Lethal Regulation: State-Corporate Crime and the United Kingdom Government's New Mercenaries

Journal of Law and Society

Volumn 30, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 575-600

  Whyte, Dave ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0344824505     PISSN: 0263323X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-6478.2003.00271.x     Document Type: Review

References (175)

1. W. Burchett and D. Roebuck, The Whores of War: mercenaries today (1977).
2. D. Brooks, 'Messiahs or Mercenaries? The future of international private military services' (2000) 7 International Peacekeeping 130; L. Serewicz, 'Globalisation, Sovereignty and the Military Revolution: from mercenaries to private international security companies' (2002) 39 International Politics 75-89; D. Kassebaum, 'A Question of Facts: the legal use of private security firms in Bosnia' (2000) 38 Columbian J. of Transnational Law 581-602; L. Zarate, 'The Emergence of a New Dog of War: Private International Security Companies, international law and the new world disorder' (1998) 34 Stanford J. of International Law 75-162.
3. D. Brooks, 'Messiahs or Mercenaries? The future of international private military services' (2000) 7 International Peacekeeping 130; L. Serewicz, 'Globalisation, Sovereignty and the Military Revolution: from mercenaries to private international security companies' (2002) 39 International Politics 75-89; D. Kassebaum, 'A Question of Facts: the legal use of private security firms in Bosnia' (2000) 38 Columbian J. of Transnational Law 581-602; L. Zarate, 'The Emergence of a New Dog of War: Private International Security Companies, international law and the new world disorder' (1998) 34 Stanford J. of International Law 75-162.
4. D. Brooks, 'Messiahs or Mercenaries? The future of international private military services' (2000) 7 International Peacekeeping 130; L. Serewicz, 'Globalisation, Sovereignty and the Military Revolution: from mercenaries to private international security companies' (2002) 39 International Politics 75-89; D. Kassebaum, 'A Question of Facts: the legal use of private security firms in Bosnia' (2000) 38 Columbian J. of Transnational Law 581-602; L. Zarate, 'The Emergence of a New Dog of War: Private International Security Companies, international law and the new world disorder' (1998) 34 Stanford J. of International Law 75-162.
5. D. Brooks, 'Messiahs or Mercenaries? The future of international private military services' (2000) 7 International Peacekeeping 130; L. Serewicz, 'Globalisation, Sovereignty and the Military Revolution: from mercenaries to private international security companies' (2002) 39 International Politics 75-89; D. Kassebaum, 'A Question of Facts: the legal use of private security firms in Bosnia' (2000) 38 Columbian J. of Transnational Law 581-602; L. Zarate, 'The Emergence of a New Dog of War: Private International Security Companies, international law and the new world disorder' (1998) 34 Stanford J. of International Law 75-162.
6. J. Straw, 'Foreword by the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs' in Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Private Military Companies: options for regulation (2001-02; HC 577) 5.
7. Although many are in fact domiciled in offshore tax havens. See P. Singer, 'Corporate Warriors: the Rise and Ramifications of the Privatized Military Industry' (2001/02) 26 International Security 186-220.
8. C. Spearin, 'Private Security Companies and Humanitarians: a corporate solution to securing humanitarian spaces?' (2001) 8 International Peacekeeping 20-43.
9. Brooks, op. cit., n. 2.
10. J. Cilliers and P. Mason (eds.), Peace, Profit or Plunder? The privatization of security in war-torn African societies (1999).
11. Foreign and Commonwealth Office, op. cit., n. 3, p. 13.
12. Select Committee on Foreign Affairs, Ninth Report, Private Military Companies (2001-02; H.C. 922) para. 8.
13. International Consortium of Investigative Journalists/Centre for Public Integrity (ICLT/CPI), Making a Killing: the Business of War (2002). The overall number of private contractors providing the full range of supply services to military is likely to be in the high hundreds (Singer, op. cit., n. 4).
14. International Consortium of Investigative Journalists/Centre for Public Integrity (ICLT/CPI), Making a Killing: the Business of War (2002). The overall number of private contractors providing the full range of supply services to military is likely to be in the high hundreds (Singer, op. cit., n. 4).
15. N. Schwartz, 'The War Business: the Pentagon's Private Army' (2003) 3 Fortune Magazine.
16. Washington Post, 3 March 2003.
17. International Consortium of Investigative Journalists/Centre for Public Integrity, Privatizing Combat, the New World Order (2002).
18. For example, D. Yergin and J. Stanislaw, The Commanding Heights: the Battle Between Government and the Marketplace that is Remaking the Modern World (1998).
19. S. Strange, The Retreat of the State: The Diffusion of Power in the World Economy (1996).
20. D. Held, 'Democracy, the Nation State and the Global System' (1991) 20 Economy and Society.
21. K. Ohmae, The End of the Nation State: The Rise of Regional Economies (1995).
22. C. Harman, 'Globalisation: A Critique of a New Orthodoxy' (1996) 73 International Socialism 3-33; S. Tombs and D. Whyte, 'Capital Fights Back: Risk, Regulation and Profit in the United Kingdom Offshore Oil Industry' (1998) 57 Studies in Political Economy 73-101.
23. C. Harman, 'Globalisation: A Critique of a New Orthodoxy' (1996) 73 International Socialism 3-33; S. Tombs and D. Whyte, 'Capital Fights Back: Risk, Regulation and Profit in the United Kingdom Offshore Oil Industry' (1998) 57 Studies in Political Economy 73-101.
24. N. Hertz, The Silent Takeover: Global Capitalism and the Death of Democracy (2001).
25. See S. Krasner, 'Compromising Westphalia' (1995) 20 International Security 115-51 for a discussion of different applications of the term 'sovereignty' in the context of the nation state. What I mean by 'sovereignty erosion' here is the erosion of the degree of control held by central political and administrative institutions in any given nation state over critical state functions such as the management of the economy.
26. N. Rose, 'The Death of the Social? Re-figuring the Territory of Government' (1996) 25 Economy and Society 327-56.
27. D. Garland, The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society (2001).
28. M. Kempa, R. Carrier, J. Wood, and C. Shearing, 'Reflections on the Evolving Concept of "Private Policing'" (1999) 7 European J. on Criminal Policy and Research 197-224.
29. We should also note recent work by John Braithwaite, 'The New Regulatory State and the Transformation of Criminology' in Criminology and Social Theory, eds. D. Garland and R. Sparks (2000) that reviews some of this literature, although Braithwaite's description of the new regulatory state is much more ambivalent about the question of sovereign authority.
30. D. Campbell, 'The Limits of Concept Formation in Social Science' (2000) 9 Social and Legal Studies 439-48; S. Tombs and D. Whyte, 'Corporations Beyond the Law? Regulation, Risk and Corporate Crime in a Globalised Era' (2003) 5 Risk Management 9-16.
31. D. Campbell, 'The Limits of Concept Formation in Social Science' (2000) 9 Social and Legal Studies 439-48; S. Tombs and D. Whyte, 'Corporations Beyond the Law? Regulation, Risk and Corporate Crime in a Globalised Era' (2003) 5 Risk Management 9-16.
32. B. Jessop, The Future of the Capitalism State (2002).
33. D. Swank, 'Withering Welfare? Globalisation, political economic institutions, and contemporary welfare states' in States in the Global Economy: Bringing Domestic Institutions Back In, ed. L. Weiss (2003).
34. Tombs and Whyte, op. cit., n. 18.
35. G. Underbill, 'Introduction: Conceptualising the Changing Global Order' in Political Economy and the Changing Global Order, eds. R. Stubbs and G. Underbill (1994).
36. A. Alvesalo and S. Tombs, 'The Emergence of a "War" on Economic Crime: The Case of Finland' (2001) 3 Business and Politics 239-67.
37. D. Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity: an Inquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change (1989).
38. L. Weiss, 'Is the State Being "Transformed" by Globalisation?' in Weiss, op. cit., n. 27.
39. M. Moran and M. Wright, 'The Interdependance of Markets and States' in The Market and the State, eds. M. Moran and M. Wright (1991) 248. See, also, J. O'Conner's classic account of state-market symbiosis under conditions of expansion, The Fiscal Crisis of the State (1973).
40. M. Moran and M. Wright, 'The Interdependance of Markets and States' in The Market and the State, eds. M. Moran and M. Wright (1991) 248. See, also, J. O'Conner's classic account of state-market symbiosis under conditions of expansion, The Fiscal Crisis of the State (1973).
41. For classic analyses of market embeddedness, see K. Polanyi, The Great Transformation: the Political and Economic Origins of Our Time (1962/1944). and F. Oppenheimer, The State (1975/1942).
42. For classic analyses of market embeddedness, see K. Polanyi, The Great Transformation: the Political and Economic Origins of Our Time (1962/1944). and F. Oppenheimer, The State (1975/1942).
43. L. Weiss, 'Globalisation and the Myth of the Powerless State' (1997) 225 New Left Rev. 3-27; L. Weiss, The Myth of the Powerless State: Governing the Economy in a Global Era (1998).
44. L. Weiss, 'Globalisation and the Myth of the Powerless State' (1997) 225 New Left Rev. 3-27; L. Weiss, The Myth of the Powerless State: Governing the Economy in a Global Era (1998).
45. E. Helleiner, States and Global Finance: From Bretton Woods to the 1990s (1994).
46. Weiss, op. cit., n. 35, p. 24.
47. R. Coleman, 'Surveillance, Power and Social Order', unpublished doctoral thesis (2002) 85.
48. I. Douglas, 'Globalisation and the Retreat of the State' in Globalisation and the Politics of Resistance, ed. B. Gills (2001) 123.
49. F. Castro, Capitalism in Crisis (2000).
50. A. Roy, The Algebra of Infinite Justice (2002); J. Madeley, Big Business, Poor Peoples: the Impact of Transnational Corporations on the World's Poor (1999).
51. A. Roy, The Algebra of Infinite Justice (2002); J. Madeley, Big Business, Poor Peoples: the Impact of Transnational Corporations on the World's Poor (1999).
52. B. Jessop, 'L'Economia Integrale, Fordism and Post-Fordism', lecture prepared for Italian-Japanese Conference on Gramsci, Tokyo, 15-16 November 1997; F. Pearce and S. Tombs, 'States, Corporations and the "New" World Order' in White Collar Crime, ed. G. Potter (2002).
53. B. Jessop, 'L'Economia Integrale, Fordism and Post-Fordism', lecture prepared for Italian-Japanese Conference on Gramsci, Tokyo, 15-16 November 1997; F. Pearce and S. Tombs, 'States, Corporations and the "New" World Order' in White Collar Crime, ed. G. Potter (2002).
54. R. Abrahamsen, Disciplining Democracy (2000); P. Cammack, 'Attacking the Poor' (2002) 13 New Left Rev. 125-34.
55. R. Abrahamsen, Disciplining Democracy (2000); P. Cammack, 'Attacking the Poor' (2002) 13 New Left Rev. 125-34.
56. L. Sklair, The Transnational Capitalist Class (2001); 'Permanent People's Tribunal on Global Corporations and Human Wrongs, University of Warwick, 22-25 March 2000, Findings and Recommended Action' (2001) 1 Law, Social Justice and Global Development J. at 〈http://elj.warwick.ac.uk/global/issue/2001-l/ppt.html〉.
57. L. Sklair, The Transnational Capitalist Class (2001); 'Permanent People's Tribunal on Global Corporations and Human Wrongs, University of Warwick, 22-25 March 2000, Findings and Recommended Action' (2001) 1 Law, Social Justice and Global Development J. at 〈http://elj.warwick.ac.uk/global/issue/2001-l/ppt.html〉.
58. Guardian, 2 May, 2002.
59. L. Snider, 'The Sociology of Corporate Crime: an Obituary?' (2000) 4 Theoretical Criminology 169-206.
60. For an overview, see P. Green and T. Ward, State Crime (2003, forthcoming).
61. J. Heyman and A. Smart, 'States and Illegal Practices: An Overview' in States and Illegal Practices, ed. J. Heyman (1999).
62. Tombs and Whyte, op. cit., n. 25.
63. D. Friedrichs, 'State-Corporate Crime in a Globalised World: myth or major challenge?' in Potter, op. cit., n. 42.
64. Cited in id. pp. 55-6.
65. R. Kramer, R. Michalowski, and D. Kauzlarich, 'The Origins and Development of the Concept and Theory of State-Corporate Crime' (2002) 48 Crime and Delinquency 263-82; J. Aulette and R. Michalowski, 'Fire in Hamlet: A Case Study of a State Corporate Crime in Crimes of Privilege: Readings in White Collar Crime, eds. N. Shover and J. Wright (2001).
66. R. Kramer, R. Michalowski, and D. Kauzlarich, 'The Origins and Development of the Concept and Theory of State-Corporate Crime' (2002) 48 Crime and Delinquency 263-82; J. Aulette and R. Michalowski, 'Fire in Hamlet: A Case Study of a State Corporate Crime in Crimes of Privilege: Readings in White Collar Crime, eds. N. Shover and J. Wright (2001).
67. Friedrichs, op. cit., n. 50, p. 55.
68. S. Sheppard, 'Foot Soldiers of the New World Order: The Rise of the Corporate Military' (1998) 228 New Left Rev. 128-38.
69. A. Musah and J. Fayemi (eds.), Mercenaries: an African security dilemma (2000).
70. Foreign and Commonwealth Office, op. cit., n. 3; J. Taulbee, 'Mercenaries, Private Armies and Security Companies in Contemporary Policy' (2000) 37 International Politics 433-56.
71. Foreign and Commonwealth Office, op. cit., n. 3; J. Taulbee, 'Mercenaries, Private Armies and Security Companies in Contemporary Policy' (2000) 37 International Politics 433-56.
72. Schwartz, op. cit., n. 11.
73. Brooks, op. cit., n. 2; R. Mandel, 'The Privatization of Security' (2001) 28 Armed Forces and Society 129-51.
74. Brooks, op. cit., n. 2; R. Mandel, 'The Privatization of Security' (2001) 28 Armed Forces and Society 129-51.
75. Spearin, op. cit., n. 5.
76. K. O'Brien, 'Military-Advisory Groups and African Security: Privatized Peace Keeping?' (1998) 5 International Peacekeeping 78-105.
77. Key works by those authors are cited throughout this paper.
78. H. Howe, 'Global Order and the Privatization of Security' (1998) 22 Fletcher Forum of World Affairs 1-9.
79. O'Brien, op. cit., n. 60, p. 80.
80. See Serewicz, op. cit., n. 2, for a critical précis of those perspectives.
81. H. Howe, 'Private Security Forces and African Stability: the Case of Executive Outcomes' (1998) 36 J. of Modern African Studies 307-31.
82. Perhaps the most influential author cited in this literature is Martin van Crevald, whose book, The Rise and Decline of the State (1999), argues that the changing character of conflict is creating the conditions to challenge a Weberian concept of the state's monopoly on legitimate violence.
83. The United States defence budget is by far the largest in the world, six times the size of the world's second biggest spender, Russia.
84. Guardian, 24 January 2002; A. Cordesman, 'Trends in United States Military Forces and Defense Spending: Peace Dividend or Underfunding?' (1999), available at 〈www.csis.org/stratassessment/reports/PeaceDividendorUnderfunding. html〉; C. Hellman, 'Last of the Big Time Spenders' (2003), table prepared for the Center for Defense Information, available at 〈www.cdi.org/budget/2004/world-military-spending.cfm〉.
85. Guardian, 24 January 2002; A. Cordesman, 'Trends in United States Military Forces and Defense Spending: Peace Dividend or Underfunding?' (1999), available at 〈www.csis.org/stratassessment/reports/PeaceDividendorUnderfunding. html〉; C. Hellman, 'Last of the Big Time Spenders' (2003), table prepared for the Center for Defense Information, available at 〈www.cdi.org/budget/2004/world-military-spending.cfm〉.
86. Guardian, 24 January 2002; A. Cordesman, 'Trends in United States Military Forces and Defense Spending: Peace Dividend or Underfunding?' (1999), available at 〈www.csis.org/stratassessment/reports/PeaceDividendorUnderfunding. html〉; C. Hellman, 'Last of the Big Time Spenders' (2003), table prepared for the Center for Defense Information, available at 〈www.cdi.org/budget/2004/world-military-spending.cfm〉.
87. K. Hartley, 'United Kingdom Defence Spending' (n.d.), unpublished paper available from Defence Research Institute, Universities of Lancaster and York.
88. Guardian, 16 July 2002. This figure excludes the huge cost of conducting the March 2003 Iraq invasion.
89. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, 'Recent Trends in Military Expenditure' (2003), at 〈http://projects.sipri.se/milex/mex_trends.html〉.
90. i b i d.
91. Musah and Fayemi, op. cit., n. 55.
92. Sheppard, op. cit., n. 54, p. 138.
93. Foreign Affairs Committee, Sierra Leone (1998-99; H.C. 116).
94. Brooks, op. cit., n. 2.
95. Personal correspondence with the UN Department, Foreign and Commonwealth Office, 28 April 2003.
96. Foreign and Commonwealth Office op. cit., n. 3, p. 20.
97. Select Committee on Foreign Affairs, op. cit., n. 9, examination of witnesses, question 193.
98. Foreign and Commonwealth Office op. cit., n. 3, p. 14.
99. id., p. 18.
100. id., p. 12.
101. Select Committee on Foreign Affairs op. cit., n. 9, para. 101.
102. On this point, see C. Harman, 'Only the Beginning' (2003) 274 Socialist Rev. 〈http://socialistreview.org.uk/article.php?articlenumber=8432〉.
103. Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Foreign Affairs Committee, Private Military Companies (2001-02; Cm. 5642).
104. id., p. 1.
105. Select Committee on Foreign Affairs op. cit., n. 9, p. 101.
106. Foreign and Commonwealth Office, op. cit., n. 85, p. 6.
107. D. Shearer, Private Armies and Military Intervention (1998).
108. Foreign and Commonwealth Office op. cit., n. 85, pp. 21, 24-6; see, also, the Regulatory Impact Assessment reproduced on pp. 44-6.
109. Foreign and Commonwealth Office op. cit., n. 85, pp. 21, 24-6; see, also, the Regulatory Impact Assessment reproduced on pp. 44-6.
110. id., p. 45.
111. It is of relevance to this point that the current United Kingdom government has, throughout two terms of office, consistently refused to legislate against British nationals importing and exporting arms from foreign locations. This pressing need for regulation was once again dismissed in the framing of the 2002 Export Control Act. Parliamentary debates on the Act were infused with references to the need to maximize competitive advantage for the British economy, and the need to protect British jobs. See the series of briefings and documents published by the Campaign Against the Arms Trade, 〈www.caat.org.uk〉.
112. B. Jessop, 'From Thatcherism to New Labour: Neo-liberalism, Workfarism, and Labour Market Regulation' in The Political Economy of European Unemployment, ed. H. Overbeek (2003).
113. C. Hay, The Political Economy of New Labour: Labouring Under False Pretences? (1999).
114. See, for example, Sheppard, op. cit., n. 54, p. 138.
115. ICIJ/CPI, op. cit., n. 10.
116. G. Robertson, Crimes Against Humanity: the struggle for global justice (2000) 200; K. O'Brien, 'Private Military Companies and African Security 1990-1998' in Musah and Fayemi, op. cit., n. 55, 43-75.
117. G. Robertson, Crimes Against Humanity: the struggle for global justice (2000) 200; K. O'Brien, 'Private Military Companies and African Security 1990-1998' in Musah and Fayemi, op. cit., n. 55, 43-75.
118. L. Ebbeck, 'Mercenaries and the "Sandline Affair"' (1998) 113 Australian Defence Force J. 5-23.
119. K. Silverstein, 'Privatizing War: how affairs of state are out-sourced to corporations beyond public control' The Nation, 28 July/4 August 1997, 12.
120. Shearer, op. cit., n. 89, p. 37.
121. C. Wrigley, 'The Privatization of Violence: New Mercenaries and the State' (1999), Campaign Against the Arms Trade briefing document, available at 〈www.caat.org/research/Mercenaries_Body.html〉.
122. S. Brayton, 'Outsourcing War: mercenaries and the privatization of peacekeeping' (2002) 55 J. of International Affairs 325.
123. Robertson, op. cit., n. 97.
124. M. Mann, 'Has Globalisation Ended the Rise and Rise of the Nation State? ' (1997) Rev. of International Political Economy 472-96.
125. Foreign and Commonwealth Office, op. cit., n. 85, paras. 57-9.
126. id., para. 68.
127. id., p. 15. The International Convention Against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training of Mercenaries, which prohibits individuals from engaging in mercenary activities and makes illegal the recruitment of mercenaries by states for any purpose, came into force in 2001 after being ratified by the requisite twenty-two members. The treaty has struggled to attract support from Western states for its adoption. With the exceptions of Belgium and Italy, no European country has signed.
128. For example, Shearer op. cit., n. 89, p. 18.
129. G. Test, Humanity in Warfare: The Modern History of the International Law of Armed Conflicts (1980), cited in Kassebaum, op. cit., n. 2, pp. 589-90.
130. Robertson, op. cit., n. 97. p. 102.
131. Permanent People's Tribunal, op. cit., n. 44.
132. For example, Ebbeck, op. cit., n. 98.
133. See J. Strawson (ed.), Law After Ground Zero (2002).
134. Under the 1870 Act, it is illegal for any British subject, unless he or she is granted permission by the Queen, to enlist in the armed forces of a foreign state at war with a state that is not at war with the United Kingdom. Recruitment of persons for this purpose is specifically outlawed by the Act.
135. Foreign and Commonwealth Office, op. cit., p. 20.
136. Wrigley, op. cit., n. 101.
137. C. Walker and D. Whyte, 'Contracting Out the Night-Watchman State? Private Military Companies' (2003), unpublished paper available from author on request.
138. M. Gilbert and S. Russell, 'Globalisation of Criminal Justice in the Corporate Context' (2002) 38 Crime Law and Social Change.
139. B. Santos, 'On Modes of Production of Law and Social Power' (1985) 13 International J. of the Sociology of Law 299-336.
140. Foreign and Commonwealth Office, op. cit., n. 85, p. 17.
141. 'Memorandum from Lt. Colonel Tim Spicer', id., p. 3.
142. Spearin, op. cit., n. 5, p. 39.
143. Select Committee on Foreign Affairs, op. cit., n. 9, para. 107.
144. Foreign and Commonwealth Office, op. cit., n. 85, p. 4.
145. The term immediate capacity for violence is used to indicate the capacity' for the direct involvement of PMC employees in armed combat, or exchange of fire.
146. The term proximate capacity for violence is used to indicate the capacity for playing an instrumental role in the preparation for, or the commission of, armed operations without PMC employees actually being in command of a weapon or engaging in an exchange of fire.
147. Mandel, op. cit., n. 58; A. Vines, 'Mercenaries, Human Rights and Legality' in Musah and Fayemi, op. cit., n. 55.
148. Mandel, op. cit., n. 58; A. Vines, 'Mercenaries, Human Rights and Legality' in Musah and Fayemi, op. cit., n. 55.
149. Amnesty International News Service, 'Amnesty International Renews Calls to Oil Companies Operating in Colombia to Respect Human Rights' (AMR 23/79/98) 19 October 1998. Despite being the subject of a Colombian government investigation and a highly critical European Parliamentary inquiry, DSC have been retained by the British government to provide bodyguards in Bogota.
150. For example, O'Brien, op. cit., n. 97; and Cilliers and Mason, op. cit., n. 7; also A. Venter, 'Market Forces: How Hired Guns Succeeded Where the United Nations Failed' (1998) 3 Jane's International Defence Rev. 23-6.
151. For example, O'Brien, op. cit., n. 97; and Cilliers and Mason, op. cit., n. 7; also A. Venter, 'Market Forces: How Hired Guns Succeeded Where the United Nations Failed' (1998) 3 Jane's International Defence Rev. 23-6.
152. For example, O'Brien, op. cit., n. 97; and Cilliers and Mason, op. cit., n. 7; also A. Venter, 'Market Forces: How Hired Guns Succeeded Where the United Nations Failed' (1998) 3 Jane's International Defence Rev. 23-6.
153. See, for example, the collection of reports produced by Human Rights Watch - 〈www.hrw.org〉 - and Project Underground - 〈www.moles.org〉.
154. J. Fayemi, 'Africa in Search of Security: Mercenaries and Conflicts - An Overview" in Musah and Fayemi, op. cit., n. 55.
155. Robertson, op. cit., n. 97, p. 201.
156. Sunday Times, 22 August 1999.
157. Cited in Silverstein, op. cit., n. 99.
158. Brayton, op. cit., n. 102.
159. Amnesty USA, 'Croatia: human rights violations in the Krajina', press release, 2 October 1995.
160. P. Chatergee, 'Dyncorp Rent-a-Cops May Head to Post-Saddam Iraq' CorpWatch, 9 April 2003.
161. O'Brien, op. cit., n. 60.
162. Singer, op. cit., n. 4.
163. Brooks, op. cit., n. 2.
164. J.-F. Bayart et al., The Criminalisation of the State in Africa (1999).
165. P. Chabal and J. Daloz, Africa Works: Disorder as a Political Instrument (1999); Cilliers and Mason, op. cit., n. 7; Musah and Fayemi, op. cit., n. 55.
166. P. Chabal and J. Daloz, Africa Works: Disorder as a Political Instrument (1999); Cilliers and Mason, op. cit., n. 7; Musah and Fayemi, op. cit., n. 55.
167. P. Chabal and J. Daloz, Africa Works: Disorder as a Political Instrument (1999); Cilliers and Mason, op. cit., n. 7; Musah and Fayemi, op. cit., n. 55.
168. For collections of this research, see Cilliers and Mason, id.; and Musah and Fayemi, id.
169. For collections of this research, see Cilliers and Mason, id.; and Musah and Fayemi, id.
170. Serewicz, op. cit., n. 2, pp. 84-5; Brayton, op. cit., n. 102.
171. Serewicz, op. cit., n. 2, pp. 84-5; Brayton, op. cit., n. 102.
172. K. Kufuor, 'The OAU Convention for the Elimination of Mercenarism and Civil Conflicts' in Musah and Fayemi, op. cit., n. 55.
173. Brooks, op. cit., n. 2, p. 137.
174. D. Hobbs, P. Hadfield, S. Lister, and S. Winlow '"Door Lore": the art and economics of intimidation' (2002) 42 Brit. J. of Crim. 352-70. In this paper, a similar point is made in relation to the licensing of nightclub and bar doorstaff under various local registration schemes and, latterly, the 2001 Private Security Act.
175. Following Sandline's ultimately aborted mission in Papua New Guinea, Australia pledged support for the Mercenaries Convention (see Ebbeck, op. cit., n. 98). South Africa's ban on assisting of parties to conflicts noted earlier in this paper is governed by the Regulation of Foreign Military Assistance Act 1998.