Baltic Studies, Stockholm University 1991).
10. As ethnic Estonians suffered less under the Nazi occupation than the Soviet occupation of 1940-1, and memories of the longer second Soviet occupation of 1944-91 are fresh, the Nazi era is not generally seen in such a negative light as elsewhere in Europe. The vilification of Nazi collaborators by Soviet propaganda and the common labelling of Estonians as a 'fascist' nation has also led to an opposing interpretation of events in which those who fought in German uniform against the Red Army are perceived as patriots.
11. Nils Muižnieks, 'The contemporary face of extremism in Latvia', unpublished manuscript, 2002: Latvian Centre for Human Rights and Ethnic Studies, Riga.
12. Romuald Misiunas and Rein Taagepera, The Baltic States: Years of Dependence 1940-1990 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1993), 351-2.
13. The men leading the present Democratic Labour Party were completely inconsequential figures in the ECP hierarchy. In fact, the chairman, Tut Toomsalu, never even belonged to the ECP. Former ECP members can of course be found in most of the parliamentary parties. See Jüri Ruus and Anton Steen, 'Change of regime - continuity of elites? The case of Estonia', East European Politics and Societies, vol. 16, no. 1, 2002, 223-48.
14. Christopher Williams, 'The problems of transition and the rise of the radical right', in Sabrina P. Ramet (ed.), The Radical Right in Central and Eastern Europe since 1989 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press 1999), 45; Mudde, 21.
15. Rein Taagepera, Estonia: Return to Independence (Boulder, CO: Westview Press 1993), 174-5.
16. Ibid., 96, 100-1, 107.
17. Thus Mudde rightly recognized that the Pro Patria Union should be labelled 'national conservative' rather than 'extreme right' (Mudde, 21).
18. David Arter, Parties and Democracy in the Post-Soviet Republics: The Case of Estonia (Aldershot: Ashgate 1996), 202-3.
19. The electoral list Better Estonia/Estonian Citizen, which also included the National Progress Party and the National Jäägri Party, received 3.6 per cent of the vote in the 1995 elections.
20. In order to keep these developments in context, it is important to note that Russian troops remained based in Estonia until August 1994.
21. Rein Toomla, Eesti erakonnad (Tallinn: Eesti Entsüklopeedia Kirjastus 1999), 284.
22. Arter, 161-2.
23. Hommikuleht, 28 February 1994.
24. Luup, 10 June 1996.
25. Sõnumikht, 26 September 1996. Madisson is the only individual to have been convicted of treason in Estonia since the restoration of independence. He was freed in late 1997 as the result of an amnesty granted by parliament.
26. Eesti Ekspress, 14 June 1996.
27. Tiit Madisson, Riigipööraja märkmik (Lihula: T. Madisson 1999).
28. 'Aleksander Einseln läheb poliitikasse', Eesti Päevaleht, 5 December 1995.
29. Tiit Madisson, 'Tiit Madissoni avaldus', Kesknädal, 27 February 2002.
30. Vello Leito, Euroopa Liit tagantvaates (Saku: Rebellis 1998), and Vello Leito, Eesti geopoliitika: olukord, võimalused, missioon (Saku: Rebellis 1999).
31. Vello Leito, Euroopa Liit tagantvaates (Saku: Rebellis 1998), and Vello Leito, Eesti geopoliitika: olukord, võimalused, missioon (Saku: Rebellis 1999).
32. For the Estonian Independence Party's political doctrine, see 'Eesti iseseisvus ja majandus - Eesti kui uusautarkiline geopoliitiline ruum' and 'Eesti Iseseisvuspartei eesmärgid' on the party's website, www.iseseisvuspartei.ee (viewed 29 July 2003).
33. See the Republican Party website, www.hot.ee/vabpar (viewed 29 July 2003).
34. This was in the city of Pärnu, where the party's leader is based. For the election results, see the Estonian National Electoral Committee, www.vvk.ee (viewed 29 July 2003).
35. See Roger Griffin's definition of the term 'groupuscule' in Roger Griffin, 'The incredible shrinking ism: the survival of fascism in the post-fascist era', Patterns of Prejudice, vol. 36, no. 3, 2002, 4.
36. See the Estonian Freedom Movement's website, www.zone.ee/ vabadusliikumine (viewed 29 July 2003).
37. Postimees, 27 September 2000.
38. Another party that has been using Euroscepticism to raise its profile is the Estonian Christian People's Party (Eesti Kristlik Rahvapartei), which was formed immediately prior to the 1999 parliamentary elections, in which it failed to clear the 5 per cent threshold. In the 2003 elections the party received only 1.1 per cent. The Christian People's Party is essentially a populist conservative party with a traditional family values orientation whose motto might be translated best as 'Honestly is possible'. While this party has a stronger organization, larger membership and more potential for electoral success (it already has a few seats in town councils) than the second-generation ERPs, it will nevertheless remain marginal because a religiously inspired platform appears incompatible with modern Estonian society, which is one of the most secular in the world. See the Christian People's Party website, www.ekrp.ee (viewed 29 July 2003).
39. Magnus Feldmann, 'The fast track from the Soviet Union to the world economy: external liberalization in Estonia and Latvia', Government and Opposition, vol. 36, no. 4, 2001, 537-58.
40. Evald Mikkel and Andres Kasekamp, 'Emerging party realignment? Party-based Euroscepticism in Estonia', paper presented at the European Consortium for Political Research (ECPR) Joint Sessions, Turin, 22-7 March 2002.
41. Cas Mudde, 'Warum ist der Rechtsradikalismus in Osteuropa so schwach?', Osteuropa, vol. 52, no. 5, 2002, 628-9.
42. Bernard Grofman, Evald Mikkel and Rein Taagepera, 'Fission and fusion of parties in Estonia, 1987-1999', Journal of Baltic Studies, vol. 31, no. 4, 2000, 349.
43. Roger Eatwell, 'The dynamics of right-wing electoral breakthrough', Patterns of Prejudice, vol. 32, no. 3, 1998, 27-30; Roger Eatwell, 'The rebirth of the extreme right in Western Europe?', Parliamentary Affairs, vol. 53, no. 3, 2000, 423.
44. Roger Eatwell, 'The dynamics of right-wing electoral breakthrough', Patterns of Prejudice, vol. 32, no. 3, 1998, 27-30; Roger Eatwell, 'The rebirth of the extreme right in Western Europe?', Parliamentary Affairs, vol. 53, no. 3, 2000, 423.
45. Eesti Päevaleht, 20 December 2000.
46. Mikko Lagerspetz and Konrad Maier, 'Das politische System Estlands', in Wolfgang Ismayr (ed.), Die politischen Systeme Osteuropas (Oplanden: Leske and Budrich 2002), 85.
47. Christer D. Daatland and Hans Petter Svege, 'Estonia', in Frank Aarebrot and Terje Knutsen (eds), Politics and Citizenship on the Eastern Baltic Seaboard: The Structuring of Democratic Politics from North-west Russia to Poland (Bergen: Nordic Academic Press 2000), 65.
48. Michael Minkenberg, 'The radical right in postsocialist Central and Eastern Europe: comparative observations and interpretations', East European Politics and Societies, vol. 16, no. 2, 2002, 362.
49. Graeme P. Herd and Joan Löfgren, ' "Societal security", the Baltic states and EU integration', Cooperation and Conflict, vol. 36, no 3, 2001, 273-96; Margit Sarv, Integration by Reframing Legislation: Implementation of the Recommendations of the OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities to Estonia, 1993-2001, CORE Working Paper 7 (Hamburg: Centre for OSCE Research, Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy, University of Hamburg 2002). For the most comprehensive study of the Russian-speaking minority, see Marju Lauristin and Mati Heidmets (eds), The Challenge of the Russian Minority: Emerging Multicultural Democracy in Estonia (Tartu: Tartu University Press 2002).
50. Graeme P. Herd and Joan Löfgren, ' "Societal security", the Baltic states and EU integration', Cooperation and Conflict, vol. 36, no 3, 2001, 273-96; Margit Sarv, Integration by Reframing Legislation: Implementation of the Recommendations of the OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities to Estonia, 1993-2001, CORE Working Paper 7 (Hamburg: Centre for OSCE Research, Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy, University of Hamburg 2002). For the most comprehensive study of the Russian-speaking minority, see Marju Lauristin and Mati Heidmets (eds), The Challenge of the Russian Minority: Emerging Multicultural Democracy in Estonia (Tartu: Tartu University Press 2002).
51. Graeme P. Herd and Joan Löfgren, ' "Societal security", the Baltic states and EU integration', Cooperation and Conflict, vol. 36, no 3, 2001, 273-96; Margit Sarv, Integration by Reframing Legislation: Implementation of the Recommendations of the OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities to Estonia, 1993-2001, CORE Working Paper 7 (Hamburg: Centre for OSCE Research, Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy, University of Hamburg 2002). For the most comprehensive study of the Russian-speaking minority, see Marju Lauristin and Mati Heidmets (eds), The Challenge of the Russian Minority: Emerging Multicultural Democracy in Estonia (Tartu: Tartu University Press 2002).
52. European Commission, Applicant Countries Eurobarometer (Brussels: European Commission 2001).
53. Kristi Raik, 'Bureaucratisation or strengthening of the political? Estonian institutions and integration into the European Union', Cooperation and Conflict, vol. 37, no. 2, 2002, 137-56.
54. Marcel Lubbers, Mérove Gijsberts, and Peer Scheepers, 'Extreme right-wing voting in Western Europe', European Journal of Political Research, vol. 41, no. 3, 2002, 371.