Biology of prostate-specific antigen

Journal of Clinical Oncology

Volumn 21, Issue 2, 2003, Pages 383-391

  Balk, Steven P ^a   Ko, Yoo Joung ^a   Bubley, Glenn J ^a  

^a HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALPHA 1 ANTICHYMOTRYPSIN; KALLIKREIN; PROSTATE SPECIFIC ANTIGEN; TUMOR MARKER;

ADVANCED CANCER; AMINO TERMINAL SEQUENCE; ANTIGEN SPECIFICITY; ARTICLE; CANCER STAGING; GENE EXPRESSION; GENE FUNCTION; GENE STRUCTURE; HUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROSTATE CANCER; PROSTATE EPITHELIUM; PROTEIN DEGRADATION; SPERM; MALE; PATHOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; PROSTATE TUMOR; REVIEW;

HUMANS; MALE; PROSTATE-SPECIFIC ANTIGEN; PROSTATIC NEOPLASMS;

EID: 0037440205     PISSN: 0732183X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1200/JCO.2003.02.083     Document Type: Article

References (116)

1. Yousef GM, Diamandis EP: The new human tissue kallikrein gene family: Structure, function, and association to disease. Endocr Rev 22:184-204, 2001
2. Lilja H, Oldbring J, Rannevik G, et al: Seminal vesicle-secreted proteins and their reactions during gelation and liquefaction of human semen. J Clin Invest 80:281-285, 1987
3. Bhoola KD, Figueroa CD, Worthy K: Bioregulation of kinins: Kallikreins, kininogens, and kininases. Pharmacol Rev 44:1-80, 1992
4. Deperthes D, Marceau F, Frenette G, et al: Human kallikrein hK2 has low kininogenase activity while prostate-specific antigen (hK3) has none. Biochim Biochim Biophys Acta 1343:102-106, 1997
5. Yousef GM, Luo LY, Diamandis EP: Identification of novel human kallikrein-like genes on chromosome 19q13.3-q13.4. Anticancer Res 19: 2843-2852, 1999
6. Young CY, Andrews PE, Montgomery BT, et al: Tissue-specific and hormonal regulation of human prostate-specific glandular kallikrein. Biochemistry 31:818-824, 1992
7. Murtha P, Tindall DJ, Young CY: Androgen induction of a human prostate-specific kallikrein, hKLK2: Characterization of an androgen re-sponse element in the 5′ promoter region of the gene. Biochemistry 32:6459-6464, 1993
8. Nelson PS, Gan L, Ferguson C, et al: Molecular cloning and characterization of prostase, an androgen-regulated serine protease with prostate-restricted expression. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 96:3114-3119, 1999
9. Yousef GM, Obiezu CV, Luo LY, et al: Prostase/KLK-L1 is a new member of the human kallikrein gene family, is expressed in prostate and breast tissues, and is hormonally regulated. Cancer Res 59:4252-4256, 1999
10. Stephan C, Jung K, Lein M, et al: Molecular forms of prostate-specific antigen and human kallikrein 2 as promising tools for early diagnosis of prostate cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 9:1133-1147, 2000
11. Riegman PH, Vlietstra RJ, van der Korput JA, et al: The promoter of the prostate-specific antigen gene contains a functional androgen responsive element. Mol Endocrinol 5:1921-1930, 1991
12. Cleutjens KB, van Eekelen CC, van der Korput HA, et al: Two androgen response regions cooperate in steroid hormone regulated activity of the prostate-specific antigen promoter. J Biol Chem 271:6379-6388, 1996
13. Schuur ER, Henderson GA, Kmetec LA, et al: Prostate-specific antigen expression is regulated by an upstream enhancer. J Biol Chem 271:7043-7051, 1996
14. Cleutjens KB, van der Korput HA, van Eekelen CC, et al: An androgen response element in a far upstream enhancer region is essential for high, androgen-regulated activity of the prostate-specific antigen promoter. Mol Endocrinol 11:148-161, 1997
15. Zhang S, Murtha PE, Young CY: Defining a functional androgen responsive element in the 5′ far upstream flanking region of the prostate-specific antigen gene. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 231:784-788, 1997
16. Huang W, Shostak Y, Tarr P, et al: Cooperative assembly of androgen receptor into a nucleoprotein complex that regulates the prostate-specific antigen enhancer. J Biol Chem 274:25756-25768, 1999
17. Pretlow TG, Pretlow TP, Yang B, et al: Tissue concentrations of prostate-specific antigen in prostatic carcinoma and benign prostatic hyperplasia. Int J Cancer 49:645-649, 1991
18. Magklara A, Scorilas A, Stephan C, et al: Decreased concentrations of prostate-specific antigen and human glandular kallikrein 2 in malignant versus nonmalignant prostatic tissue. Urology 56:527-532, 2000
19. Sun Z, Pan J, Balk SP: Androgen receptor-associated protein complex binds upstream of the androgen-responsive elements in the promoters of human prostate-specific antigen and kallikrein 2 genes. Nucleic Acids Res 25:3318-3325, 1997
20. Oettgen P, Finger E, Sun Z, et al: PDEF, a novel prostate epithelium-specific ets transcription factor, interacts with the androgen receptor and activates prostate-specific antigen gene expression. J Biol Chem 275:1216-1225, 2000
21. Eisenberger MA, Blumenstein BA, Crawford ED, et al: Bilateral orchiectomy with or without flutamide for metastatic prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 339:1036-1042, 1998
22. van der Kwast TH, Schalken J, Ruizeveld de Winter JA, et al: Androgen receptors in endocrine-therapy-resistant human prostate cancer. Int J Cancer 48:189-193, 1991
23. Taplin ME, Bubley GJ, Shuster TD, et al: Mutation of the androgen-receptor gene in metastatic androgen-independent prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 332:1393-1398, 1995
24. Bubley GJ, Balk SP: Treatment of metastatic prostate cancer. Lessons from the androgen receptor. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 10:713-725, 1996
25. Visakorpi T, Hyytinen E, Koivisto P, et al: In vivo amplification of the androgen receptor gene and progression of human prostate cancer. Nat Genet 9:401-406, 1995
26. Taplin ME, Bubley GJ, Ko YJ, et al: Selection for androgen receptor mutations in prostate cancers treated with androgen antagonist. Cancer Res 59:2511-2515, 1999
27. Gregory CW, He B, Johnson RT, et al: A mechanism for androgen receptor-mediated prostate cancer recurrence after androgen deprivation therapy. Cancer Res 61:4315-4319, 2001
28. Wang MC, Papsidero LD, Kuriyama M, et al: Prostate antigen: A new potential marker for prostatic cancer. Prostate 2:89-96, 1981
29. Lovgren J, Valtonen-Andre C, Marsal K, et al: Measurement of prostate-specific antigen and human glandular kallikrein 2 in different body fluids. J Androl 20:348-355, 1999
30. Watt KW, Lee PJ, M'Timkulu T, et al: Human prostate-specific antigen: Structural and functional similarity with serine proteases. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 83:3166-3170, 1986
31. Brawer MK, Rennels MA, Nagle RB, et al: Serum prostate-specific antigen and prostate pathology in men having simple prostatectomy. Am J Clin Pathol 92:760-764, 1989
32. Bostwick DG: Prostate-specific antigen. Current role in diagnostic pathology of prostate cancer. Am J Clin Pathol 102:531-537, 1994
33. Howarth DJ, Aronson IB, Diamandis EP: Immunohistochemical localization of prostate-specific antigen in benign and malignant breast tissues. Br J Cancer 75:1646-1651, 1997
34. Lundwall A, Lilja H: Molecular cloning of human prostate specific antigen cDNA. FEBS Lett 214:317-322, 1987
35. Kumar A, Mikolajczyk SD, Goel AS, et al: Expression of pro form of prostate-specific antigen by mammalian cells and its conversion to mature, active form by human kallikrein 2. Cancer Res 57:3111-3114, 1997
36. Lovgren J, Rajakoski K, Karp M, et al: Activation of the zymogen form of prostate-specific antigen by human glandular kallikrein 2. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 238:549-555, 1997
37. Takayama TK, Fujikawa K, Davie EW: Characterization of the precursor of prostate-specific antigen. Activation by trypsin and by human glandular kallikrein. J Biol Chem 272:21582-21588, 1997
38. Takayama TK, McMullen BA, Nelson PS, et al: Characterization of hK4 (prostase), a prostate-specific serine protease: Activation of the precursor of prostate specific antigen (pro-PSA) and single-chain urokinase-type plasminogen activator and degradation of prostatic acid phosphatase. Biochemistry 40:15341-15348, 2001
39. Christensson A, Lilja H: Complex formation between protein C inhibitor and prostate-specific antigen in vitro and in. human semen. Eur J Biochem 220:45-53, 1994
40. Mikolajczyk SD, Millar LS, Marker KM, et al: Seminal plasma contains "BPSA," a molecular form of prostate-specific antigen that is associated with benign prostatic hyperplasia. Prostate 45:271-276, 2000
41. Zhang WM, Leinonen J, Kalkkinen N, et al: Purification and characterization of different molecular forms of prostate-specific antigen in human seminal fluid. Clin Chem 41:1567-1573, 1995
42. Mikolajczyk SD, Millar LS, Wang TJ, et al: "BPSA," a specific molecular form of free prostate-specific antigen, is found predominantly in the transition zone of patients with nodular benign prostatic hyperplasia. Urology 55:41-45, 2000
43. Chen Z, Chen H, Stamey TA: Prostate specific antigen in benign prostatic hyperplasia: Purification and characterization. J Urol 157:2166-2170, 1997
44. Wang TJ, Slawin KM, Rittenhouse HG, et al: Benign prostatic hyperplasia-associated prostate-specific antigen (BPSA) shows unique immunoreactivity with anti-PSA monoclonal antibodies. Eur J Biochem 267: 4040-4045, 2000
45. Mikolajczyk SD, Grauer LS, Millar LS, et al: A precursor form of PSA (pPSA) is a component of the free PSA in prostate cancer serum. Urology 50:710-714, 1997
46. Mikolajczyk SD, Millar LS, Wang TJ, et al: A precursor form of prostate-specific antigen is more highly elevated in prostate cancer compared with benign transition zone prostate tissue. Cancer Res 60:756-759, 2000
47. Mikolajczyk SD, Marker KM, Millar LS, et al: A truncated precursor form of prostate-specific antigen is a more specific serum marker of prostate cancer. Cancer Res 61:6958-6963, 2001
48. Lilja H, Christensson A, Dahlen U, et al: Prostate-specific antigen in serum occurs predominantly in complex with alpha 1-antichymotrypsin. Clin Chem 37:1618-1625, 1991
49. Stenman UH, Leinonen J, Alfthan H, et al: A complex between prostate-specific antigen and alpha 1-antichymotrypsin is the major form of prostate-specific antigen in serum of patients with prostatic cancer: Assay of the complex improves clinical sensitivity for cancer. Cancer Res 51:222-226, 1991
50. Catalona WJ, Smith DS, Ratliff TL, et al: Measurement of prostate-specific antigen in serum as a screening test for prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 324:1156-1161, 1991
51. Labrie F, Dupont A, Suburu R, et al: Serum prostate specific antigen as pre-screening test for prostate cancer. J Urol 147:846-851, 1992
52. Brawer MK, Chetner MP, Beatie J, et al: Screening for prostatic carcinoma with prostate specific antigen. J Urol 147:841-845, 1992
53. Catalona WJ, Smith DS, Ratliff TL, et al: Detection of organ-confined prostate cancer is increased through prostate-specific antigen-based screening. JAMA 270:948-954, 1993
54. Stamey TA, Yang N, Hay AR, et al: Prostate-specific antigen as a serum marker for adenocarcinoma of the prostate. N Engl J Med 317:909-916, 1987
55. Catalona WJ, Richie JP, Ahmann FR, et al: Comparison of digital rectal examination and serum prostate specific antigen in the early detection of prostate cancer: Results of a multicenter clinical trial of 6,630 men. J Urol 151:1283-1290, 1994
56. Stenman UH, Hakama M, Knekt P, et al: Serum concentrations of prostate specific antigen and its complex with alpha 1-antichymotrypsin before diagnosis of prostate cancer. Lancet 344:1594-1598, 1994
57. Gann PH, Hennekens CH, Stampfer MJ: A prospective evaluation of plasma prostate-specific antigen for detection of prostatic cancer. JAMA 273:289-294, 1995
58. Schroder FH, van dC-K, I, de Koning HJ, et al: Prostate cancer detection at low prostate specific antigen. J Urol 163:806-812, 2000
59. Gohagan JK, Prorok PC, Hayes RB, et al: The Prostate, Lung, Colorectal and Ovarian (PLCO) Cancer Screening Trial of the National . Cancer Institute: History, organization, and status. Control Clin Trials 21:2515-2725, 2000
60. Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) best practice policy. American Urological Association (AUA). Oncology (Huntingt) 14:267-268, 280, 2000
61. Potter SR, Horniger W, Tinzl M, et al: Age, prostate-specific antigen, and digital rectal examination as determinants of the probability of having prostate cancer. Urology 57:1100-1104, 2001
62. Oesterling JE, Jacobsen SJ, Chute CG, et al: Serum prostate-specific antigen in a community-based population of healthy men. Establishment of age-specific reference ranges. J Am Med Assoc 270:860-864, 1993
63. Oesterling JE, Cooner WH, Jacobsen SJ, et al: Influence of patient age on the serum PSA concentration. An important clinical observation. Urol Clin North Am 20:671-680, 1993
64. Morgan TO, Jacobsen SJ, McCarthy WF, et al: Age-specific reference ranges for prostate-specific antigen in black men. N Engl J Med 335:304-310, 1996
65. Crawford ED, Leewansangtong S, Goktas S, et al: Efficiency of prostate-specific antigen and digital rectal examination in screening, using 4.0 ng/ml and age-specific reference range as a cutoff for abnormal values. Prostate 38:296-302, 1999
66. Catalona WJ, Southwick PC, Slawin KM, et al: Comparison of percent free PSA, PSA density, and age-specific PSA cutoffs for prostate cancer detection and staging. Urology 56:255-260, 2000
67. Benson MC, Whang IS, Pantuck A, et al: Prostate specific antigen density: A means of distinguishing benign prostatic hypertrophy and prostate cancer. J Urol 147:815-816, 1992
68. Seaman E, Whang M, Olsson CA, et al: PSA density (PSAD). Role in patient evaluation and management. Urol Clin North Am 20:653-663, 1993
69. Catalona WJ, Richte JP, deKernion JB, et al: Comparison of prostate specific antigen concentration versus prostate specific antigen density in the early detection of prostate cancer: Receiver operating characteristic curves. J Urol 152:2031-2036, 1994
70. Carter HB, Morrell CH, Pearson JD, et al: Estimation of prostatic growth using serial prostate-specific antigen measurements in men with and without prostate disease. Cancer Res 52:3323-3328, 1992
71. Kadmon D, Weinberg AD, Williams RH, et al: Pitfalls in interpreting prostate specific antigen velocity. J Urol 155:1655-1657, 1996
72. Van Cangh PJ, De Nayer P, De Vischer L, et al: Free to total prostate-specific antigen (PSA) ratio improves the discrimination between prostate cancer and benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) in the diagnostic gray zone of 1.8 to 10 ng/mL total PSA. Urology 48:67-70, 1996
73. Vashi AR, Wojno KJ, Henricks W, et al: Determination of the "reflex range" and appropriate cutpoints for percent free prostate-specific antigen in 413 men referred for prostatic evaluation using the AxSYM system. Urology 49:19-27, 1997
74. Catalona WJ, Partin AW, Slawin KM, et al: Use of the percentage of free prostate-specific antigen to enhance differentiation of prostate cancer from benign prostatic disease: A prospective multicenter clinical trial. JAMA 279:1542-1547, 1998
75. Catalona WJ, Smith DS, Ornstein DK: Prostate cancer detection in men with serum PSA concentrations of 2.6 to 4.0 ng/mL and benign prostate examination. Enhancement of specificity with free PSA measurements JAMA 277:1452-1455, 1997
76. Djavan B, Zlotta A, Kratzik C, et al: PSA, PSA density, PSA density of transition zone, free/total PSA ratio, and PSA velocity for early detection of prostate cancer in men with serum PSA 2.5 to 4.0 ng/mL. Urology 54:517-522, 1999
77. Hudson MA, Bahnson RR, Catalona WJ: Clinical use of prostate specific antigen in patients with prostate cancer. J Urol 142:1011-1017, 1989
78. Consensus statement: Guidelines for PSA following radiation therapy. American Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology Consensus Panel. Im J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 37:1035-1041, 1997
79. Critz FA, Levinson AK, Williams WH, et al: Prostate-specific antigen nadir: The optimum level after irradiation for prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 14:2893-2900, 1996
80. Kattan MW, Fearn PA, Leibel S, et al: The definition of biochemical failure in patients treated with definitive radiotherapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 48:1469-1474, 2000
81. Cavanagh W, Blasko JC, Grimm PD, et al: Transient elevation of serum prostate-specific antigen following (125)I/(103)Pd brachytherapy for localized prostate cancer. Semin Urol Oncol 18:160-165, 2000
82. Critz FA, Williams WH, Benton JB, et al: Prostate specific antigen bounce after radioactive seed implantation followed by external beam radiation for prostate cancer. J Urol 163:1085-1089, 2000
83. Kuriyama M, Wang MC, Lee CI, et al: Use of human prostate-specific antigen in monitoring prostate cancer. Cancer Res 41:3874-3876, 1981
84. Killian CS, Yang N, Emrich LJ, et al: Prognostic importance of prostate-specific antigen for monitoring patients with stages B2 to D1 prostate cancer. Cancer Res 45:886-891, 1985
85. Pound CR, Partin AW, Eisenberger MA, et al: Natural history of progression after PSA elevation following radical prostatectomy. J Am Med Assoc 281:1591-1597, 1999
86. Connolly JA, Shinohara K, Presti JC Jr, et al: Local recurrence after radical prostatectomy: Characteristics in size, location, and relationship to prostate-specific antigen and surgical margins. Urology 47:225-231, 1996
87. Pound CR, Partin AW, Epstein JI, et al: Prostate-specific antigen after anatomic radical retropubic prostatectomy. Patterns of recurrence and cancer control. Urol Clin North Am 24:395-406, 1997
88. Partin AW, Pearson JD, Landis PK, et al: Evaluation of serum prostate-specific antigen velocity after radical prostatectomy to distinguish local recurrence from distant metastases. Urology 43:649-659, 1994
89. Miller JI, Ahmann FR, Drach GW, et al: The clinical usefulness of serum prostate specific antigen after hormonal therapy of metastatic prostate cancer. J Urol 147:956-961, 1992
90. Kelly WK, Scher HI, Mazumdar M, et al: Prostate-specific antigen as a measure of disease outcome in metastatic hormone-refractory prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 11:607-615, 1993
91. Smith DC, Dunn RL, Strawderman MS, et al: Change in serum prostate-specific antigen as a marker of response to cytotoxic therapy for hormone-refractory prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 16:1835-1843, 1998
92. Scher HI, Kelly WM, Zhang ZF, et al: Post-therapy serum prostate-specific antigen level and survival in patients with androgen-independent prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 91:244-251, 1999
93. Bubley GJ, Carducci M, Dahut W, et al: Eligibility and response guidelines for phase II clinical trials in androgen-independent prostate cancer: Recommendations from the Prostate-Specific Antigen Working Group. J Clin Oncol 17:3461-3467, 1999
94. Denmeade SR, Sokoll LJ, Chan DW, et al: Concentration of enzymatically. active prostate-specific antigen (PSA) in the extracellular fluid of primary human prostate cancers and human prostate cancer xenograft models. Prostate 48:1-6, 2001
95. Denmeade SR, Nagy A, Gao J, et al: Enzymatic activation of a doxorubicin-peptide prodrug by prostate-specific antigen. Cancer Res 58: 2537-2540, 1998
96. Khan SR, Denmeade SR: In vivo activity of a PSA-activated doxorubicin prodrug against PSA-producing human prostate cancer xenografts. Prostate 45:80-83, 2000
97. Tombal B, Weeraratna AT, Denmeade SR, et al: Thapsigargin induces a calmodulin/calcineurin-dependent apoptotic cascade responsible for the death of prostatic cancer cells. Prostate 43:303-317, 2000
98. Rodriguez R, Schuur ER, Lim HY, et al: Prostate attenuated replication competent adenovirus (ARCA) CN706: A selective cytotoxic for prostate-specific antigen-positive prostate cancer cells. Cancer Res 57:2559-2563, 1997
99. Yu DC, Chen Y, Seng M, et al: The addition of adenovirus type 5 region E3 enables calydon virus 787 to eliminate distant prostate tumor xenografts. Cancer Res 59:4200-4203, 1999
100. Latham JP, Searle PF, Mautner V, et al: Prostate-specific antigen promoter/enhancer driven gene therapy for prostate cancer: Construction and testing of a tissue-specific adenovirus vector. Cancer Res 60:334-341, 2000
101. Gotoh A, Ko SC, Shirakawa T, et al: Development of prostate-specific antigen promoter-based gene therapy for androgen-independent human prostate cancer. J Urol 160:220-229, 1998
102. Eder JP, Kantoff PW, Roper K, et al: A phase I trial of a recombinant vaccinia virus expressing prostate-specific antigen in advanced prostate cancer. Clin Cancer Res 6:1632-1638, 2000
103. Cohen P, Graves HC, Peehl DM, et al: Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is an insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 protease found in seminal plasma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 75:1046-1053, 1992
104. Cohen P, Peehl DM, Graves HC, et al: Biological effects of prostate specific antigen as an insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 protease. J Endocrinol 142:407-415, 1994
105. Mantzoros CS, Tzonou A, Signorello LB, et al: Insulin-like growth factor 1 in relation to prostate cancer and benign prostatic hyperplasia. Br J Cancer 76:1115-1118, 1997
106. Chan JM, Stampfer MJ, Giovannucci E, et al: Plasma insulin-like growth factor-I and prostate cancer risk: A prospective study. Science 279:563-566, 1998
107. Bubley GJ, Balk SP, Regan MM, et al: Serum levels of IGF-1 and IGF-1 binding proteins after radical prostatectomy. J Urol 168:2249-2252, 2002
108. Webber MM, Waghray A, Bello D: Prostate-specific antigen, a serine protease, facilitates human prostate cancer cell invasion. Clin Cancer Res 1:1089-1094, 1995
109. Fong CJ, Sherwood ER, Braun EJ, et al: Regulation of prostatic carcinoma cell proliferation and secretory activity by extracellular matrix and stromal secretions. Prostate 21:121-131, 1992
110. Yoshida E, Ohmura S, Sugiki M, et al: Prostate-specific antigen activates single-chain urokinase-type plasminogen activator. Int J Cancer 63:863-865, 1995
111. Killian CS, Corral DA, Kawinski E, et al: Mitogenic response of osteoblast cells to prostate-specific antigen suggests an activation of latent TGF-beta and a proteolytic modulation of cell adhesion receptors. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 192:940-947, 1993
112. Cramer SD, Chen Z, Peehl DM: Prostate specific antigen cleaves parathyroid hormone-related protein in the PTH-like domain: Inactivation of PTHrP-stimulated cAMP accumulation in mouse osteoblasts. J Urol 156: 526-531, 1996
113. Iwamura M, Hellman J, Cockett AT, et al: Alteration of the hormonal bioactivity of parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) as a result of limited proteolysis by prostate-specific antigen. Urology 48:317-325, 1996
114. Heidtmann HH, Nettelbeck DM, Mingels A, et al: Generation of angiostatin-like fragments from plasminogen by prostate-specific antigen. Br J Cancer 81:1269-1273, 1999
115. Fortier AH, Nelson BJ, Grella DK, et al: Antiangiogenic activity of prostate-specific antigen. J Natl Cancer Inst 91:1635-1640, 1999
116. Papadopoulos I, Sivridis E, Giatromanolaki A, et al: Tumor angiogenesis is associated with MUC1 overexpression and loss of prostate-specific antigen expression in prostate cancer. Clin Cancer Res 7:1533-1538, 2001