PSA markers in prostate cancer detection

Urologic Clinics of North America

Volumn 30, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 677-686

  Gretzer, Matthew B ^a   Partin, Alan W ^a  

^a JOHNS HOPKINS HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ISOPROTEIN; PROSTATE SPECIFIC ANTIGEN; SERINE PROTEINASE; TISSUE KALLIKREIN; TUMOR MARKER;

AGE; BENIGN TUMOR; CANCER DIAGNOSIS; CANCER SCREENING; CANCER STAGING; CLINICAL PRACTICE; DENSITY; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; DIAGNOSTIC VALUE; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DISEASE MARKER; HUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROSTATE BIOPSY; PROSTATE CANCER; PROTEIN BLOOD LEVEL; QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS; REVIEW; TUMOR BIOPSY; VELOCITY;

EID: 0344011553     PISSN: 00940143     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0094-0143(03)00057-0     Document Type: Review

References (92)

1. Polascik TJ, Oesterling JE, Partin AW. Prostate specific antigen: a decade of discovery-what we have learned and where we are going. J Urol 1999;162(2):293-306.
2. Stephenson RA. Prostate cancer trends in the era of prostate-specific antigen. An update of incidence, mortality, and clinical factors from the SEER database. Urol Clin North Am 2002;29:173-81.
3. Rosenthal DS. Challenging trends. CA Cancer J Clin 1998;48:49-50.
4. Gretzer MB, Epstein JI, Pound CR, Walsh PC, Partin AW. Substratification of stage Tlc prostate cancer based on the probability of biochemical recurrence. Urology 2002;60:1034-9.
5. Bunting PS. A guide to the interpretation of serum prostate specific antigen levels. Clin Biochem 1995;28(3):221-41.
6. Ruckle H, Klee GG, Oesterling JE. Prostate specific antigen: critical issues for the practicing physician. Mayo Clin Proc 1994;69:59-68.
7. Schroder FH, van der Cruijsen-Koeter I, de Koning HJ, Vis AN, Hoedemaeker RF, Kranse R. Prostate cancer detection at low prostate specific antigen. J Urol 2000;163(3):806-12.
8. Lodding P, Aus G, Bergdahl S, Frosing R, Lilja H, Pihl CG, Hugosson J, et al. Characteristics of screening detected prostate cancer in men 50 to 66 years old with 3 to 4 ng/ml prostate specific antigen. J Urol 1998;159(3):899-903.
9. Catalona WJ, Smith DS, Ornstein DK. Prostate cancer detection in men with serum PSA concentrations of 2.6 to 4.0 ng/mL and benign prostate examination. Enhancement of specificity with free PSA measurements. JAMA 1998;277(18): 1452-5.
10. Colberg JW, Smith DS, Catalona WJ. Prevalence and pathological extent of prostate cancer in men with prostate specific antigen levels of 2.9 to 4.0 ng/ml. J Urol 1993;149(3):507-9.
11. Gann PH, Hennekens CH, Stanpfer MJ. A prospective evaluation of plasma prostate specific antigen for detection of prostate cancer. JAMA 1995;273:289-94.
12. Seaman E, Whang M, Olsson CA, Katz A, Cooner WH, Benson MC. PSA density (PSAD). Role in patient evaluation and management. Urol Clin North Am 1993;20(4):653-63.
13. Nishiya M, Miller GJ, Lookner DH, Crawford ED. Prostate specific antigen density in patients with histologically proven prostate carcinoma. Cancer 1994;74(11):3002-9.
14. Carter HB, Morrell CH, Pearson JD, Brant LJ, Plato CC, Metter EJ, et al. Estimation of prostatic growth using serial prostate-specific antigen measurements in men with and without prostate disease. Cancer Res 1992;52(12):3323-8.
15. Oesterling JE, et al. Serum prostate-specific antigen in a community-based population of healthy men. Establishment of age-specific reference ranges. JAMA 1993;270(7):860-4.
16. Kalish J, Cooner WH, Graham SD Jr. Serum PSA adjusted for volume of transition zone (PSAT) is more accurate than PSA adjusted for total gland volume (PSAD) in detecting adenocarcinoma of the prostate. Urology 1994;43(5):601-6.
17. Oesterling JE, Jacobsen SJ, Cooner WH. The use of age-specific reference ranges for serum prostate specific antigen in men 60 years old or older. J Urol 1995;153(4):1160-3.
18. Lilja H, Christensson A, Dahlen U, Matikainen MT, Nilsson O, Pettersson K, et al. Prostate-specific antigen in serum occurs predominantly in complex with alpha 1-antichymotrypsin. Clin Chem 1991;37(9):1618-25.
19. Christensson A, Laurell CB, Lilja H. Enzymatic activity of prostate-specific antigen and its reactions with extracellular serine proteinase inhibitors. Eur J Biochem 1990;194(3):755-63.
20. Christensson A, Bjork T, Nilsson O, Dahlen U, Matikainen MT, Cockett AT, et al. Serum prostate specific antigen complexed to alpha 1-antichymotrypsin as an indicator of prostate cancer. J Urol 1993;150(1):100-5.
21. Christensson A, Lilja H. Complex formation between protein C inhibitor and prostate-specific antigen in vitro and in human semen. Eur J Biochem 1994;220(1):45-53.
22. Stenman UH, Leinonen J, Alfthan H, Rannikko S, Tuhkanen K, Alfthan O. A complex between prostate-specific antigen and alpha 1-antichymotrypsin is the major form of prostate-specific antigen in serum of patients with prostatic cancer: assay of the complex improves clinical sensitivity for cancer. Cancer Res 1991;51(1):222-6.
23. Diamandis EP, Yu H. Prostate-specific antigen and lack of specificity for prostate cells. Lancet 1995;345(8958):1186.
24. Diamandis EP, Yu H. Nonprostatic sources of prostate-specific antigen. Urol Clin North Am 1997;24(2):275-82.
25. Yu H, Diamandis EP. Measurement of serum prostate specific antigen levels in women and in prostatectomized men with an ultrasensitive immunoassay technique. J Urol 1995;153(3 Pt 2): 1004-8.
26. Levesque M, Hu H, D'Costa M, Diamandis EP. Prostate-specific antigen expression by various tumors. J Clin Lab Anal 1995;9(2):123-8.
27. Yu H, Diamandis EP. Prostate-specific antigen in milk of lactating women. Clin Chem 1995;41(1):54-8.
28. Yu H, Diamandis EP. Prostate-specific antigen immunoreactivity in amniotic fluid. Clin Chem 1995;41(2):204-10.
29. Catalona WJ, Richie JP, Ahmann FR, Hudson MA, Scardino PT, Flanigan RC, et al. Comparison of digital rectal examination and serum prostate specific antigen in the early detection of prostate cancer: results of a multicenter clinical trial of 6,630 men. J Urol 1994;151(5):1283-90.
30. Yu H, Diamandis EP, Sutherland DJ. Immunoreactive prostate-specific antigen levels in female and male breast tumors and its association with steroid hormone receptors and patient age. Clin Biochem 1994;27(2):75-9.
31. Myrtle J, Ivor L. Measurement of PSA in serum by two immunometric method. (Hybritech Tandem-R/Tandem-E PSA). In: Catalona WH, Coffey DS, Karr JP, editors. Clinical aspects of prostate cancer: Assessment of new diagnostic and management procedures. New York: Elsevier; 1989. p. 161-71.
32. Catalona WJ, Hudson MA, Scardino PT, Richie JP, Ahmann FR, Flanigan RC, et al. Selection of optimal prostate specific antigen cutoffs for early detection of prostate cancer: receiver operating characteristic curves. J Urol 1994;152(6 Pt 1): 2037-42.
33. Brawer MK, Chetner MP, Beatie J, Buchner DM, Vessella RL, Lange PH. Screening for prostatic carcinoma with prostate specific antigen. J Urol 1992;147(3 Pt 2):841-5.
34. Cooner WH, Mosley BR, Rutherford CL Jr, Beard JH, Pond HS, Terry WJ, et al. Prostate cancer detection in a clinical urological practice by ultrasonography, digital rectal examination and prostate specific antigen. J Urol 1990;143(6):1146-52 [discussion: 1152-4].
35. Ellis WJ, Chetner MP, Preston SD, Brawer MK. Diagnosis of prostate carcinoma: the yield of serum prostate-specific antigen, digital rectal examination and transurethral ultrasonagraphy. J Urol 1994;152:1520-5.
36. Catalona WJ, Richie JP, deKernion JB, Ahmann FR, Ratliff TL, Dalkin BL, et al. Comparison of prostate specific antigen concentration versus prostate specific antigen density in the early detection of prostate cancer: receiver operating characteristic curves. J Urol 1994;152:2031-5.
37. Partin AW, Catalona WJ, Southwick PC, Subong EN, Gasior GH, Chan DW. Analysis of percent free-specific antigen (PSA) for prostate cancer detection: influence of total PSA, prostate volume, and age. Urology 1996;48(6A Suppl):55-61.
38. Catalona WJ, Southwick PC, Slawin KM, Partin AW, Brawer MK, Flanigan RC, et al. Comparison of percent free PSA, PSA density, and age-specific PSA cutoffs for prostate cancer detection and staging. Urology 2000;56:255-60.
39. Lilja H. Regulation of the enzymatic activity of prostate-specific antigen and its reactions with extracellular protease inhibitors in prostate cancer. Scand J Clin Lab Invest Suppl 1995;220:47-56.
40. Tewari PC, Bluestein BI. Multiple forms of prostate specific antigen and the influences of immunoassay design on their measurement in patient serum. J Clin Ligand Assay 1996;18:186-96.
41. McCormack RT, Rittenhouse HG, Finlay JA, Sokoloff RL, Wang TJ, Wolfert RL, et al. Molecular forms of prostate-specific antigen and the human kallikrein gene family: a new era. Urology 1995;45(5):729-44.
42. Woodrum DL, Brawer MK, Partin AW, Catalona WJ, Southwick PC. Interpretation of free prostate specific antigen clinical research studies for the detection of prostate cancer. J Urol 1998;159(1):5-12.
43. Catalona WJ, Partin AW, Slawin KM, Brawer MK, Flanigan RC, Patel A, Richie JP, et al. Use of the percentage of free prostate-specific antigen to enhance differentiation of prostate cancer from benign prostatic disease: a prospective multicenter clinical trial. JAMA 1998;279(19):1542-7.
44. Stephan C, Jung K, Cammann H, Vogel B, Brux B, Kristiansen G, et al. An artificial neural network considerably improves the diagnostic power of percent free prostate-specific antigen in prostate cancer diagnosis: results of a 5-year investigation. Int J Cancer 2002;99(3):466-73.
45. Partin AW, Brawer MK, Subong EN, Kelley CA, Cox JL, Bruzek DJ, et al. Prospective evaluation of percent free-PSA and complexed-PSA for early detection of prostate cancer. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis 1998;1:197-203.
46. Vessella RL, Lange PH, Partin AW, Chan DW, Sokoll LJ, Sasse EA, et al. Probability of prostate cancer detection based on results of a multicenter study using the AxSYM free PSA and total PSA assays. Urology 2000;55:909.
47. Basso D, Fogar P, Piva MG, Navaglia F, Mazza S, Prayer-Galetti T, et al. Total PSA, free PSA/total PSA ratio, and molecular PSA detection in prostate cancer: which is clinically effective and when? Urology 2000;55:710.
48. Veltri RW, Miller MC. Free/total PSA ratio improves differentiation of benign and malignant disease of the prostate: critical analysis of two different test populations. Urology 1999;53:736.
49. Kuriyama M, Kawada Y, Arai Y, Maeda H, Egawa S, Koshiba K, et al. Significance of free to total PSA ratio in men with slightly elevated serum PSA levels: a cooperative study. Jpn J Clin Oncol 1998;28:661.
50. Smith DS, Carvalhal GF, Mager DE, Bullock AD, Catalona WJ. Use of lower prostate specific antigen cutoffs for prostate cancer screening in black and white men. J Urol 1998;160(5):1734-8.
51. Recker F, Kwiatkowski MK, Huber A, Stamm B, Lehmann K, Tscholl R. Prospective detection of clinically relevant prostate cancer in the prostate specific antigen range 1 to 3 ng/ml combined with free-to-total ratio 20% or less: the Aarau experience. J Urol 2001;166(3):851-5.
52. Djavan B, Zlotta A, Kratzik C, Remzi M, Seitz C, Schulman CC, et al. PSA, PSA density, PSA density of transition zone, free/total PSA ratio, and PSA velocity for early detection of prostate cancer in men with serum PSA 2.5 to 4. 0 ng/mL. Urology 1999;54(3):517-22.
53. Haese A, Graefen M, Noldus J, Hammerer P, Huland E, Huland H. Prostatic volume and ratio of free-to-total prostate specific antigen in patients with prostatic cancer or benign prostatic hyperplasia. J Urol 1997;158(6):2188-92.
54. Partin AW, Oesterling JE. The clinical usefulness of percent free-PSA. Urology 1996;48(6A Suppl):1-3.
55. Vashi AR, Wojno KJ, Henricks W, England BA, Vessella RL, Lange PH, et al. Determination of the "reflex range" and appropriate cutpoints for percent free prostate-specific antigen in 413 men referred for prostatic evaluation using the Axsym system. Urology 1997;49(1):19-27.
56. Bjork T, Ljungberg B, Piironen T, Abrahamsson PA, Pettersson K, Cockett AT, et al. Rapid exponential elimination of freeprostate-specific antigen contrasts the slow, capacity-limited elimination of PSA complexed to alpha 1-antichymotrypsin from serum. Urology 1998;51(1):57-62.
57. Partin AW. Clearance rate of serum-free and total PSA following radical retropubic prostatectomy. Prostate 1996;7(Suppl):35-9.
58. Lein M, Brux B, Jung K, Henke W, Koenig F, Stephan C, et al. Elimination of serum free and total prostate-specific antigen after radical retropubic prostatectomy. Eur J Clin Chem Clin Biochem 1997;35(8):591-5.
59. Stephan C, Lein M, Jung K, Schnorr D, Loening SA. The influence of prostate volume on the ratio of free to total prostate specific antigen in serum of patients with prostate carcinoma and benign prostate hyperplasia. Cancer 1997;79(1):104-9.
60. Roth HJ, Stewart SC, Brawer MK. A comparison of three free and total PSA assays. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis 1998;1(6):326-31.
61. Brawer BK. Complexed PSA: the wave of the future. Rev Urol 1999;1:27-33.
62. Stephan C, Lein M, Jung K, Schnorr D, Loening SA. Can prostate specific antigen derivatives reduce the frequency of unnecessary prostate biopsies? J Urol 1997;157:1371.
63. Hayek OR, Noble CB, de la Taille A, Bagiella E, Benson MC. The necessity of a second prostate biopsy cannot be predicted by PSA or PSA derivatives (density or free:total ratio) in men with prior negative prostatic biopsies. Curr Opin Urol 1999;9(5):371-5.
64. Djaven B, Zlotta A, Remzi M, Ghawidel K, Basharkhah A, Schulman C, et al. Optimal predictors of prostate cancer on repeat prostate biopsy: a prospective study of 1051 men. Urology 2000;163:1144.
65. Balk SP, Ko YJ, Bubley GJ. Biology of prostate specific antigen. J Clin Oncol 2003;21(2):383-91.
66. Mikolajczyk SD, Millar LS, Wang TJ, Rittenhouse HG, Marks LS, Song W, et al. A precursor form of PSA (pPSA) is a component of the free PSA in prostate cancer serum. Urology 1997;50(5):710-4.
67. Mikolajczyk SD, Millar LS, Wang TJ, Rittenhouse HG, Wolfert RL, Marks LS, et al. "BPSA," a specific molecular form of free prostate-specific antigen, is found predominantly in the transition zone of patients with nodular benign prostatic hyperplasia. Urology 2000;55(1):41-5.
68. Mikolajczyk SD, Marks LS, Partin AW, Rittenhouse HG. Free prostate-specific antigen in serum is becoming more complex. Urology 2002;59(6): 797-802.
69. Mikolajczyk SD, Marker KM, Millar LS, Kumar A, Saedi MS, Payne JK, et al. A truncated precursor form of prostate-specific antigen is a more specific serum marker of prostate cancer. Cancer Res 2001;61(18):6958-63.
70. Peter J, Unverzagt C, Krogh TN, Vorm O, Hoesel W. Identification of precursor forms of free prostate-specific antigen in serum of prostate cancer patients by immunosorption and mass spectrometry. Cancer Res 2001;61(3):957-62.
71. Kumar A, Mikolajczyk SD, Hill TM, Millar LS, Saedi MS. Different proportions of various prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and human kallikrein 2 (hK2) forms are present in noninduced and androgen-induced LNCaP cells. Prostate 2000;44(3):248-54.
72. Zhang WM, Leinonen J, Kalkkinen N, Dowell B, Stenman UH. Purification and characterization of different molecular forms of prostate-specific antigen in human seminal fluid. Clin Chem 1995;41(11):1567-73.
73. Veltri RW, Khan MA, Rittenhouse HG, Mikolajczyk S, Sokol L, Chan D, et al. The diagnostic impact of PRO-PSA in the early detection of prostate cancer (PCA) in patients with a total PSA range of 4.0 to 10.0 ng/mL [abstract]. J Urol, in press.
74. Sokoll LJ, Chan DW, Mikolajczyk SD, Rittenhouse HG, Evans CL, Linton HJ. Proenzyme PSA for the early detection of prostate cancer in the 2.5-4.0 ng/ml total PSA range: preliminary analysis. Urology 2003;61(2):274.
75. Marks LS, Linton HJ, Gasior CL, et al. BPSA is a potential serum marker for benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) [abstract]. J Urol 2001;165:266A.
76. Steuber T, Nurmikko P, Haese A, Pettersson K, Graefen M, Hammerer P, et al. Discrimination of benign from malignant prostatic disease by selective measurements of single chain, intact free prostate specific antigen. J Urol 2002;168(5):1917-22.
77. Nurmikko P, Vaisanen V, Piironen T, Lindgren S, Lilja H, Pettersson K. Production and characterization of novel anti-prostate-specific antigen (PSA) monoclonal antibodies that do not detect internally cleaved Lys145-Lys146 inactive, PSA. Clin Chem 2000;46(10):1610-8.
78. Nurmikko P, Pettersson K, Piironen T, Hugosson J, Lilja H. Discrimination of prostate cancer from benign disease by plasma measurement of intact, free prostate-specific antigen lacking an internal cleavage site at Lys145-Lys146. Clin Chem 2001;47(8):1415-23.
79. Chan DW, Kelly CA, Partin AW. PSA-ACT immunoassay. Problems and solutions [abstract]. Clin Chem 1996;42:s255.
80. Kuriyama M, Ueno K, Uno H, Kawada Y, Akimoto S, Noda M. Clinical evaluation of serum prostate-specific antigen-alpha1- antichymotrypsin complex values in diagnosis of prostate cancer: a cooperative study. Int J Urol 1998;5(1):48-54.
81. Wu JT, Zhang P, Liu GH, Wilson L. Development of an immunoassay specific for the PSA-ACT complex without the problem of high background. J Clin Lab Anal 1998;12(1):14-9.
82. Jung K, Brux B, Knabich A, Lein M, Sinha P, Schnorr D. A gap between total prostate-specific antigen and the sum of free prostate-specific antigen plus alpha1-antichymotrypsin-prostate-specific antigen in patients with prostate carcinoma but not in those with benign prostate hyperplasia. Clin Chem 1999;45(3):422-4.
83. Morris DL, Dillon PW, Very DL, Ng P, Kish L, Goldblatt JL. Bayer immuno 1 PSA assay: an automated, ultrasensitive method to quantitate total PSA in serum. J Clin Lab Anal 1998;12(1):65-74.
84. Allard WJ, Zhou Z, Yeung KK. Novel immunoassay for the measurement of complexed prostate-specific antigen in serum. Clin Chem 1998;44(6 Pt 1): 1216-23.
85. Maeda H, Arai Y, Aoki Y, Okubo K, Okada T, Maekawa S. Complexed prostate-specific antigen and its volume indexes in the detection of prostate cancer. Urology 1999;54(2):225-8.
86. Brawer MK, Cheli CD, Neaman IE, Goldblatt J, Smith C, Schwartz MK. Complexed prostate specific antigen provides significant enhancement of specificity compared with total prostate specific antigen for detecting prostate cancer. J Urol 2000;163(5): 1476-80.
87. Sokoll LJ, Bruzek DJ, Cox JC, Partin AW, Chan DW, Morris D, et al. Is complexed PSA alone clinically useful? J Urol 1998;159:234A.
88. Okegawa T, Noda H, Nutahara K, Higashihara E. Comparison of two investigative assays for the complexed prostate specific antigen in total prostate specific antigen between 4.1 and 10.0 ng/mL. Urology 2000;55:700-4.
89. Djavan B, Remzi M, Zlotta AR, Ravery V, Hammerer P, Reissigl A, et al. Complexed prostate-specific antigen, complexed prostate-specific antigen density of total and transition zone, complexed/total prostate-specific antigen ratio, free-to-total prostate-specific antigen ratio, density of total and transition zone prostate-specific antigen: results of the prospective multicenter European trial. Urology 2002;60(4 Suppl 1):4-9.
90. Partin AW, Bartsch G, Horninger W, et al. Complexed PSA improves specificity for prostate cancer detection: results of a prospective multicenter trial. JAMA, in press.
91. Horninger W, Cheli CD, Babaian RJ, Fritsche HA, Lepor H, Taneja SS, et al. Complexed prostate-specific antigen for early detection of prostate cancer in men with serum prostate-specific antigen levels of 2 to 4 nanograms per milliliter. Urology 2002;60(4 Suppl 1):31-5.
92. Ellison L, Cheli CD, Bright S, Veltri RW, Partin AW. Cost-benefit analysis of total, free/total, and complexed prostate-specific antigen for prostate cancer screening. Urology 2002;60(4 Suppl 1): 42-6.