Looking at the sky: The visual context of Victorian meteorology

British Journal for the History of Science

Volumn 36, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 301-332

  Anderson, Katharine ^a  

^a YORK UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0242287926     PISSN: 00070874     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007087403005053     Document Type: Article

References (242)

1. J. F. W. Herschel, A Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy, reprint of the 1830 edn, Chicago, 1987, 124.
2. A. Second, 'Botany on a plate', Isis (2002), 93, 28-57. On disciplining sight within the observatory, see S. Schaffer, 'Astronomers mark time: discipline and the personal equation', Science in Context (1988), 2, 115-45.
3. A. Second, 'Botany on a plate', Isis (2002), 93, 28-57. On disciplining sight within the observatory, see S. Schaffer, 'Astronomers mark time: discipline and the personal equation', Science in Context (1988), 2, 115-45.
4. The work here is extensive and the following is only a selection. B. Baigrie (ed.), Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, Toronto, 1996; A. S. Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth Century Zoological Illustration, Princeton, 1993; T. Brennan and M. Jay (eds.), Vision in Context: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Sight, New York, 1996; J. Crary, Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge, 1990; D. Fox and C. Lawrence, Photographing Medicine: Images and Power in Britain and America since 1840, New York, 1988; G. Fyfe and J. Law (eds.), Picturing Power: Visual Depictions and Social Relations, London, 1988; T. L. Hankins and R. J. Silverman, Instruments and the Imagination, Princeton, 1995; C. Hentschel, Mapping the Spectrum: Techniques of Visual Representation in Research and Teaching, Oxford, 2002; C. A. Jones and P. Galison (eds.), Picturing Science, Producing Art, New York, 1998; L. Jordanova, 'Medicine and visual culture', Social History of Medicine (1990), 3, 89-99; M. Lynch and S. Woolgar (eds.), Representation in Scientific Practice, Cambridge, MA, 1990; A. Pang, 'Visual representation and post-constructivist history of science,' Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1999), 28, 139-71; M. Rudwick, 'The emergence of a visual language for geological science 1760-1840', History of Science (1976), 14, 149-95; H. Rothermel, 'Images of the Sun: De la Rue, Airy and Celestial Photography', BJHS (1993), 26, 137-69; L. Schaaf, Out of the Shadows: Herschel, Talbot and the Invention of Photography, New Haven, 1992; G. Seiberling, Amateurs, Photography and the Mid Victorian Imagination, Chicago, 1986; L. Smith, Victorian Photography, Painting and Poetry: The Enigma of Visibility in Ruskin, Morris and the Pre-Raphaelites, Cambridge, 1995; J. Tucker 'Photography as witness, detective and impostor: visual representation in Victorian science', in Victorian Science In Context (ed. B. Lightman), Chicago, 1997, 378-408. The last has a useful bibliography on visual representation.
5. The work here is extensive and the following is only a selection. B. Baigrie (ed.), Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, Toronto, 1996; A. S. Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth Century Zoological Illustration, Princeton, 1993; T. Brennan and M. Jay (eds.), Vision in Context: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Sight, New York, 1996; J. Crary, Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge, 1990; D. Fox and C. Lawrence, Photographing Medicine: Images and Power in Britain and America since 1840, New York, 1988; G. Fyfe and J. Law (eds.), Picturing Power: Visual Depictions and Social Relations, London, 1988; T. L. Hankins and R. J. Silverman, Instruments and the Imagination, Princeton, 1995; C. Hentschel, Mapping the Spectrum: Techniques of Visual Representation in Research and Teaching, Oxford, 2002; C. A. Jones and P. Galison (eds.), Picturing Science, Producing Art, New York, 1998; L. Jordanova, 'Medicine and visual culture', Social History of Medicine (1990), 3, 89-99; M. Lynch and S. Woolgar (eds.), Representation in Scientific Practice, Cambridge, MA, 1990; A. Pang, 'Visual representation and post-constructivist history of science,' Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1999), 28, 139-71; M. Rudwick, 'The emergence of a visual language for geological science 1760-1840', History of Science (1976), 14, 149-95; H. Rothermel, 'Images of the Sun: De la Rue, Airy and Celestial Photography', BJHS (1993), 26, 137-69; L. Schaaf, Out of the Shadows: Herschel, Talbot and the Invention of Photography, New Haven, 1992; G. Seiberling, Amateurs, Photography and the Mid Victorian Imagination, Chicago, 1986; L. Smith, Victorian Photography, Painting and Poetry: The Enigma of Visibility in Ruskin, Morris and the Pre-Raphaelites, Cambridge, 1995; J. Tucker 'Photography as witness, detective and impostor: visual representation in Victorian science', in Victorian Science In Context (ed. B. Lightman), Chicago, 1997, 378-408. The last has a useful bibliography on visual representation.
6. The work here is extensive and the following is only a selection. B. Baigrie (ed.), Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, Toronto, 1996; A. S. Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth Century Zoological Illustration, Princeton, 1993; T. Brennan and M. Jay (eds.), Vision in Context: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Sight, New York, 1996; J. Crary, Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge, 1990; D. Fox and C. Lawrence, Photographing Medicine: Images and Power in Britain and America since 1840, New York, 1988; G. Fyfe and J. Law (eds.), Picturing Power: Visual Depictions and Social Relations, London, 1988; T. L. Hankins and R. J. Silverman, Instruments and the Imagination, Princeton, 1995; C. Hentschel, Mapping the Spectrum: Techniques of Visual Representation in Research and Teaching, Oxford, 2002; C. A. Jones and P. Galison (eds.), Picturing Science, Producing Art, New York, 1998; L. Jordanova, 'Medicine and visual culture', Social History of Medicine (1990), 3, 89-99; M. Lynch and S. Woolgar (eds.), Representation in Scientific Practice, Cambridge, MA, 1990; A. Pang, 'Visual representation and post-constructivist history of science,' Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1999), 28, 139-71; M. Rudwick, 'The emergence of a visual language for geological science 1760-1840', History of Science (1976), 14, 149-95; H. Rothermel, 'Images of the Sun: De la Rue, Airy and Celestial Photography', BJHS (1993), 26, 137-69; L. Schaaf, Out of the Shadows: Herschel, Talbot and the Invention of Photography, New Haven, 1992; G. Seiberling, Amateurs, Photography and the Mid Victorian Imagination, Chicago, 1986; L. Smith, Victorian Photography, Painting and Poetry: The Enigma of Visibility in Ruskin, Morris and the Pre-Raphaelites, Cambridge, 1995; J. Tucker 'Photography as witness, detective and impostor: visual representation in Victorian science', in Victorian Science In Context (ed. B. Lightman), Chicago, 1997, 378-408. The last has a useful bibliography on visual representation.
7. The work here is extensive and the following is only a selection. B. Baigrie (ed.), Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, Toronto, 1996; A. S. Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth Century Zoological Illustration, Princeton, 1993; T. Brennan and M. Jay (eds.), Vision in Context: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Sight, New York, 1996; J. Crary, Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge, 1990; D. Fox and C. Lawrence, Photographing Medicine: Images and Power in Britain and America since 1840, New York, 1988; G. Fyfe and J. Law (eds.), Picturing Power: Visual Depictions and Social Relations, London, 1988; T. L. Hankins and R. J. Silverman, Instruments and the Imagination, Princeton, 1995; C. Hentschel, Mapping the Spectrum: Techniques of Visual Representation in Research and Teaching, Oxford, 2002; C. A. Jones and P. Galison (eds.), Picturing Science, Producing Art, New York, 1998; L. Jordanova, 'Medicine and visual culture', Social History of Medicine (1990), 3, 89-99; M. Lynch and S. Woolgar (eds.), Representation in Scientific Practice, Cambridge, MA, 1990; A. Pang, 'Visual representation and post-constructivist history of science,' Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1999), 28, 139-71; M. Rudwick, 'The emergence of a visual language for geological science 1760-1840', History of Science (1976), 14, 149-95; H. Rothermel, 'Images of the Sun: De la Rue, Airy and Celestial Photography', BJHS (1993), 26, 137-69; L. Schaaf, Out of the Shadows: Herschel, Talbot and the Invention of Photography, New Haven, 1992; G. Seiberling, Amateurs, Photography and the Mid Victorian Imagination, Chicago, 1986; L. Smith, Victorian Photography, Painting and Poetry: The Enigma of Visibility in Ruskin, Morris and the Pre-Raphaelites, Cambridge, 1995; J. Tucker 'Photography as witness, detective and impostor: visual representation in Victorian science', in Victorian Science In Context (ed. B. Lightman), Chicago, 1997, 378-408. The last has a useful bibliography on visual representation.
8. The work here is extensive and the following is only a selection. B. Baigrie (ed.), Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, Toronto, 1996; A. S. Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth Century Zoological Illustration, Princeton, 1993; T. Brennan and M. Jay (eds.), Vision in Context: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Sight, New York, 1996; J. Crary, Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge, 1990; D. Fox and C. Lawrence, Photographing Medicine: Images and Power in Britain and America since 1840, New York, 1988; G. Fyfe and J. Law (eds.), Picturing Power: Visual Depictions and Social Relations, London, 1988; T. L. Hankins and R. J. Silverman, Instruments and the Imagination, Princeton, 1995; C. Hentschel, Mapping the Spectrum: Techniques of Visual Representation in Research and Teaching, Oxford, 2002; C. A. Jones and P. Galison (eds.), Picturing Science, Producing Art, New York, 1998; L. Jordanova, 'Medicine and visual culture', Social History of Medicine (1990), 3, 89-99; M. Lynch and S. Woolgar (eds.), Representation in Scientific Practice, Cambridge, MA, 1990; A. Pang, 'Visual representation and post-constructivist history of science,' Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1999), 28, 139-71; M. Rudwick, 'The emergence of a visual language for geological science 1760-1840', History of Science (1976), 14, 149-95; H. Rothermel, 'Images of the Sun: De la Rue, Airy and Celestial Photography', BJHS (1993), 26, 137-69; L. Schaaf, Out of the Shadows: Herschel, Talbot and the Invention of Photography, New Haven, 1992; G. Seiberling, Amateurs, Photography and the Mid Victorian Imagination, Chicago, 1986; L. Smith, Victorian Photography, Painting and Poetry: The Enigma of Visibility in Ruskin, Morris and the Pre-Raphaelites, Cambridge, 1995; J. Tucker 'Photography as witness, detective and impostor: visual representation in Victorian science', in Victorian Science In Context (ed. B. Lightman), Chicago, 1997, 378-408. The last has a useful bibliography on visual representation.
9. The work here is extensive and the following is only a selection. B. Baigrie (ed.), Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, Toronto, 1996; A. S. Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth Century Zoological Illustration, Princeton, 1993; T. Brennan and M. Jay (eds.), Vision in Context: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Sight, New York, 1996; J. Crary, Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge, 1990; D. Fox and C. Lawrence, Photographing Medicine: Images and Power in Britain and America since 1840, New York, 1988; G. Fyfe and J. Law (eds.), Picturing Power: Visual Depictions and Social Relations, London, 1988; T. L. Hankins and R. J. Silverman, Instruments and the Imagination, Princeton, 1995; C. Hentschel, Mapping the Spectrum: Techniques of Visual Representation in Research and Teaching, Oxford, 2002; C. A. Jones and P. Galison (eds.), Picturing Science, Producing Art, New York, 1998; L. Jordanova, 'Medicine and visual culture', Social History of Medicine (1990), 3, 89-99; M. Lynch and S. Woolgar (eds.), Representation in Scientific Practice, Cambridge, MA, 1990; A. Pang, 'Visual representation and post-constructivist history of science,' Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1999), 28, 139-71; M. Rudwick, 'The emergence of a visual language for geological science 1760-1840', History of Science (1976), 14, 149-95; H. Rothermel, 'Images of the Sun: De la Rue, Airy and Celestial Photography', BJHS (1993), 26, 137-69; L. Schaaf, Out of the Shadows: Herschel, Talbot and the Invention of Photography, New Haven, 1992; G. Seiberling, Amateurs, Photography and the Mid Victorian Imagination, Chicago, 1986; L. Smith, Victorian Photography, Painting and Poetry: The Enigma of Visibility in Ruskin, Morris and the Pre-Raphaelites, Cambridge, 1995; J. Tucker 'Photography as witness, detective and impostor: visual representation in Victorian science', in Victorian Science In Context (ed. B. Lightman), Chicago, 1997, 378-408. The last has a useful bibliography on visual representation.
10. The work here is extensive and the following is only a selection. B. Baigrie (ed.), Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, Toronto, 1996; A. S. Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth Century Zoological Illustration, Princeton, 1993; T. Brennan and M. Jay (eds.), Vision in Context: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Sight, New York, 1996; J. Crary, Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge, 1990; D. Fox and C. Lawrence, Photographing Medicine: Images and Power in Britain and America since 1840, New York, 1988; G. Fyfe and J. Law (eds.), Picturing Power: Visual Depictions and Social Relations, London, 1988; T. L. Hankins and R. J. Silverman, Instruments and the Imagination, Princeton, 1995; C. Hentschel, Mapping the Spectrum: Techniques of Visual Representation in Research and Teaching, Oxford, 2002; C. A. Jones and P. Galison (eds.), Picturing Science, Producing Art, New York, 1998; L. Jordanova, 'Medicine and visual culture', Social History of Medicine (1990), 3, 89-99; M. Lynch and S. Woolgar (eds.), Representation in Scientific Practice, Cambridge, MA, 1990; A. Pang, 'Visual representation and post-constructivist history of science,' Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1999), 28, 139-71; M. Rudwick, 'The emergence of a visual language for geological science 1760-1840', History of Science (1976), 14, 149-95; H. Rothermel, 'Images of the Sun: De la Rue, Airy and Celestial Photography', BJHS (1993), 26, 137-69; L. Schaaf, Out of the Shadows: Herschel, Talbot and the Invention of Photography, New Haven, 1992; G. Seiberling, Amateurs, Photography and the Mid Victorian Imagination, Chicago, 1986; L. Smith, Victorian Photography, Painting and Poetry: The Enigma of Visibility in Ruskin, Morris and the Pre-Raphaelites, Cambridge, 1995; J. Tucker 'Photography as witness, detective and impostor: visual representation in Victorian science', in Victorian Science In Context (ed. B. Lightman), Chicago, 1997, 378-408. The last has a useful bibliography on visual representation.
11. The work here is extensive and the following is only a selection. B. Baigrie (ed.), Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, Toronto, 1996; A. S. Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth Century Zoological Illustration, Princeton, 1993; T. Brennan and M. Jay (eds.), Vision in Context: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Sight, New York, 1996; J. Crary, Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge, 1990; D. Fox and C. Lawrence, Photographing Medicine: Images and Power in Britain and America since 1840, New York, 1988; G. Fyfe and J. Law (eds.), Picturing Power: Visual Depictions and Social Relations, London, 1988; T. L. Hankins and R. J. Silverman, Instruments and the Imagination, Princeton, 1995; C. Hentschel, Mapping the Spectrum: Techniques of Visual Representation in Research and Teaching, Oxford, 2002; C. A. Jones and P. Galison (eds.), Picturing Science, Producing Art, New York, 1998; L. Jordanova, 'Medicine and visual culture', Social History of Medicine (1990), 3, 89-99; M. Lynch and S. Woolgar (eds.), Representation in Scientific Practice, Cambridge, MA, 1990; A. Pang, 'Visual representation and post-constructivist history of science,' Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1999), 28, 139-71; M. Rudwick, 'The emergence of a visual language for geological science 1760-1840', History of Science (1976), 14, 149-95; H. Rothermel, 'Images of the Sun: De la Rue, Airy and Celestial Photography', BJHS (1993), 26, 137-69; L. Schaaf, Out of the Shadows: Herschel, Talbot and the Invention of Photography, New Haven, 1992; G. Seiberling, Amateurs, Photography and the Mid Victorian Imagination, Chicago, 1986; L. Smith, Victorian Photography, Painting and Poetry: The Enigma of Visibility in Ruskin, Morris and the Pre-Raphaelites, Cambridge, 1995; J. Tucker 'Photography as witness, detective and impostor: visual representation in Victorian science', in Victorian Science In Context (ed. B. Lightman), Chicago, 1997, 378-408. The last has a useful bibliography on visual representation.
12. The work here is extensive and the following is only a selection. B. Baigrie (ed.), Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, Toronto, 1996; A. S. Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth Century Zoological Illustration, Princeton, 1993; T. Brennan and M. Jay (eds.), Vision in Context: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Sight, New York, 1996; J. Crary, Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge, 1990; D. Fox and C. Lawrence, Photographing Medicine: Images and Power in Britain and America since 1840, New York, 1988; G. Fyfe and J. Law (eds.), Picturing Power: Visual Depictions and Social Relations, London, 1988; T. L. Hankins and R. J. Silverman, Instruments and the Imagination, Princeton, 1995; C. Hentschel, Mapping the Spectrum: Techniques of Visual Representation in Research and Teaching, Oxford, 2002; C. A. Jones and P. Galison (eds.), Picturing Science, Producing Art, New York, 1998; L. Jordanova, 'Medicine and visual culture', Social History of Medicine (1990), 3, 89-99; M. Lynch and S. Woolgar (eds.), Representation in Scientific Practice, Cambridge, MA, 1990; A. Pang, 'Visual representation and post-constructivist history of science,' Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1999), 28, 139-71; M. Rudwick, 'The emergence of a visual language for geological science 1760-1840', History of Science (1976), 14, 149-95; H. Rothermel, 'Images of the Sun: De la Rue, Airy and Celestial Photography', BJHS (1993), 26, 137-69; L. Schaaf, Out of the Shadows: Herschel, Talbot and the Invention of Photography, New Haven, 1992; G. Seiberling, Amateurs, Photography and the Mid Victorian Imagination, Chicago, 1986; L. Smith, Victorian Photography, Painting and Poetry: The Enigma of Visibility in Ruskin, Morris and the Pre-Raphaelites, Cambridge, 1995; J. Tucker 'Photography as witness, detective and impostor: visual representation in Victorian science', in Victorian Science In Context (ed. B. Lightman), Chicago, 1997, 378-408. The last has a useful bibliography on visual representation.
13. The work here is extensive and the following is only a selection. B. Baigrie (ed.), Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, Toronto, 1996; A. S. Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth Century Zoological Illustration, Princeton, 1993; T. Brennan and M. Jay (eds.), Vision in Context: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Sight, New York, 1996; J. Crary, Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge, 1990; D. Fox and C. Lawrence, Photographing Medicine: Images and Power in Britain and America since 1840, New York, 1988; G. Fyfe and J. Law (eds.), Picturing Power: Visual Depictions and Social Relations, London, 1988; T. L. Hankins and R. J. Silverman, Instruments and the Imagination, Princeton, 1995; C. Hentschel, Mapping the Spectrum: Techniques of Visual Representation in Research and Teaching, Oxford, 2002; C. A. Jones and P. Galison (eds.), Picturing Science, Producing Art, New York, 1998; L. Jordanova, 'Medicine and visual culture', Social History of Medicine (1990), 3, 89-99; M. Lynch and S. Woolgar (eds.), Representation in Scientific Practice, Cambridge, MA, 1990; A. Pang, 'Visual representation and post-constructivist history of science,' Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1999), 28, 139-71; M. Rudwick, 'The emergence of a visual language for geological science 1760-1840', History of Science (1976), 14, 149-95; H. Rothermel, 'Images of the Sun: De la Rue, Airy and Celestial Photography', BJHS (1993), 26, 137-69; L. Schaaf, Out of the Shadows: Herschel, Talbot and the Invention of Photography, New Haven, 1992; G. Seiberling, Amateurs, Photography and the Mid Victorian Imagination, Chicago, 1986; L. Smith, Victorian Photography, Painting and Poetry: The Enigma of Visibility in Ruskin, Morris and the Pre-Raphaelites, Cambridge, 1995; J. Tucker 'Photography as witness, detective and impostor: visual representation in Victorian science', in Victorian Science In Context (ed. B. Lightman), Chicago, 1997, 378-408. The last has a useful bibliography on visual representation.
14. The work here is extensive and the following is only a selection. B. Baigrie (ed.), Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, Toronto, 1996; A. S. Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth Century Zoological Illustration, Princeton, 1993; T. Brennan and M. Jay (eds.), Vision in Context: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Sight, New York, 1996; J. Crary, Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge, 1990; D. Fox and C. Lawrence, Photographing Medicine: Images and Power in Britain and America since 1840, New York, 1988; G. Fyfe and J. Law (eds.), Picturing Power: Visual Depictions and Social Relations, London, 1988; T. L. Hankins and R. J. Silverman, Instruments and the Imagination, Princeton, 1995; C. Hentschel, Mapping the Spectrum: Techniques of Visual Representation in Research and Teaching, Oxford, 2002; C. A. Jones and P. Galison (eds.), Picturing Science, Producing Art, New York, 1998; L. Jordanova, 'Medicine and visual culture', Social History of Medicine (1990), 3, 89-99; M. Lynch and S. Woolgar (eds.), Representation in Scientific Practice, Cambridge, MA, 1990; A. Pang, 'Visual representation and post-constructivist history of science,' Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1999), 28, 139-71; M. Rudwick, 'The emergence of a visual language for geological science 1760-1840', History of Science (1976), 14, 149-95; H. Rothermel, 'Images of the Sun: De la Rue, Airy and Celestial Photography', BJHS (1993), 26, 137-69; L. Schaaf, Out of the Shadows: Herschel, Talbot and the Invention of Photography, New Haven, 1992; G. Seiberling, Amateurs, Photography and the Mid Victorian Imagination, Chicago, 1986; L. Smith, Victorian Photography, Painting and Poetry: The Enigma of Visibility in Ruskin, Morris and the Pre-Raphaelites, Cambridge, 1995; J. Tucker 'Photography as witness, detective and impostor: visual representation in Victorian science', in Victorian Science In Context (ed. B. Lightman), Chicago, 1997, 378-408. The last has a useful bibliography on visual representation.
15. The work here is extensive and the following is only a selection. B. Baigrie (ed.), Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, Toronto, 1996; A. S. Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth Century Zoological Illustration, Princeton, 1993; T. Brennan and M. Jay (eds.), Vision in Context: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Sight, New York, 1996; J. Crary, Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge, 1990; D. Fox and C. Lawrence, Photographing Medicine: Images and Power in Britain and America since 1840, New York, 1988; G. Fyfe and J. Law (eds.), Picturing Power: Visual Depictions and Social Relations, London, 1988; T. L. Hankins and R. J. Silverman, Instruments and the Imagination, Princeton, 1995; C. Hentschel, Mapping the Spectrum: Techniques of Visual Representation in Research and Teaching, Oxford, 2002; C. A. Jones and P. Galison (eds.), Picturing Science, Producing Art, New York, 1998; L. Jordanova, 'Medicine and visual culture', Social History of Medicine (1990), 3, 89-99; M. Lynch and S. Woolgar (eds.), Representation in Scientific Practice, Cambridge, MA, 1990; A. Pang, 'Visual representation and post-constructivist history of science,' Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1999), 28, 139-71; M. Rudwick, 'The emergence of a visual language for geological science 1760-1840', History of Science (1976), 14, 149-95; H. Rothermel, 'Images of the Sun: De la Rue, Airy and Celestial Photography', BJHS (1993), 26, 137-69; L. Schaaf, Out of the Shadows: Herschel, Talbot and the Invention of Photography, New Haven, 1992; G. Seiberling, Amateurs, Photography and the Mid Victorian Imagination, Chicago, 1986; L. Smith, Victorian Photography, Painting and Poetry: The Enigma of Visibility in Ruskin, Morris and the Pre-Raphaelites, Cambridge, 1995; J. Tucker 'Photography as witness, detective and impostor: visual representation in Victorian science', in Victorian Science In Context (ed. B. Lightman), Chicago, 1997, 378-408. The last has a useful bibliography on visual representation.
16. The work here is extensive and the following is only a selection. B. Baigrie (ed.), Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, Toronto, 1996; A. S. Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth Century Zoological Illustration, Princeton, 1993; T. Brennan and M. Jay (eds.), Vision in Context: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Sight, New York, 1996; J. Crary, Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge, 1990; D. Fox and C. Lawrence, Photographing Medicine: Images and Power in Britain and America since 1840, New York, 1988; G. Fyfe and J. Law (eds.), Picturing Power: Visual Depictions and Social Relations, London, 1988; T. L. Hankins and R. J. Silverman, Instruments and the Imagination, Princeton, 1995; C. Hentschel, Mapping the Spectrum: Techniques of Visual Representation in Research and Teaching, Oxford, 2002; C. A. Jones and P. Galison (eds.), Picturing Science, Producing Art, New York, 1998; L. Jordanova, 'Medicine and visual culture', Social History of Medicine (1990), 3, 89-99; M. Lynch and S. Woolgar (eds.), Representation in Scientific Practice, Cambridge, MA, 1990; A. Pang, 'Visual representation and post-constructivist history of science,' Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1999), 28, 139-71; M. Rudwick, 'The emergence of a visual language for geological science 1760-1840', History of Science (1976), 14, 149-95; H. Rothermel, 'Images of the Sun: De la Rue, Airy and Celestial Photography', BJHS (1993), 26, 137-69; L. Schaaf, Out of the Shadows: Herschel, Talbot and the Invention of Photography, New Haven, 1992; G. Seiberling, Amateurs, Photography and the Mid Victorian Imagination, Chicago, 1986; L. Smith, Victorian Photography, Painting and Poetry: The Enigma of Visibility in Ruskin, Morris and the Pre-Raphaelites, Cambridge, 1995; J. Tucker 'Photography as witness, detective and impostor: visual representation in Victorian science', in Victorian Science In Context (ed. B. Lightman), Chicago, 1997, 378-408. The last has a useful bibliography on visual representation.
17. The work here is extensive and the following is only a selection. B. Baigrie (ed.), Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, Toronto, 1996; A. S. Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth Century Zoological Illustration, Princeton, 1993; T. Brennan and M. Jay (eds.), Vision in Context: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Sight, New York, 1996; J. Crary, Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge, 1990; D. Fox and C. Lawrence, Photographing Medicine: Images and Power in Britain and America since 1840, New York, 1988; G. Fyfe and J. Law (eds.), Picturing Power: Visual Depictions and Social Relations, London, 1988; T. L. Hankins and R. J. Silverman, Instruments and the Imagination, Princeton, 1995; C. Hentschel, Mapping the Spectrum: Techniques of Visual Representation in Research and Teaching, Oxford, 2002; C. A. Jones and P. Galison (eds.), Picturing Science, Producing Art, New York, 1998; L. Jordanova, 'Medicine and visual culture', Social History of Medicine (1990), 3, 89-99; M. Lynch and S. Woolgar (eds.), Representation in Scientific Practice, Cambridge, MA, 1990; A. Pang, 'Visual representation and post-constructivist history of science,' Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1999), 28, 139-71; M. Rudwick, 'The emergence of a visual language for geological science 1760-1840', History of Science (1976), 14, 149-95; H. Rothermel, 'Images of the Sun: De la Rue, Airy and Celestial Photography', BJHS (1993), 26, 137-69; L. Schaaf, Out of the Shadows: Herschel, Talbot and the Invention of Photography, New Haven, 1992; G. Seiberling, Amateurs, Photography and the Mid Victorian Imagination, Chicago, 1986; L. Smith, Victorian Photography, Painting and Poetry: The Enigma of Visibility in Ruskin, Morris and the Pre-Raphaelites, Cambridge, 1995; J. Tucker 'Photography as witness, detective and impostor: visual representation in Victorian science', in Victorian Science In Context (ed. B. Lightman), Chicago, 1997, 378-408. The last has a useful bibliography on visual representation.
18. The work here is extensive and the following is only a selection. B. Baigrie (ed.), Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, Toronto, 1996; A. S. Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth Century Zoological Illustration, Princeton, 1993; T. Brennan and M. Jay (eds.), Vision in Context: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Sight, New York, 1996; J. Crary, Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge, 1990; D. Fox and C. Lawrence, Photographing Medicine: Images and Power in Britain and America since 1840, New York, 1988; G. Fyfe and J. Law (eds.), Picturing Power: Visual Depictions and Social Relations, London, 1988; T. L. Hankins and R. J. Silverman, Instruments and the Imagination, Princeton, 1995; C. Hentschel, Mapping the Spectrum: Techniques of Visual Representation in Research and Teaching, Oxford, 2002; C. A. Jones and P. Galison (eds.), Picturing Science, Producing Art, New York, 1998; L. Jordanova, 'Medicine and visual culture', Social History of Medicine (1990), 3, 89-99; M. Lynch and S. Woolgar (eds.), Representation in Scientific Practice, Cambridge, MA, 1990; A. Pang, 'Visual representation and post-constructivist history of science,' Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1999), 28, 139-71; M. Rudwick, 'The emergence of a visual language for geological science 1760-1840', History of Science (1976), 14, 149-95; H. Rothermel, 'Images of the Sun: De la Rue, Airy and Celestial Photography', BJHS (1993), 26, 137-69; L. Schaaf, Out of the Shadows: Herschel, Talbot and the Invention of Photography, New Haven, 1992; G. Seiberling, Amateurs, Photography and the Mid Victorian Imagination, Chicago, 1986; L. Smith, Victorian Photography, Painting and Poetry: The Enigma of Visibility in Ruskin, Morris and the Pre-Raphaelites, Cambridge, 1995; J. Tucker 'Photography as witness, detective and impostor: visual representation in Victorian science', in Victorian Science In Context (ed. B. Lightman), Chicago, 1997, 378-408. The last has a useful bibliography on visual representation.
19. The work here is extensive and the following is only a selection. B. Baigrie (ed.), Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, Toronto, 1996; A. S. Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth Century Zoological Illustration, Princeton, 1993; T. Brennan and M. Jay (eds.), Vision in Context: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Sight, New York, 1996; J. Crary, Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge, 1990; D. Fox and C. Lawrence, Photographing Medicine: Images and Power in Britain and America since 1840, New York, 1988; G. Fyfe and J. Law (eds.), Picturing Power: Visual Depictions and Social Relations, London, 1988; T. L. Hankins and R. J. Silverman, Instruments and the Imagination, Princeton, 1995; C. Hentschel, Mapping the Spectrum: Techniques of Visual Representation in Research and Teaching, Oxford, 2002; C. A. Jones and P. Galison (eds.), Picturing Science, Producing Art, New York, 1998; L. Jordanova, 'Medicine and visual culture', Social History of Medicine (1990), 3, 89-99; M. Lynch and S. Woolgar (eds.), Representation in Scientific Practice, Cambridge, MA, 1990; A. Pang, 'Visual representation and post-constructivist history of science,' Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1999), 28, 139-71; M. Rudwick, 'The emergence of a visual language for geological science 1760-1840', History of Science (1976), 14, 149-95; H. Rothermel, 'Images of the Sun: De la Rue, Airy and Celestial Photography', BJHS (1993), 26, 137-69; L. Schaaf, Out of the Shadows: Herschel, Talbot and the Invention of Photography, New Haven, 1992; G. Seiberling, Amateurs, Photography and the Mid Victorian Imagination, Chicago, 1986; L. Smith, Victorian Photography, Painting and Poetry: The Enigma of Visibility in Ruskin, Morris and the Pre-Raphaelites, Cambridge, 1995; J. Tucker 'Photography as witness, detective and impostor: visual representation in Victorian science', in Victorian Science In Context (ed. B. Lightman), Chicago, 1997, 378-408. The last has a useful bibliography on visual representation.
20. The work here is extensive and the following is only a selection. B. Baigrie (ed.), Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, Toronto, 1996; A. S. Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth Century Zoological Illustration, Princeton, 1993; T. Brennan and M. Jay (eds.), Vision in Context: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Sight, New York, 1996; J. Crary, Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge, 1990; D. Fox and C. Lawrence, Photographing Medicine: Images and Power in Britain and America since 1840, New York, 1988; G. Fyfe and J. Law (eds.), Picturing Power: Visual Depictions and Social Relations, London, 1988; T. L. Hankins and R. J. Silverman, Instruments and the Imagination, Princeton, 1995; C. Hentschel, Mapping the Spectrum: Techniques of Visual Representation in Research and Teaching, Oxford, 2002; C. A. Jones and P. Galison (eds.), Picturing Science, Producing Art, New York, 1998; L. Jordanova, 'Medicine and visual culture', Social History of Medicine (1990), 3, 89-99; M. Lynch and S. Woolgar (eds.), Representation in Scientific Practice, Cambridge, MA, 1990; A. Pang, 'Visual representation and post-constructivist history of science,' Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1999), 28, 139-71; M. Rudwick, 'The emergence of a visual language for geological science 1760-1840', History of Science (1976), 14, 149-95; H. Rothermel, 'Images of the Sun: De la Rue, Airy and Celestial Photography', BJHS (1993), 26, 137-69; L. Schaaf, Out of the Shadows: Herschel, Talbot and the Invention of Photography, New Haven, 1992; G. Seiberling, Amateurs, Photography and the Mid Victorian Imagination, Chicago, 1986; L. Smith, Victorian Photography, Painting and Poetry: The Enigma of Visibility in Ruskin, Morris and the Pre-Raphaelites, Cambridge, 1995; J. Tucker 'Photography as witness, detective and impostor: visual representation in Victorian science', in Victorian Science In Context (ed. B. Lightman), Chicago, 1997, 378-408. The last has a useful bibliography on visual representation.
21. The work here is extensive and the following is only a selection. B. Baigrie (ed.), Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, Toronto, 1996; A. S. Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth Century Zoological Illustration, Princeton, 1993; T. Brennan and M. Jay (eds.), Vision in Context: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Sight, New York, 1996; J. Crary, Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge, 1990; D. Fox and C. Lawrence, Photographing Medicine: Images and Power in Britain and America since 1840, New York, 1988; G. Fyfe and J. Law (eds.), Picturing Power: Visual Depictions and Social Relations, London, 1988; T. L. Hankins and R. J. Silverman, Instruments and the Imagination, Princeton, 1995; C. Hentschel, Mapping the Spectrum: Techniques of Visual Representation in Research and Teaching, Oxford, 2002; C. A. Jones and P. Galison (eds.), Picturing Science, Producing Art, New York, 1998; L. Jordanova, 'Medicine and visual culture', Social History of Medicine (1990), 3, 89-99; M. Lynch and S. Woolgar (eds.), Representation in Scientific Practice, Cambridge, MA, 1990; A. Pang, 'Visual representation and post-constructivist history of science,' Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1999), 28, 139-71; M. Rudwick, 'The emergence of a visual language for geological science 1760-1840', History of Science (1976), 14, 149-95; H. Rothermel, 'Images of the Sun: De la Rue, Airy and Celestial Photography', BJHS (1993), 26, 137-69; L. Schaaf, Out of the Shadows: Herschel, Talbot and the Invention of Photography, New Haven, 1992; G. Seiberling, Amateurs, Photography and the Mid Victorian Imagination, Chicago, 1986; L. Smith, Victorian Photography, Painting and Poetry: The Enigma of Visibility in Ruskin, Morris and the Pre-Raphaelites, Cambridge, 1995; J. Tucker 'Photography as witness, detective and impostor: visual representation in Victorian science', in Victorian Science In Context (ed. B. Lightman), Chicago, 1997, 378-408. The last has a useful bibliography on visual representation.
22. R. Hamblyn, The Invention of Clouds: How an Amateur Meteorologist Forged the Language of the Skies, New York, 2001.
23. H. Maas, 'Of clouds and statistics: inferring causal structures from the data', Measurements in Physics and Economics Discussion Paper Series: DP MEAS 7/99 (London/Amsterdam, 1999); R. Schmitt, 'The salt finger experiments of Jevons (1857) and Rayleigh (1880)', Journal of Physical Oceanography (1995), 25, 8-17. For Jevons's early meteorological work generally see N. Nicholls, 'William Stanley Jevons and the climate of Australia', Australian Meteorology Magazine (1998), 47, 285-93. P. Galison and A. Assmus, 'Artificial clouds, real particles,' in D. Gooding, T. Pinch and S. Schaffer (eds.), The Uses of Experiment: Studies in the Natural Sciences, Cambridge, 1989, 225-74.
24. H. Maas, 'Of clouds and statistics: inferring causal structures from the data', Measurements in Physics and Economics Discussion Paper Series: DP MEAS 7/99 (London/Amsterdam, 1999); R. Schmitt, 'The salt finger experiments of Jevons (1857) and Rayleigh (1880)', Journal of Physical Oceanography (1995), 25, 8-17. For Jevons's early meteorological work generally see N. Nicholls, 'William Stanley Jevons and the climate of Australia', Australian Meteorology Magazine (1998), 47, 285-93. P. Galison and A. Assmus, 'Artificial clouds, real particles,' in D. Gooding, T. Pinch and S. Schaffer (eds.), The Uses of Experiment: Studies in the Natural Sciences, Cambridge, 1989, 225-74.
25. H. Maas, 'Of clouds and statistics: inferring causal structures from the data', Measurements in Physics and Economics Discussion Paper Series: DP MEAS 7/99 (London/Amsterdam, 1999); R. Schmitt, 'The salt finger experiments of Jevons (1857) and Rayleigh (1880)', Journal of Physical Oceanography (1995), 25, 8-17. For Jevons's early meteorological work generally see N. Nicholls, 'William Stanley Jevons and the climate of Australia', Australian Meteorology Magazine (1998), 47, 285-93. P. Galison and A. Assmus, 'Artificial clouds, real particles,' in D. Gooding, T. Pinch and S. Schaffer (eds.), The Uses of Experiment: Studies in the Natural Sciences, Cambridge, 1989, 225-74.
26. H. Maas, 'Of clouds and statistics: inferring causal structures from the data', Measurements in Physics and Economics Discussion Paper Series: DP MEAS 7/99 (London/Amsterdam, 1999); R. Schmitt, 'The salt finger experiments of Jevons (1857) and Rayleigh (1880)', Journal of Physical Oceanography (1995), 25, 8-17. For Jevons's early meteorological work generally see N. Nicholls, 'William Stanley Jevons and the climate of Australia', Australian Meteorology Magazine (1998), 47, 285-93. P. Galison and A. Assmus, 'Artificial clouds, real particles,' in D. Gooding, T. Pinch and S. Schaffer (eds.), The Uses of Experiment: Studies in the Natural Sciences, Cambridge, 1989, 225-74.
27. J.J. Fox, 'The life of a cloud', Recreative Science (1874), 2, 13-17, 15.
28. L. Daston and P. Galison, 'The image of objectivity', Representations (1992), 40, 81-128.
29. Cf. Smith, op. cit. (3), 7: 'the impetus to classify and verify phenomena visually produces as its counterpart, however, a fascination with the obverse of clear-sightedness'.
30. On popular meteorology in the nineteenth century, see K. Anderson, 'The weather prophets: science and reputation in Victorian meteorology', History of Science (1999), 37, 179-216.
31. J. Burton, 'Robert FitzRoy and the early history of the Meteorological Office', BJHS (1986), 19, 147-76. Original emphasis.
32. John Locke to James Tennant, 30 November 1859, Public Records Office, BJ 7/726.
33. Quoted in T. B. Butler, Philosophy of the Weather and a Guide to Its Changes, New York, 1856, p. xiii.
34. J. Claridge, The Country Calendar or the Shepherd of Banbury's Rules (annorated by G. H. T. Kimble), London, 1946. Cf. Hamblyn, op. cit. (4), 230. See V. Janković, Reading the Skies: A Cultural History of English Weather, Chicago, 2001, 133-5 for a discussion of the 'folk epistemology' of meteorology in the eighteenth century.
35. J. Claridge, The Country Calendar or the Shepherd of Banbury's Rules (annorated by G. H. T. Kimble), London, 1946. Cf. Hamblyn, op. cit. (4), 230. See V. Janković, Reading the Skies: A Cultural History of English Weather, Chicago, 2001, 133-5 for a discussion of the 'folk epistemology' of meteorology in the eighteenth century.
36. J. Claridge, The Country Calendar or the Shepherd of Banbury's Rules (annorated by G. H. T. Kimble), London, 1946. Cf. Hamblyn, op. cit. (4), 230. See V. Janković, Reading the Skies: A Cultural History of English Weather, Chicago, 2001, 133-5 for a discussion of the 'folk epistemology' of meteorology in the eighteenth century.
37. For the verses and attribution see F. D. Drewitt, Edward Jenner, London, 1933.
38. T. Hardy, Far from the Madding Crowd, Oxford, 1993, 174.
39. T. Hardy, Mayor of Casterbridge (ed. D. Kramer), Oxford, 1987, 295, 257.
40. Claridge, op. cit. (13), 18.
41. Cf. with the birding term 'jizz' to describe the qualities grasped by the experienced observer; 'something definite yet indefinable ... which instantly registers identity on the brain'. T. A. Coward, Bird Haunts and Nature Memories, London, 1922, 141-4, 142. I am grateful to A. Secord for this reference. The relationship between central and instrumental knowledge on the one hand and traditional insight on the other discussed here holds some similarities to the forms of local expertise in botany explored by A. Secord, 'Science in the pub: artisan botanists in early nineteenth-century Lancashire', History of Science (1994), 32, 269-315; 'Observing differences: artisans, gentlemen and the work of nineteenth-century botany', (paper delivered at conference on Science and the Visual Imagination in the Nineteenth Century, Huntingdon Library, 29-30 May, 1998). Meteorological debate, however, emphasized more strongly the purpose of the work, so that popular and local was also connected to useful and humanitarian as opposed to useless precision.
42. Cf. with the birding term 'jizz' to describe the qualities grasped by the experienced observer; 'something definite yet indefinable ... which instantly registers identity on the brain'. T. A. Coward, Bird Haunts and Nature Memories, London, 1922, 141-4, 142. I am grateful to A. Secord for this reference. The relationship between central and instrumental knowledge on the one hand and traditional insight on the other discussed here holds some similarities to the forms of local expertise in botany explored by A. Secord, 'Science in the pub: artisan botanists in early nineteenth-century Lancashire', History of Science (1994), 32, 269-315; 'Observing differences: artisans, gentlemen and the work of nineteenth-century botany', (paper delivered at conference on Science and the Visual Imagination in the Nineteenth Century, Huntingdon Library, 29-30 May, 1998). Meteorological debate, however, emphasized more strongly the purpose of the work, so that popular and local was also connected to useful and humanitarian as opposed to useless precision.
43. Cf. with the birding term 'jizz' to describe the qualities grasped by the experienced observer; 'something definite yet indefinable ... which instantly registers identity on the brain'. T. A. Coward, Bird Haunts and Nature Memories, London, 1922, 141-4, 142. I am grateful to A. Secord for this reference. The relationship between central and instrumental knowledge on the one hand and traditional insight on the other discussed here holds some similarities to the forms of local expertise in botany explored by A. Secord, 'Science in the pub: artisan botanists in early nineteenth-century Lancashire', History of Science (1994), 32, 269-315; 'Observing differences: artisans, gentlemen and the work of nineteenth-century botany', (paper delivered at conference on Science and the Visual Imagination in the Nineteenth Century, Huntingdon Library, 29-30 May, 1998). Meteorological debate, however, emphasized more strongly the purpose of the work, so that popular and local was also connected to useful and humanitarian as opposed to useless precision.
44. R. FitzRoy, The Weather Book, 2nd edn, London, 1863, 170; and idem, Report of the Meteorological Department of the Board of Trade, Parliamentary Papers (1862), 54, 435-521; 448-9. Original emphasis.
45. R. FitzRoy, The Weather Book, 2nd edn, London, 1863, 170; and idem, Report of the Meteorological Department of the Board of Trade, Parliamentary Papers (1862), 54, 435-521; 448-9. Original emphasis.
46. A selection of nineteenth-century meteorological maps can be found in G. Hellman, Neudrucke von Schriften und Karten über Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus, nos. 1-15, Berlin, 1893-1904, no. 8. Meteorologische Karten [1897]. A good account of the importance of the maps in the development of meteorology in the nineteenth century can be seen in J. R. Fleming, Meteorology in America 1800-1870, Baltimore, 1990, and R. Abercromby, Weather: A Popular Exposition of the Nature of Weather Changes from Day to Day, 4th edn, London, 1902; M. Monmonier, Air Apparent: How Meteorologists Learned to Map, Predict, and Dramatize Weather, Chicago, 1999, carries the story forward to the present.
47. A selection of nineteenth-century meteorological maps can be found in G. Hellman, Neudrucke von Schriften und Karten über Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus, nos. 1-15, Berlin, 1893-1904, no. 8. Meteorologische Karten [1897]. A good account of the importance of the maps in the development of meteorology in the nineteenth century can be seen in J. R. Fleming, Meteorology in America 1800-1870, Baltimore, 1990, and R. Abercromby, Weather: A Popular Exposition of the Nature of Weather Changes from Day to Day, 4th edn, London, 1902; M. Monmonier, Air Apparent: How Meteorologists Learned to Map, Predict, and Dramatize Weather, Chicago, 1999, carries the story forward to the present.
48. A selection of nineteenth-century meteorological maps can be found in G. Hellman, Neudrucke von Schriften und Karten über Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus, nos. 1-15, Berlin, 1893-1904, no. 8. Meteorologische Karten [1897]. A good account of the importance of the maps in the development of meteorology in the nineteenth century can be seen in J. R. Fleming, Meteorology in America 1800-1870, Baltimore, 1990, and R. Abercromby, Weather: A Popular Exposition of the Nature of Weather Changes from Day to Day, 4th edn, London, 1902; M. Monmonier, Air Apparent: How Meteorologists Learned to Map, Predict, and Dramatize Weather, Chicago, 1999, carries the story forward to the present.
49. A selection of nineteenth-century meteorological maps can be found in G. Hellman, Neudrucke von Schriften und Karten über Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus, nos. 1-15, Berlin, 1893-1904, no. 8. Meteorologische Karten [1897]. A good account of the importance of the maps in the development of meteorology in the nineteenth century can be seen in J. R. Fleming, Meteorology in America 1800-1870, Baltimore, 1990, and R. Abercromby, Weather: A Popular Exposition of the Nature of Weather Changes from Day to Day, 4th edn, London, 1902; M. Monmonier, Air Apparent: How Meteorologists Learned to Map, Predict, and Dramatize Weather, Chicago, 1999, carries the story forward to the present.
50. A selection of nineteenth-century meteorological maps can be found in G. Hellman, Neudrucke von Schriften und Karten über Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus, nos. 1-15, Berlin, 1893-1904, no. 8. Meteorologische Karten [1897]. A good account of the importance of the maps in the development of meteorology in the nineteenth century can be seen in J. R. Fleming, Meteorology in America 1800-1870, Baltimore, 1990, and R. Abercromby, Weather: A Popular Exposition of the Nature of Weather Changes from Day to Day, 4th edn, London, 1902; M. Monmonier, Air Apparent: How Meteorologists Learned to Map, Predict, and Dramatize Weather, Chicago, 1999, carries the story forward to the present.
51. C. P. Smyth to R. FitzRoy, 5 November 1855, PRO BJ 7/530.
52. F. Galton, Meteorographica, London, 1863, 3. On Galton's meteorological maps, including his involvement with the first newspaper weather maps, see K. Pearson, Life and Letters of Francis Galton, 2 vols., Cambridge, 1924, ii, 36-49.
53. F. Galton, Meteorographica, London, 1863, 3. On Galton's meteorological maps, including his involvement with the first newspaper weather maps, see K. Pearson, Life and Letters of Francis Galton, 2 vols., Cambridge, 1924, ii, 36-49.
54. M. Dettlebach, 'The face of nature: precise measurement, mapping and sensibility in the work of Alexander von Humboldt', Studies in the History and Philosophy of Biology and Biomedical Sciences (1999), 30, 473-504.
55. R. Scott, 'Forecasting the weather', Good Words (1881), 22, 451-7, 565-70, 452.
56. H. G. Wells, Tono-Bungay, London, 1966, 66-7.
57. Parliamentary Papers (1867-8), 63, 400-1.
58. J. Glaisher, 'Letters', Scientific Opinion (1869), 1, 543.
59. 'The Times weather chart', Nature (1875), 11, 474. Cf. R. Scott 'Weather charts in the newspapers', Journal of the Royal Society of Arts (1875), 25, 776-82.
60. 'The Times weather chart', Nature (1875), 11, 474. Cf. R. Scott 'Weather charts in the newspapers', Journal of the Royal Society of Arts (1875), 25, 776-82.
61. For example, Report of a Committee Appointed to Consider Certain Questions Relating to the Meteorological Department of the Board of Trade, Parliamentary Papers (1866), 13, 1-44; Royal Commission of Scientific Instruction and the Advancement of Science [Devonshire Commission, 8th report], Parliamentary Papers (1875), 28, 478-547; Report of the Treasury Committee Appointed to Inquire into the Conditions and Mode of Administration of the Annual Grant in Aid of Meteorological Investigations, Parliamentary Papers (1877), 33, 731-952.
62. For example, Report of a Committee Appointed to Consider Certain Questions Relating to the Meteorological Department of the Board of Trade, Parliamentary Papers (1866), 13, 1-44; Royal Commission of Scientific Instruction and the Advancement of Science [Devonshire Commission, 8th report], Parliamentary Papers (1875), 28, 478-547; Report of the Treasury Committee Appointed to Inquire into the Conditions and Mode of Administration of the Annual Grant in Aid of Meteorological Investigations, Parliamentary Papers (1877), 33, 731-952.
63. For example, Report of a Committee Appointed to Consider Certain Questions Relating to the Meteorological Department of the Board of Trade, Parliamentary Papers (1866), 13, 1-44; Royal Commission of Scientific Instruction and the Advancement of Science [Devonshire Commission, 8th report], Parliamentary Papers (1875), 28, 478-547; Report of the Treasury Committee Appointed to Inquire into the Conditions and Mode of Administration of the Annual Grant in Aid of Meteorological Investigations, Parliamentary Papers (1877), 33, 731-952.
64. K. E. Sullivan, Turner, London, 1996, 56.
65. A. Bermingham, Learning to Draw: Studies in the Cultural History of Polite and Useful Art, New Haven, 2000; B. Hartley, 'Living academies of nature: scientific experiment in learning and communicating the new skills of early nineteenth-century landscape painting', Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1996), 27, 149-180; C. Klonk, Science and the Perception of Nature: British Landscape Art in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries, New Haven, 1996. Other useful works are P. A. Dale, In Pursuit of a Scientific Culture: Science, Art, and Society in the Victorian Age, Madison, 1989; W. F. Axton, 'Victorian landscape painting: a change in outlook', in Nature and the Victorian Imagination (ed. U. C. Knoepflmacher and G. B. Tennyson), Berkeley, 1977, 281-308.
66. A. Bermingham, Learning to Draw: Studies in the Cultural History of Polite and Useful Art, New Haven, 2000; B. Hartley, 'Living academies of nature: scientific experiment in learning and communicating the new skills of early nineteenth-century landscape painting', Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1996), 27, 149-180; C. Klonk, Science and the Perception of Nature: British Landscape Art in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries, New Haven, 1996. Other useful works are P. A. Dale, In Pursuit of a Scientific Culture: Science, Art, and Society in the Victorian Age, Madison, 1989; W. F. Axton, 'Victorian landscape painting: a change in outlook', in Nature and the Victorian Imagination (ed. U. C. Knoepflmacher and G. B. Tennyson), Berkeley, 1977, 281-308.
67. A. Bermingham, Learning to Draw: Studies in the Cultural History of Polite and Useful Art, New Haven, 2000; B. Hartley, 'Living academies of nature: scientific experiment in learning and communicating the new skills of early nineteenth-century landscape painting', Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1996), 27, 149-180; C. Klonk, Science and the Perception of Nature: British Landscape Art in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries, New Haven, 1996. Other useful works are P. A. Dale, In Pursuit of a Scientific Culture: Science, Art, and Society in the Victorian Age, Madison, 1989; W. F. Axton, 'Victorian landscape painting: a change in outlook', in Nature and the Victorian Imagination (ed. U. C. Knoepflmacher and G. B. Tennyson), Berkeley, 1977, 281-308.
68. A. Bermingham, Learning to Draw: Studies in the Cultural History of Polite and Useful Art, New Haven, 2000; B. Hartley, 'Living academies of nature: scientific experiment in learning and communicating the new skills of early nineteenth-century landscape painting', Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1996), 27, 149-180; C. Klonk, Science and the Perception of Nature: British Landscape Art in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries, New Haven, 1996. Other useful works are P. A. Dale, In Pursuit of a Scientific Culture: Science, Art, and Society in the Victorian Age, Madison, 1989; W. F. Axton, 'Victorian landscape painting: a change in outlook', in Nature and the Victorian Imagination (ed. U. C. Knoepflmacher and G. B. Tennyson), Berkeley, 1977, 281-308.
69. A. Bermingham, Learning to Draw: Studies in the Cultural History of Polite and Useful Art, New Haven, 2000; B. Hartley, 'Living academies of nature: scientific experiment in learning and communicating the new skills of early
70. K. Badt, John Constable's Clouds, London, 1950; D. Topper, 'Natural science and visual art: reflections on the interface', in Beyond History of Science: Essays in Honor of Robert E. Schofield (ed. E. Garber), Cranberry, NJ, 1990, 296-310 uses Constable and meteorology as one of his examples. G. P. Landow, 'The rainbow: a problematic image', in Nature and the Victorian Imagination (ed. U. C. Knoepflmacher and G. B.Tennyson), Berkeley, 1977, 341-69. Cf. D. T. Ansted, 'Influence of certain physical conditions on the origin and development of art', Art Journal (1868), 30, 172-3 on climate, vegetation and characteristic scenery as an influence on artistic styles.
71. K. Badt, John Constable's Clouds, London, 1950; D. Topper, 'Natural science and visual art: reflections on the interface', in Beyond History of Science: Essays in Honor of Robert E. Schofield (ed. E. Garber), Cranberry, NJ, 1990, 296-310 uses Constable and meteorology as one of his examples. G. P. Landow, 'The rainbow: a problematic image', in Nature and the Victorian Imagination (ed. U. C. Knoepflmacher and G. B.Tennyson), Berkeley, 1977, 341-69. Cf. D. T. Ansted, 'Influence of certain physical conditions on the origin and development of art', Art Journal (1868), 30, 172-3 on climate, vegetation and characteristic scenery as an influence on artistic styles.
72. K. Badt, John Constable's Clouds, London, 1950; D. Topper, 'Natural science and visual art: reflections on the interface', in Beyond History of Science: Essays in Honor of Robert E. Schofield (ed. E. Garber), Cranberry, NJ, 1990, 296-310 uses Constable and meteorology as one of his examples. G. P. Landow, 'The rainbow: a problematic image', in Nature and the Victorian Imagination (ed. U. C. Knoepflmacher and G. B.Tennyson), Berkeley, 1977, 341-69. Cf. D. T. Ansted, 'Influence of certain physical conditions on the origin and development of art', Art Journal (1868), 30, 172-3 on climate, vegetation and characteristic scenery as an influence on artistic styles.
73. K. Badt, John Constable's Clouds, London, 1950; D. Topper, 'Natural science and visual art: reflections on the interface', in Beyond History of Science: Essays in Honor of Robert E. Schofield (ed. E. Garber), Cranberry, NJ, 1990, 296-310 uses Constable and meteorology as one of his examples. G. P. Landow, 'The rainbow: a problematic image', in Nature and the Victorian Imagination (ed. U. C. Knoepflmacher and G. B.Tennyson), Berkeley, 1977, 341-69. Cf. D. T. Ansted, 'Influence of certain physical conditions on the origin and development of art', Art Journal (1868), 30, 172-3 on climate, vegetation and characteristic scenery as an influence on artistic styles.
74. F. E. Hulme, R. Hunt, J. Glaisher and S. J. Mackie, Art Studies from Nature as Applied to Design for the Use of Architects, Designers and Manufacturers, London, 1872.
75. C. Flammarion, The Atmosphere (ed. J. Glaisher, tr. C. B. Pitman), New York, 1896; G. Hartwig, The Aerial World: A Popular Account of the Phenomena and Life of the Atmosphere, 2nd edn, London, 1886.
76. C. Flammarion, The Atmosphere (ed. J. Glaisher, tr. C. B. Pitman), New York, 1896; G. Hartwig, The Aerial World: A Popular Account of the Phenomena and Life of the Atmosphere, 2nd edn, London, 1886.
77. There was a real difference in style of illustration between such popular accounts and those which aimed to be more strictly scientific. Of the images in Abercromby's Weather (op. cit. (20)), or in F. Waldo, Modern Meteorology, London, 1893, most are of the stark instrumental kind - in the latter, the drama and romantic scenery are reserved for scientific practice itself rather than natural phenomena, with several striking photographs or engravings of observers at work in remote terrain.
78. There was a real difference in style of illustration between such popular accounts and those which aimed to be more strictly scientific. Of the images in Abercromby's Weather (op. cit. (20)), or in F. Waldo, Modern Meteorology, London, 1893, most are of the stark instrumental kind - in the latter, the drama and romantic scenery are reserved for scientific practice itself rather than natural phenomena, with several striking photographs or engravings of observers at work in remote terrain.
79. Seiberling, op. cit. (3), 23-4.
80. E. Walton, Clouds: Their Forms and Combinations, 3rd edn, London, 1873. Cf. an obscure British cloud atlas consisting of reproductions of landscape paintings with the basic cloud nomenclature stamped onto the relevant portions of the sky. E. A. Kennedy, The Hourly Weather Guide or Cloud Atlas, London, 1893.
81. E. Walton, Clouds: Their Forms and Combinations, 3rd edn, London, 1873. Cf. an obscure British cloud atlas consisting of reproductions of landscape paintings with the basic cloud nomenclature stamped onto the relevant portions of the sky. E. A. Kennedy, The Hourly Weather Guide or Cloud Atlas, London, 1893.
82. W. Marriot, 'Application of photography to meteorological phenomena', Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society (1890), 16, 146-52, 146-7; C. Ley, 'Cloud photography', Symons's Meteorology Magazine (1880), 15, 54-5.
83. W. Marriot, 'Application of photography to meteorological phenomena', Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society (1890), 16, 146-52, 146-7; C. Ley, 'Cloud photography', Symons's Meteorology Magazine (1880), 15, 54-5.
84. See the review in Symons's Meteorology Magazine (1889), 24, 160; 'Current notes: atlas of clouds', American Meteorological Journal (1889-90), 6, 383-4; and 'Cloud atlas', American Meteorological Journal (1890-1), 7, 424. For the international cloud atlas, see H. Hildebrandsson, A. Riggenback and L. Teisserenc de Bort (eds.), International Cloud Atlas, Paris, 1896. Some of its predecessors were W. Weilbach, Nordeuropas Skyformer, Copenhagen, 1881; H. Hildebrandsson, W. Koppen and G. Neumayer, Wolken Atlas, 1890; Clement Ley, Cloudland, London, 1894; F. Denza, Classification delle Nubi, Rome, 1893. For a summary of the work done in the United States, see F. Begelow, 'Some of the results of the International Cloud Work', American Journal of Science (1899), 8, 433-44.
85. See the review in Symons's Meteorology Magazine (1889), 24, 160; 'Current notes: atlas of clouds', American Meteorological Journal (1889-90), 6, 383-4; and 'Cloud atlas', American Meteorological Journal (1890-1), 7, 424. For the international cloud atlas, see H. Hildebrandsson, A. Riggenback and L. Teisserenc de Bort (eds.), International Cloud Atlas, Paris, 1896. Some of its predecessors were W. Weilbach, Nordeuropas Skyformer, Copenhagen, 1881; H. Hildebrandsson, W. Koppen and G. Neumayer, Wolken Atlas, 1890; Clement Ley, Cloudland, London, 1894; F. Denza, Classification delle Nubi, Rome, 1893. For a summary of the work done in the United States, see F. Begelow, 'Some of the results of the International Cloud Work', American Journal of Science (1899), 8, 433-44.
86. See the review in Symons's Meteorology Magazine (1889), 24, 160; 'Current notes: atlas of clouds', American Meteorological Journal (1889-90), 6, 383-4; and 'Cloud atlas', American Meteorological Journal (1890-1), 7, 424. For the international cloud atlas, see H. Hildebrandsson, A. Riggenback and L. Teisserenc de Bort (eds.), International Cloud Atlas, Paris, 1896. Some of its predecessors were W. Weilbach, Nordeuropas Skyformer, Copenhagen, 1881; H. Hildebrandsson, W. Koppen and G. Neumayer, Wolken Atlas, 1890; Clement Ley, Cloudland, London, 1894; F. Denza, Classification delle Nubi, Rome, 1893. For a summary of the work done in the United States, see F. Begelow, 'Some of the results of the International Cloud Work', American Journal of Science (1899), 8, 433-44.
87. See the review in Symons's Meteorology Magazine (1889), 24, 160; 'Current notes: atlas of clouds', American Meteorological Journal (1889-90), 6, 383-4; and 'Cloud atlas', American Meteorological Journal (1890-1), 7, 424. For the international cloud atlas, see H. Hildebrandsson, A. Riggenback and L. Teisserenc de Bort (eds.), International Cloud Atlas, Paris, 1896. Some of its predecessors were W. Weilbach, Nordeuropas Skyformer, Copenhagen, 1881; H. Hildebrandsson, W. Koppen and G. Neumayer, Wolken Atlas, 1890; Clement Ley, Cloudland, London, 1894; F. Denza, Classification delle Nubi, Rome, 1893. For a summary of the work done in the United States, see F. Begelow, 'Some of the results of the International Cloud Work', American Journal of Science (1899), 8, 433-44.
88. See the review in Symons's Meteorology Magazine (1889), 24, 160; 'Current notes: atlas of clouds', American Meteorological Journal (1889-90), 6, 383-4; and 'Cloud atlas', American Meteorological Journal (1890-1), 7, 424. For the international cloud atlas, see H. Hildebrandsson, A. Riggenback and L. Teisserenc de Bort (eds.), International Cloud Atlas, Paris, 1896. Some of its predecessors were W. Weilbach, Nordeuropas Skyformer, Copenhagen, 1881; H. Hildebrandsson, W. Koppen and G. Neumayer, Wolken Atlas, 1890; Clement Ley, Cloudland, London, 1894; F. Denza, Classification delle Nubi, Rome, 1893. For a summary of the work done in the United States, see F. Begelow, 'Some of the results of the International Cloud Work', American Journal of Science (1899), 8, 433-44.
89. See the review in Symons's Meteorology Magazine (1889), 24, 160; 'Current notes: atlas of clouds', American Meteorological Journal (1889-90), 6, 383-4; and 'Cloud atlas', American Meteorological Journal (1890-1), 7, 424. For the international cloud atlas, see H. Hildebrandsson, A. Riggenback and L. Teisserenc de Bort (eds.), International Cloud Atlas, Paris, 1896. Some of its predecessors were W. Weilbach, Nordeuropas Skyformer, Copenhagen, 1881; H. Hildebrandsson, W. Koppen and G. Neumayer, Wolken Atlas, 1890; Clement Ley, Cloudland, London, 1894; F. Denza, Classification delle Nubi, Rome, 1893. For a summary of the work done in the United States, see F. Begelow, 'Some of the results of the International Cloud Work', American Journal of Science (1899), 8, 433-44.
90. See the review in Symons's Meteorology Magazine (1889), 24, 160; 'Current notes: atlas of clouds', American Meteorological Journal (1889-90), 6, 383-4; and 'Cloud atlas', American Meteorological Journal (1890-1), 7, 424. For the international cloud atlas, see H. Hildebrandsson, A. Riggenback and L. Teisserenc de Bort (eds.), International Cloud Atlas, Paris, 1896. Some of its predecessors were W. Weilbach, Nordeuropas Skyformer, Copenhagen, 1881; H. Hildebrandsson, W. Koppen and G. Neumayer, Wolken Atlas, 1890; Clement Ley, Cloudland, London, 1894; F. Denza, Classification delle Nubi, Rome, 1893. For a summary of the work done in the United States, see F. Begelow, 'Some of the results of the International Cloud Work', American Journal of Science (1899), 8, 433-44.
91. See the review in Symons's Meteorology Magazine (1889), 24, 160; 'Current notes: atlas of clouds', American Meteorological Journal (1889-90), 6, 383-4; and 'Cloud atlas', American Meteorological Journal (1890-1), 7, 424. For the international cloud atlas, see H. Hildebrandsson, A. Riggenback and L. Teisserenc de Bort (eds.), International Cloud Atlas, Paris, 1896. Some of its predecessors were W. Weilbach, Nordeuropas Skyformer, Copenhagen, 1881; H. Hildebrandsson, W. Koppen and G. Neumayer, Wolken Atlas, 1890; Clement Ley, Cloudland, London, 1894; F. Denza, Classification delle Nubi, Rome, 1893. For a summary of the work done in the United States, see F. Begelow, 'Some of the results of the International Cloud Work', American Journal of Science (1899), 8, 433-44.
92. See the review in Symons's Meteorology Magazine (1889), 24, 160; 'Current notes: atlas of clouds', American Meteorological Journal (1889-90), 6, 383-4; and 'Cloud atlas', American Meteorological Journal (1890-1), 7, 424. For the international cloud atlas, see H. Hildebrandsson, A. Riggenback and L. Teisserenc de Bort (eds.), International Cloud Atlas, Paris, 1896. Some of its predecessors were W. Weilbach, Nordeuropas Skyformer, Copenhagen, 1881; H. Hildebrandsson, W. Koppen and G. Neumayer, Wolken Atlas, 1890; Clement Ley, Cloudland, London, 1894; F. Denza, Classification delle Nubi, Rome, 1893. For a summary of the work done in the United States, see F. Begelow, 'Some of the results of the International Cloud Work', American Journal of Science (1899), 8, 433-44.
93. See R. Abercromby, 'Suggestions for an international nomenclature of clouds', Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society (1887), 13, 154-66, 163; idem, 'The indications of the sky', Symons's Monthly Meteorological Magazine (1869), 4, 129-30. On colour in an earlier period, see B. Dolan, 'Pedagogy through print: James Sowerby, John Mawe and the problem of colour in early nineteenth-century natural history illustration', BJHS (1998), 31, 275-304.
94. See R. Abercromby, 'Suggestions for an international nomenclature of clouds', Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society (1887), 13, 154-66, 163; idem, 'The indications of the sky', Symons's Monthly Meteorological Magazine (1869), 4, 129-30. On colour in an earlier period, see B. Dolan, 'Pedagogy through print: James Sowerby, John Mawe and the problem of colour in early nineteenth-century natural history illustration', BJHS (1998), 31, 275-304.
95. See R. Abercromby, 'Suggestions for an international nomenclature of clouds', Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society (1887), 13, 154-66, 163; idem, 'The indications of the sky', Symons's Monthly Meteorological Magazine (1869), 4, 129-30. On colour in an earlier period, see B. Dolan, 'Pedagogy through print: James Sowerby, John Mawe and the problem of colour in early nineteenth-century natural history illustration', BJHS (1998), 31, 275-304.
96. 'The classification of clouds and the cloud atlas', Report of the International Meteorological Conference at Munich 1891, 18-20, 18.
97. J. Ruskin, 'The Storm Cloud of the Nineteenth Century', in The Library Edition of the Works of John Ruskin (ed. E. T. Cook and A. Wedderburn), 39 vols., London, 1903-12, xxxiv, 7-80.
98. Recent biographical studies include J. Abse, Ruskin: The Passionate Moralist, New York, 1981; T. Hilton, John Ruskin, 2 vols., New Haven, 1985-2000; J. D. Hunt, The Wider Sea: A Life of John Ruskin, London, 1982; F. Kirchhoff, John Ruskin, Boston, 1984; G. P. Landow, Ruskin, Oxford, 1985. For contemporary responses to his work see J. L. Bradley (ed.), Ruskin, the Critical Heritage, London, 1984 as well as the editorial prefaces in The Library Edition of the Works of John Ruskin (ed. E. T. Cook and A. Wedderburn), 39 vols., London, 1903-12.
99. Recent biographical studies include J. Abse, Ruskin: The Passionate Moralist, New York, 1981; T. Hilton, John Ruskin, 2 vols., New Haven, 1985-2000; J. D. Hunt, The Wider Sea: A Life of John Ruskin, London, 1982; F. Kirchhoff, John Ruskin, Boston, 1984; G. P. Landow, Ruskin, Oxford, 1985. For contemporary responses to his work see J. L. Bradley (ed.), Ruskin, the Critical Heritage, London, 1984 as well as the editorial prefaces in The Library Edition of the Works of John Ruskin (ed. E. T. Cook and A. Wedderburn), 39 vols., London, 1903-12.
100. Recent biographical studies include J. Abse, Ruskin: The Passionate Moralist, New York, 1981; T. Hilton, John Ruskin, 2 vols., New Haven, 1985-2000; J. D. Hunt, The Wider Sea: A Life of John Ruskin, London, 1982; F. Kirchhoff, John Ruskin, Boston, 1984; G. P. Landow, Ruskin, Oxford, 1985. For contemporary responses to his work see J. L. Bradley (ed.), Ruskin, the Critical Heritage, London, 1984 as well as the editorial prefaces in The Library Edition of the Works of John Ruskin (ed. E. T. Cook and A. Wedderburn), 39 vols., London, 1903-12.
101. Recent biographical studies include J. Abse, Ruskin: The Passionate Moralist, New York, 1981; T. Hilton, John Ruskin, 2 vols., New Haven, 1985-2000; J. D. Hunt, The Wider Sea: A Life of John Ruskin, London, 1982; F. Kirchhoff, John Ruskin, Boston, 1984; G. P. Landow, Ruskin, Oxford, 1985. For contemporary responses to his work see J. L. Bradley (ed.), Ruskin, the Critical Heritage, London, 1984 as well as the editorial prefaces in The Library Edition of the Works of John Ruskin (ed. E. T. Cook and A. Wedderburn), 39 vols., London, 1903-12.
102. Recent biographical studies include J. Abse, Ruskin: The Passionate Moralist, New York, 1981; T. Hilton, John Ruskin, 2 vols., New Haven, 1985-2000; J. D. Hunt, The Wider Sea: A Life of John Ruskin, London, 1982; F. Kirchhoff, John Ruskin, Boston, 1984; G. P. Landow, Ruskin, Oxford, 1985. For contemporary responses to his work see J. L. Bradley (ed.), Ruskin, the Critical Heritage, London, 1984 as well as the editorial prefaces in The Library Edition of the Works of John Ruskin (ed. E. T. Cook and A. Wedderburn), 39 vols., London, 1903-12.
103. Recent biographical studies include J. Abse, Ruskin: The Passionate Moralist, New York, 1981; T. Hilton, John Ruskin, 2 vols., New Haven, 1985-2000; J. D. Hunt, The Wider Sea: A Life of John Ruskin, London, 1982; F. Kirchhoff, John Ruskin, Boston, 1984; G. P. Landow, Ruskin, Oxford, 1985. For contemporary responses to his work see J. L. Bradley (ed.), Ruskin, the Critical Heritage, London, 1984 as well as the editorial prefaces in The Library Edition of the Works of John Ruskin (ed. E. T. Cook and A. Wedderburn), 39 vols., London, 1903-12.
104. Recent biographical studies include J. Abse, Ruskin: The Passionate Moralist, New York, 1981; T. Hilton, John Ruskin, 2 vols., New Haven, 1985-2000; J. D. Hunt, The Wider Sea: A Life of John Ruskin, London, 1982; F. Kirchhoff, John Ruskin, Boston, 1984; G. P. Landow, Ruskin, Oxford, 1985. For contemporary responses to his work see J. L. Bradley (ed.), Ruskin, the Critical Heritage, London, 1984 as well as the editorial prefaces in The Library Edition of the Works of John Ruskin (ed. E. T. Cook and A. Wedderburn), 39 vols., London, 1903-12.
105. Reviews appeared in The Times, the Pall Mall Gazelle, St James Gazette, the Daily News, The Standard, the Whitehall Review, Knowledge and World. See Works, op. cit. (43), xxxiv, pp. xxiii-xxvii. For quotations, see The Standard, 6 February 1884; Daily News, 6 February 1884.
106. Reviews appeared in The Times, the Pall Mall Gazelle, St James Gazette, the Daily News, The Standard, the Whitehall Review, Knowledge and World. See Works, op. cit. (43), xxxiv, pp. xxiii-xxvii. For quotations, see The Standard, 6 February 1884; Daily News, 6 February 1884.
107. Reviews appeared in The Times, the Pall Mall Gazelle, St James Gazette, the Daily News, The Standard, the Whitehall Review, Knowledge and World. See Works, op. cit. (43), xxxiv, pp. xxiii-xxvii. For quotations, see The Standard, 6 February 1884; Daily News, 6 February 1884.
108. Reviews appeared in The Times, the Pall Mall Gazelle, St James Gazette, the Daily News, The Standard, the Whitehall Review, Knowledge and World. See Works, op. cit. (43), xxxiv, pp. xxiii-xxvii. For quotations, see The Standard, 6 February 1884; Daily News, 6 February 1884.
109. Ruskin, Queen of the Air, London, 1869, p. iii.
110. J. Ruskin, 'The nature and authority of miracle', Contemporary Review (1873), 21, 627-42, 628, 633.
111. J. Ruskin, 'A Caution to Snakes', in Works, op. cit. (43), xxvi, 295-332; idem, Eagle's Nest, in ibid., xxii, 113-287, 199, 202. See F. Kirchhoff, 'A science against sciences: Ruskin's floral mythology', in Nature and the Victorian Imagination (ed. U. C. Knoepflmacher and G. B. Tennyson), Berkeley, 1977, 246-58; G. P. Landow, The Aesthetic and Critical Theories of John Ruskin, Princeton, NJ, 1971.
112. J. Ruskin, 'A Caution to Snakes', in Works, op. cit. (43), xxvi, 295-332; idem, Eagle's Nest, in ibid., xxii, 113-287, 199, 202. See F. Kirchhoff, 'A science against sciences: Ruskin's floral mythology', in Nature and the Victorian Imagination (ed. U. C. Knoepflmacher and G. B. Tennyson), Berkeley, 1977, 246-58; G. P. Landow, The Aesthetic and Critical Theories of John Ruskin, Princeton, NJ, 1971.
113. J. Ruskin, 'A Caution to Snakes', in Works, op. cit. (43), xxvi, 295-332; idem, Eagle's Nest, in ibid., xxii, 113-287, 199, 202. See F. Kirchhoff, 'A science against sciences: Ruskin's floral mythology', in Nature and the Victorian Imagination (ed. U. C. Knoepflmacher and G. B. Tennyson), Berkeley, 1977, 246-58; G. P. Landow, The Aesthetic and Critical Theories of John Ruskin, Princeton, NJ, 1971.
114. J. Ruskin, 'A Caution to Snakes', in Works, op. cit. (43), xxvi, 295-332; idem, Eagle's Nest, in ibid., xxii, 113-287, 199, 202. See F. Kirchhoff, 'A science against sciences: Ruskin's floral mythology', in Nature and the Victorian Imagination (ed. U. C. Knoepflmacher and G. B. Tennyson), Berkeley, 1977, 246-58; G. P. Landow, The Aesthetic and Critical Theories of John Ruskin, Princeton, NJ, 1971.
115. Cook and Wedderburn supported the idea that Ruskin was discussing pollution literally (op. cit (43), xxxiv, p. xxvi) yet while Ruskin was certainly a critic of industrialization, to take his storm cloud too literally seems to distort his point. Cf. M. Danahay, 'Matter out of place: the politics of pollution in Ruskin and Turner', Clio (1991), 21, 61-77; R. Fitch, The Poison Sky: Myth and Apocalypse in Ruskin, Columbus, Ohio, 1982; J. H. Graham, The Destruction of Daylight: A Study in the Smoke Problem, London, 1907; M. Wheeler (ed.), Ruskin and Environment: The Storm Cloud of the Nineteenth Century, Manchester, 1995.
116. Cook and Wedderburn supported the idea that Ruskin was discussing pollution literally (op. cit (43), xxxiv, p. xxvi) yet while Ruskin was certainly a critic of industrialization, to take his storm cloud too literally seems to distort his point. Cf. M. Danahay, 'Matter out of place: the politics of pollution in Ruskin and Turner', Clio (1991), 21, 61-77; R. Fitch, The Poison Sky: Myth and Apocalypse in Ruskin, Columbus, Ohio, 1982; J. H. Graham, The Destruction of Daylight: A Study in the Smoke Problem, London, 1907; M. Wheeler (ed.), Ruskin and Environment: The Storm Cloud of the Nineteenth Century, Manchester, 1995.
117. Cook and Wedderburn supported the idea that Ruskin was discussing pollution literally (op. cit (43), xxxiv, p. xxvi) yet while Ruskin was certainly a critic of industrialization, to take his storm cloud too literally seems to distort his point. Cf. M. Danahay, 'Matter out of place: the politics of pollution in Ruskin and Turner', Clio (1991), 21, 61-77; R. Fitch, The Poison Sky: Myth and Apocalypse in Ruskin, Columbus, Ohio, 1982; J. H. Graham, The Destruction of Daylight: A Study in the Smoke Problem, London, 1907; M. Wheeler (ed.), Ruskin and Environment: The Storm Cloud of the Nineteenth Century, Manchester, 1995.
118. Cook and Wedderburn supported the idea that Ruskin was discussing pollution literally (op. cit (43), xxxiv, p. xxvi) yet while Ruskin was certainly a critic of industrialization, to take his storm cloud too literally seems to distort his point. Cf. M. Danahay, 'Matter out of place: the politics of pollution in Ruskin and Turner', Clio (1991), 21, 61-77; R. Fitch, The Poison Sky: Myth and Apocalypse in Ruskin, Columbus, Ohio, 1982; J. H. Graham, The Destruction of Daylight: A Study in the Smoke Problem, London, 1907; M. Wheeler (ed.), Ruskin and Environment: The Storm Cloud of the Nineteenth Century, Manchester, 1995.
119. Cook and Wedderburn supported the idea that Ruskin was discussing pollution literally (op. cit (43), xxxiv, p. xxvi) yet while Ruskin was certainly a critic of industrialization, to take his storm cloud too literally seems to distort his point. Cf. M. Danahay, 'Matter out of place: the politics of pollution in Ruskin and Turner', Clio (1991), 21, 61-77; R. Fitch, The Poison Sky: Myth and Apocalypse in Ruskin, Columbus, Ohio, 1982; J. H. Graham, The Destruction of Daylight: A Study in the Smoke Problem, London, 1907; M. Wheeler (ed.), Ruskin and Environment: The Storm Cloud of the Nineteenth Century, Manchester, 1995.
120. T. Zaniello, 'The spectacular English sunsets of the 1880s', in Victorian Science and Victorian Values: Literary Perspectives (ed. J. Paradis and T. Postlewait), New York, 1981, 247-67.
121. C. P. Smyth, 'Gaseous spectra in vacuum tubes under small dispersion and at low temperatures', Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (1883), 30, 93-149, 96.
122. Smyth, op. cit. (50), 95-6.
123. H. A. Brück and M. T. Brück, Peripatetic Astronomer: The Life of Charles Piazzi Smyth, Bristol, 1988; S. Schaffer, 'Metrology, Metrication and Victorian Values', in Victorian Science in Context (ed. B. Lightman), Chicago, 1997, 438-74; B. Warner, Charles Piazzi Smyth, Astronomer Artist: His Cape Years, Cape Town, 1988. His archives are described in M. T. Brück, 'The Piazzi Smyth Collection of Sketches, Photographs and Manuscripts at the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh,' Vistas in Astronomy (1989), 32, 371-408. References from that collection are hereafter cited as PS/ROE.
124. H. A. Brück and M. T. Brück, Peripatetic Astronomer: The Life of Charles Piazzi Smyth, Bristol, 1988; S. Schaffer, 'Metrology, Metrication and Victorian Values', in Victorian Science in Context (ed. B. Lightman), Chicago, 1997, 438-74; B. Warner, Charles Piazzi Smyth, Astronomer Artist: His Cape Years, Cape Town, 1988. His archives are described in M. T. Brück, 'The Piazzi Smyth Collection of Sketches, Photographs and Manuscripts at the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh,' Vistas in Astronomy (1989), 32, 371-408. References from that collection are hereafter cited as PS/ROE.
125. H. A. Brück and M. T. Brück, Peripatetic Astronomer: The Life of Charles Piazzi Smyth, Bristol, 1988; S. Schaffer, 'Metrology, Metrication and Victorian Values', in Victorian Science in Context (ed. B. Lightman), Chicago, 1997, 438-74; B. Warner, Charles Piazzi Smyth, Astronomer Artist: His Cape Years, Cape Town, 1988. His archives are described in M. T. Brück, 'The Piazzi Smyth Collection of Sketches, Photographs and Manuscripts at the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh,' Vistas in Astronomy (1989), 32, 371-408. References from that collection are hereafter cited as PS/ROE.
126. H. A. Brück and M. T. Brück, Peripatetic Astronomer: The Life of Charles Piazzi Smyth, Bristol, 1988; S. Schaffer, 'Metrology, Metrication and Victorian Values', in Victorian Science in Context (ed. B. Lightman), Chicago, 1997, 438-74; B. Warner, Charles Piazzi Smyth, Astronomer Artist: His Cape Years, Cape Town, 1988. His archives are described in M. T. Brück, 'The Piazzi Smyth Collection of Sketches, Photographs and Manuscripts at the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh,' Vistas in Astronomy (1989), 32, 371-408. References from that collection are hereafter cited as PS/ROE.
127. C. P. Smyth to J. F. W. Herschel, n.d. [1843], Royal Society of London ms. HS 16. 235.
128. For an example, see 'Taormina, Sicily' by William Henry Smyth, 1823, in D. Howse and M. Sanderson, The Sea Chart: An Historical Survey, New York, 1973, 120-1. On Smyth senior's work in general, see G. S. Ritchie, The Admiralty Chart: British Naval Hydrography in the Nineteenth Century, New York, 1967; A. Friendly, Beaufort of the Admiralty: The Life of Sir Francis Beaufort 1774-1857, New York, 1977.
129. For an example, see 'Taormina, Sicily' by William Henry Smyth, 1823, in D. Howse and M. Sanderson, The Sea Chart: An Historical Survey, New York, 1973, 120-1. On Smyth senior's work in general, see G. S. Ritchie, The Admiralty Chart: British Naval Hydrography in the Nineteenth Century, New York, 1967; A. Friendly, Beaufort of the Admiralty: The Life of Sir Francis Beaufort 1774-1857, New York, 1977.
130. For an example, see 'Taormina, Sicily' by William Henry Smyth, 1823, in D. Howse and M. Sanderson, The Sea Chart: An Historical Survey, New York, 1973, 120-1. On Smyth senior's work in general, see G. S. Ritchie, The Admiralty Chart: British Naval Hydrography in the Nineteenth Century, New York, 1967; A. Friendly, Beaufort of the Admiralty: The Life of Sir Francis Beaufort 1774-1857, New York, 1977.
131. Quoted in Warner, op. cit. (52), 111.
132. C. P. Smyth, Teneriffe: An Astronomer's Experiment or Specialities of a Residence above the Clouds, London, 1858, 28.
133. Smyth, 'A memoir on astronomical drawing', Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (1843), 5, 277-9. Cf. C. Stott and D. Hughes, 'Two Piazzi Smyth Comet Paintings', Annals of Science (1989), 46, 165-72. Smyth's article repeatedly surfaces in historical discussions of the development of images in astronomy; for examples, see S. Schaffer, 'On astronomical drawing', in Jones and Galison, op. cit. (3), 441-74 and A. Pang, 'Victorian observing practices: printing technology and representations of the solar corona (2) The age of photomechanical reproduction', Journal of the History of Astronomy (1995), 26, 63-75; idem, 'Stars should henceforth register themselves: the rhetoric and reality of early astro-photography', BJHS (1997), 30, 177-202.
134. Smyth, 'A memoir on astronomical drawing', Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (1843), 5, 277-9. Cf. C. Stott and D. Hughes, 'Two Piazzi Smyth Comet Paintings', Annals of Science (1989), 46, 165-72. Smyth's article repeatedly surfaces in historical discussions of the development of images in astronomy; for examples, see S. Schaffer, 'On astronomical drawing', in Jones and Galison, op. cit. (3), 441-74 and A. Pang, 'Victorian observing practices: printing technology and representations of the solar corona (2) The age of photomechanical reproduction', Journal of the History of Astronomy (1995), 26, 63-75; idem, 'Stars should henceforth register themselves: the rhetoric and reality of early astro-photography', BJHS (1997), 30, 177-202.
135. Smyth, 'A memoir on astronomical drawing', Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (1843), 5, 277-9. Cf. C. Stott and D. Hughes, 'Two Piazzi Smyth Comet Paintings', Annals of Science (1989), 46, 165-72. Smyth's article repeatedly surfaces in historical discussions of the development of images in astronomy; for examples, see S. Schaffer, 'On astronomical drawing', in Jones and Galison, op. cit. (3), 441-74 and A. Pang, 'Victorian observing practices: printing technology and representations of the solar corona (2) The age of photomechanical reproduction', Journal of the History of Astronomy (1995), 26, 63-75; idem, 'Stars should henceforth register themselves: the rhetoric and reality of early astro-photography', BJHS (1997), 30, 177-202.
136. Smyth, 'A memoir on astronomical drawing', Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (1843), 5, 277-9. Cf. C. Stott and D. Hughes, 'Two Piazzi Smyth Comet Paintings', Annals of Science (1989), 46, 165-72. Smyth's article repeatedly surfaces in historical discussions of the development of images in astronomy; for examples, see S. Schaffer, 'On astronomical drawing', in Jones and Galison, op. cit. (3), 441-74 and A. Pang, 'Victorian observing practices: printing technology and representations of the solar corona (2) The age of photomechanical reproduction', Journal of the History of Astronomy (1995), 26, 63-75; idem, 'Stars should henceforth register themselves: the rhetoric and reality of early astro-photography', BJHS (1997), 30, 177-202.
137. Smyth, 'A memoir on astronomical drawing', Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (1843), 5, 277-9. Cf. C. Stott and D. Hughes, 'Two Piazzi Smyth Comet Paintings', Annals of Science (1989), 46, 165-72. Smyth's article repeatedly surfaces in historical discussions of the development of images in astronomy; for examples, see S. Schaffer, 'On astronomical drawing', in Jones and Galison, op. cit. (3), 441-74 and A. Pang, 'Victorian observing practices: printing technology and representations of the solar corona (2) The age of photomechanical reproduction', Journal of the History of Astronomy (1995), 26, 63-75; idem, 'Stars should henceforth register themselves: the rhetoric and reality of early astro-photography', BJHS (1997), 30, 177-202.
138. C. P. Smyth, 'Colour in practical astronomy, spectroscopically examined', Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (1879), 28, 779-804, 789, 791. Brück and Brück, Peripatetic Astronomer: The Life of Charles Piazzi Smythop. cit. (52), discuss another interesting example in the colour charts reproduced at Smyth's own expense in his solar spectra results of 1884.
139. C. P. Smyth, 'Colour in practical astronomy, spectroscopically examined', Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (1879), 28, 779-804, 789, 791. Brück and Brück, Peripatetic Astronomer: The Life of Charles Piazzi Smythop. cit. (52), discuss another interesting example in the colour charts reproduced at Smyth's own expense in his solar spectra results of 1884.
140. L. Schaaf, 'Piazzi Smyth at Teneriffe', History of Photography (1980), 4, 89-109 and (1981), 5, 27-50.
141. L. Schaaf, 'Piazzi Smyth at Teneriffe', History of Photography (1980), 4, 89-109 and (1981), 5, 27-50.
142. These examples are taken from the volume Sketches Chiefly in Scotland 1848-1854 in the PS/ROE archives.
143. J. Austin, 'A forgotten meteorological instrument - the rainband spectroscope', Weather (1981), 36, 151-5. I am grateful to Mary Brück for this reference. There is a summary of contemporary pamphlets on the rainband in T. F. Peterson, Jr., 'The Zealous Marketing of Rain-Band Spectroscopes', Rittenhouse: Journal of the American Scientific Instrument Enterprise (1993), 7, 91-6. On spectroscopy in general see W. McGucken, Nineteenth-Century Spectroscopy: Development of the Understanding of the Spectra, 1802-1897, Baltimore, 1969; F. A. J. L. James, 'The establishment of spectro-chemical analysis as a practical method of qualitative analysis, 1854-1861', Ambix (1983), 30, 30-53; M. Sutton, 'Herschel and the development of spectroscopy', BJHS (1974), 7, 42-60 and W. M. Watts, An Introduction to the Study of Spectrum Analysis, London, 1904.
144. J. Austin, 'A forgotten meteorological instrument - the rainband spectroscope', Weather (1981), 36, 151-5. I am grateful to Mary Brück for this reference. There is a summary of contemporary pamphlets on the rainband in T. F. Peterson, Jr., 'The Zealous Marketing of Rain-Band Spectroscopes', Rittenhouse: Journal of the American Scientific Instrument Enterprise (1993), 7, 91-6. On spectroscopy in general see W. McGucken, Nineteenth-Century Spectroscopy: Development of the Understanding of the Spectra, 1802-1897, Baltimore, 1969; F. A. J. L. James, 'The establishment of spectro-chemical analysis as a practical method of qualitative analysis, 1854-1861', Ambix (1983), 30, 30-53; M. Sutton, 'Herschel and the development of spectroscopy', BJHS (1974), 7, 42-60 and W. M. Watts, An Introduction to the Study of Spectrum Analysis, London, 1904.
145. J. Austin, 'A forgotten meteorological instrument - the rainband spectroscope', Weather (1981), 36, 151-5. I am grateful to Mary Brück for this reference. There is a summary of contemporary pamphlets on the rainband in T. F. Peterson, Jr., 'The Zealous Marketing of Rain-Band Spectroscopes', Rittenhouse: Journal of the American Scientific Instrument Enterprise (1993), 7, 91-6. On spectroscopy in general see W. McGucken, Nineteenth-Century Spectroscopy: Development of the Understanding of the Spectra, 1802-1897, Baltimore, 1969; F. A. J. L. James, 'The establishment of spectro-chemical analysis as a practical method of qualitative analysis, 1854-1861', Ambix (1983), 30, 30-53; M. Sutton, 'Herschel and the development of spectroscopy', BJHS (1974), 7, 42-60 and W. M. Watts, An Introduction to the Study of Spectrum Analysis, London, 1904.
146. J. Austin, 'A forgotten meteorological instrument - the rainband spectroscope', Weather (1981), 36, 151-5. I am grateful to Mary Brück for this reference. There is a summary of contemporary pamphlets on the rainband in T. F. Peterson, Jr., 'The Zealous Marketing of Rain-Band Spectroscopes', Rittenhouse: Journal of the American Scientific Instrument Enterprise (1993), 7, 91-6. On spectroscopy in general see W. McGucken, Nineteenth-Century Spectroscopy: Development of the Understanding of the Spectra, 1802-1897, Baltimore, 1969; F. A. J. L. James, 'The establishment of spectro-chemical analysis as a practical method of qualitative analysis, 1854-1861', Ambix (1983), 30, 30-53; M. Sutton, 'Herschel and the development of spectroscopy', BJHS (1974), 7, 42-60 and W. M. Watts, An Introduction to the Study of Spectrum Analysis, London, 1904.
147. J. Austin, 'A forgotten meteorological instrument - the rainband spectroscope', Weather (1981), 36, 151-5. I am grateful to Mary Brück for this reference. There is a summary of contemporary pamphlets on the rainband in T. F. Peterson, Jr., 'The Zealous Marketing of Rain-Band Spectroscopes', Rittenhouse: Journal of the American Scientific Instrument Enterprise (1993), 7, 91-6. On spectroscopy in general see W. McGucken, Nineteenth-Century Spectroscopy: Development of the Understanding of the Spectra, 1802-1897, Baltimore, 1969; F. A. J. L. James, 'The establishment of spectro-chemical analysis as a practical method of qualitative analysis, 1854-1861', Ambix (1983), 30, 30-53; M. Sutton, 'Herschel and the development of spectroscopy', BJHS (1974), 7, 42-60 and W. M. Watts, An Introduction to the Study of Spectrum Analysis, London, 1904.
148. J. Austin, 'A forgotten meteorological instrument - the rainband spectroscope', Weather (1981), 36, 151-5. I am grateful to Mary Brück for this reference. There is a summary of contemporary pamphlets on the rainband in T. F. Peterson, Jr., 'The Zealous Marketing of Rain-Band Spectroscopes', Rittenhouse: Journal of the American Scientific Instrument Enterprise (1993), 7, 91-6. On spectroscopy in general see W. McGucken, Nineteenth-Century Spectroscopy: Development of the Understanding of the Spectra, 1802-1897, Baltimore, 1969; F. A. J. L. James, 'The establishment of spectro-chemical analysis as a practical method of qualitative analysis, 1854-1861', Ambix (1983), 30, 30-53; M. Sutton, 'Herschel and the development of spectroscopy', BJHS (1974), 7, 42-60 and W. M. Watts, An Introduction to the Study of Spectrum Analysis, London, 1904.
149. C. P. Smyth, Journal, 5 June 1876, PS/ROE. For Janssen, see the entry in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, New York, 1970-9, vii, 73-9.
150. C. P. Smyth, Journal, 5 June 1876, PS/ROE. For Janssen, see the entry in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, New York, 1970-9, vii, 73-9.
151. Smyth's writings on the rainband include: 'Meteorological spectroscopy in the small and rough', Edinburgh Astronomical Observations (1870-7), 14, 27-42; 'The warm rainband in the daylight spectra', Nature (1876), 14, 9; 'Spectroscopic prevision of rain with a high barometer', Nature (1875), 12, 231-2, 252-3; 'Rainband spectroscopy', Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society (1878), 5, 84-97; 'Three years' experimentation in mensurational spectroscopy', Nature (1880), 22, 193-5, 222-5; 'Spectroscopic weather discusssion', Nature (1882), 26, 551-4; 'Rainband spectroscopy attacked again', Nature (1884), 29, 525.
152. Smyth's writings on the rainband include: 'Meteorological spectroscopy in the small and rough', Edinburgh Astronomical Observations (1870-7), 14, 27-42; 'The warm rainband in the daylight spectra', Nature (1876), 14, 9; 'Spectroscopic prevision of rain with a high barometer', Nature (1875), 12, 231-2, 252-3; 'Rainband spectroscopy', Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society (1878), 5, 84-97; 'Three years' experimentation in mensurational spectroscopy', Nature (1880), 22, 193-5, 222-5; 'Spectroscopic weather discusssion', Nature (1882), 26, 551-4; 'Rainband spectroscopy attacked again', Nature (1884), 29, 525.
153. Smyth's writings on the rainband include: 'Meteorological spectroscopy in the small and rough', Edinburgh Astronomical Observations (1870-7), 14, 27-42; 'The warm rainband in the daylight spectra', Nature (1876), 14, 9; 'Spectroscopic prevision of rain with a high barometer', Nature (1875), 12, 231-2, 252-3; 'Rainband spectroscopy', Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society (1878), 5, 84-97; 'Three years' experimentation in mensurational spectroscopy', Nature (1880), 22, 193-5, 222-5; 'Spectroscopic weather discusssion', Nature (1882), 26, 551-4; 'Rainband spectroscopy attacked again', Nature (1884), 29, 525.
154. Smyth's writings on the rainband include: 'Meteorological spectroscopy in the small and rough', Edinburgh Astronomical Observations (1870-7), 14, 27-42; 'The warm rainband in the daylight spectra', Nature (1876), 14, 9; 'Spectroscopic prevision of rain with a high barometer', Nature (1875), 12, 231-2, 252-3; 'Rainband spectroscopy', Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society (1878), 5, 84-97; 'Three years' experimentation in mensurational spectroscopy', Nature (1880), 22, 193-5, 222-5; 'Spectroscopic weather discusssion', Nature (1882), 26, 551-4; 'Rainband spectroscopy attacked again', Nature (1884), 29, 525.
155. Smyth's writings on the rainband include: 'Meteorological spectroscopy in the small and rough', Edinburgh Astronomical Observations (1870-7), 14, 27-42; 'The warm rainband in the daylight spectra', Nature (1876), 14, 9; 'Spectroscopic prevision of rain with a high barometer', Nature (1875), 12, 231-2, 252-3; 'Rainband spectroscopy', Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society (1878), 5, 84-97; 'Three years' experimentation in mensurational spectroscopy', Nature (1880), 22, 193-5, 222-5; 'Spectroscopic weather discusssion', Nature (1882), 26, 551-4; 'Rainband spectroscopy attacked again', Nature (1884), 29, 525.
156. Smyth's writings on the rainband include: 'Meteorological spectroscopy in the small and rough', Edinburgh Astronomical Observations (1870-7), 14, 27-42; 'The warm rainband in the daylight spectra', Nature (1876), 14, 9; 'Spectroscopic prevision of rain with a high barometer', Nature (1875), 12, 231-2, 252-3; 'Rainband spectroscopy', Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society (1878), 5, 84-97; 'Three years' experimentation in mensurational spectroscopy', Nature (1880), 22, 193-5, 222-5; 'Spectroscopic weather discusssion', Nature (1882), 26, 551-4; 'Rainband spectroscopy attacked again', Nature (1884), 29, 525.
157. Smyth's writings on the rainband include: 'Meteorological spectroscopy in the small and rough', Edinburgh Astronomical Observations (1870-7), 14, 27-42; 'The warm rainband in the daylight spectra', Nature (1876), 14, 9; 'Spectroscopic prevision of rain with a high barometer', Nature (1875), 12, 231-2, 252-3; 'Rainband spectroscopy', Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society (1878), 5, 84-97; 'Three years' experimentation in mensurational spectroscopy', Nature (1880), 22, 193-5, 222-5; 'Spectroscopic weather discusssion', Nature (1882), 26, 551-4; 'Rainband spectroscopy attacked again', Nature (1884), 29, 525.
158. Smyth, 'Rainband spectroscopy', op. cit. (63), 90-1. F. W. Cory, How to Foretell the Weather with the Pocket Spectroscope, London, 1884, 86 gives prices of £1.12.6. by Browning (an 'ordinary') and £3.8.6. by Graces. Louis Casella also produced a pocket spectroscope for the rainband.
159. Smyth, 'Rainband spectroscopy', op. cit. (63), 90-1. F. W. Cory, How to Foretell the Weather with the Pocket Spectroscope, London, 1884, 86 gives prices of £1.12.6. by Browning (an 'ordinary') and £3.8.6. by Graces. Louis Casella also produced a pocket spectroscope for the rainband.
160. Smyth, 'Meteorological spectroscopy in the small and rough', op. cit. (63), 28.
161. Smyth, 'Rainband spectroscopy', op. cit. (63), 552. Cf. 'Three years' experimentation in mensurational spectroscopy', op. cit. (63), 195 and 'Meteorological spectroscopy in the small and rough', op. cit. (63), 29.
162. Smyth, 'Rainband spectroscopy', op. cit. (63), 552. Cf. 'Three years' experimentation in mensurational spectroscopy', op. cit. (63), 195 and 'Meteorological spectroscopy in the small and rough', op. cit. (63), 29.
163. Smyth, 'Rainband spectroscopy', op. cit. (63), 552. Cf. 'Three years' experimentation in mensurational spectroscopy', op. cit. (63), 195 and 'Meteorological spectroscopy in the small and rough', op. cit. (63), 29.
164. His experiments with the meteorological spectroscope in an observatory setting concentrated on proving that it was 'an essentially safe instrument for spectroscoping numerically anything within its power to spectroscope at all'. In a later description of the instrument, he compared the rainband spectroscope, managed with 'a little extra nicety and tact', to recent 'most accurate quantitative determinations' of relative proportions of silver and gold in alloys, or similar quantitative analysis of solutions of metallic salts. Furthermore, Smyth gave significant attention to the problems of calibrating a 'mental scale of blackness', to use the words of his critic. The key was to compare the main rainband with a low sun band on the yellow side of the D line. As this band would vary with the angle of view and amount of light, it would provide the basis for a calibration. Smyth, 'Three years' experimenting', op. cit. (63), 193 and 'Spectroscopic weather discussion', op. cit. (63), 551.
165. His experiments with the meteorological spectroscope in an observatory setting concentrated on proving that it was 'an essentially safe instrument for spectroscoping numerically anything within its power to spectroscope at all'. In a later description of the instrument, he compared the rainband spectroscope, managed with 'a little extra nicety and tact', to recent 'most accurate quantitative determinations' of relative proportions of silver and gold in alloys, or similar quantitative analysis of solutions of metallic salts. Furthermore, Smyth gave significant attention to the problems of calibrating a 'mental scale of blackness', to use the words of his critic. The key was to compare the main rainband with a low sun band on the yellow side of the D line. As this band would vary with the angle of view and amount of light, it would provide the basis for a calibration. Smyth, 'Three years' experimenting', op. cit. (63), 193 and 'Spectroscopic weather discussion', op. cit. (63), 551.
166. Cory, op. cit. (64), 27-8.
167. L. Bell, 'Rainband spectroscopy', American Journal of Science (1885), 30, 347-54, 347, 353.
168. The exchanges in the newspapers in September 1882 are reprinted in Cory, op. cit. (64), 50-81. For Abercromby's letter (The Times, 19 September 1882), see 58-9.
169. The exchanges in the newspapers in September 1882 are reprinted in Cory, op. cit. (64), 50-81. For Abercromby's letter (The Times, 19 September 1882), see 58-9.
170. Smyth, 'Spectroscopic weather discussion', op. cit. (63), 552.
171. Smyth, 'Rainband Spectroscopy', op. cit. (63), 87.
172. Peterson, op. cit. (61), suggests that the fact that instrument-makers like Browning provided documentation with a purchase shows that rainband observing was technically difficult, but if so the inference must apply to all spectroscopes since the observing manual did not single out the rainband spectroscope.
173. Brück and Brück note that Smyth believed he was the first to work in this field; cf. Seiberling, op. cit. (3), 25-8, 41-2 on the landscape work of the Photographic Club. I have not been able to locate his address to the Edinburgh Photographic Society in 1876 which they cite (op. cit. (52), 187). Hugo Hildebrandsson in Uppsala published some cloud photography in 1879, taken by Henri Osti, who may have been taking photographs as early as or earlier than Smyth. Hildebrandsson, Sur la Classification des nuages employés a L'Observatoire meteorologique d'Uppsala, Uppsala, 1879. For photography in nineteenth-century science, see the references cited in notes 3 and 58 above; for influential interpretations of the socio-technological context of photography see E. Jussim, Visual Communication and the Graphic Arts, New York, 1983; J. Tagg, The Burden of Representation: Essays on Photographies and Histories, Amherst, 1988.
174. Brück and Brück note that Smyth believed he was the first to work in this field; cf. Seiberling, op. cit. (3), 25-8, 41-2 on the landscape work of the Photographic Club. I have not been able to locate his address to the Edinburgh Photographic Society in 1876 which they cite (op. cit. (52), 187). Hugo Hildebrandsson in Uppsala published some cloud photography in 1879, taken by Henri Osti, who may have been taking photographs as early as or earlier than Smyth. Hildebrandsson, Sur la Classification des nuages employés a L'Observatoire meteorologique d'Uppsala, Uppsala, 1879. For photography in nineteenth-century science, see the references cited in notes 3 and 58 above; for influential interpretations of the socio-technological context of photography see E. Jussim, Visual Communication and the Graphic Arts, New York, 1983; J. Tagg, The Burden of Representation: Essays on Photographies and Histories, Amherst, 1988.
175. Brück and Brück note that Smyth believed he was the first to work in this field; cf. Seiberling, op. cit. (3), 25-8, 41-2 on the landscape work of the Photographic Club. I have not been able to locate his address to the Edinburgh Photographic Society in 1876 which they cite (op. cit. (52), 187). Hugo Hildebrandsson in Uppsala published some cloud photography in 1879, taken by Henri Osti, who may have been taking photographs as early as or earlier than Smyth. Hildebrandsson, Sur la Classification des nuages employés a L'Observatoire meteorologique d'Uppsala, Uppsala, 1879. For photography in nineteenth-century science, see the references cited in notes 3 and 58 above; for influential interpretations of the socio-technological context of photography see E. Jussim, Visual Communication and the Graphic Arts, New York, 1983; J. Tagg, The Burden of Representation: Essays on Photographies and Histories, Amherst, 1988.
176. Brück and Brück note that Smyth believed he was the first to work in this field; cf. Seiberling, op. cit. (3), 25-8, 41-2 on the landscape work of the Photographic Club. I have not been able to locate his address to the Edinburgh Photographic Society in 1876 which they cite (op. cit. (52), 187). Hugo Hildebrandsson in Uppsala published some cloud photography in 1879, taken by Henri Osti, who may have been taking photographs as early as or earlier than Smyth. Hildebrandsson, Sur la Classification des nuages employés a L'Observatoire meteorologique d'Uppsala, Uppsala, 1879. For photography in nineteenth-century science, see the references cited in notes 3 and 58 above; for influential interpretations of the socio-technological context of photography see E. Jussim, Visual Communication and the Graphic Arts, New York, 1983; J. Tagg, The Burden of Representation: Essays on Photographies and Histories, Amherst, 1988.
177. Brück and Brück note that Smyth believed he was the first to work in this field; cf. Seiberling, op. cit. (3), 25-8, 41-2 on the landscape work of the Photographic Club. I have not been able to locate his address to the Edinburgh Photographic Society in 1876 which they cite (op. cit. (52), 187). Hugo Hildebrandsson in Uppsala published some cloud photography in 1879, taken by Henri Osti, who may have been taking photographs as early as or earlier than Smyth. Hildebrandsson, Sur la Classification des nuages employés a L'Observatoire meteorologique d'Uppsala, Uppsala, 1879. For photography in nineteenth-century science, see the references cited in notes 3 and 58 above; for influential interpretations of the socio-technological context of photography see E. Jussim, Visual Communication and the Graphic Arts, New York, 1983; J. Tagg, The Burden of Representation: Essays on Photographies and Histories, Amherst, 1988.
178. As Hankins and Silverman have shown, op. cit (3), the authority of the stereoscopic camera in the first decades of photography arose from its imitation of interocular distance. Because the pair of cameras operated together like the human eyes, it was argued, the double photographs they produced gave an ideally faithful representation.
179. Smyth's early technical notes on his cameras are in a notebook labelled Cloud Taking Camera, Edinburgh 1876; Clova 1892; his later notes are in the Museum Copying Camera Notebook: Notes on Photography at Clova 1892-96 [ROE Archive no. 154]; both in PS/ROE.
180. Smyth's early technical notes on his cameras are in a notebook labelled Cloud Taking Camera, Edinburgh 1876; Clova 1892; his later notes are in the Museum Copying Camera Notebook: Notes on Photography at Clova 1892-96 [ROE Archive no. 154]; both in PS/ROE.
181. Smyth's early technical notes on his cameras are in a notebook labelled Cloud Taking Camera, Edinburgh 1876; Clova 1892; his later notes are in the Museum Copying Camera Notebook: Notes on Photography at Clova 1892-96 [ROE Archive no. 154]; both in PS/ROE.
182. Smyth, Cloud Taking Camera, op. cit. (76), 9.
183. Smyth, Cloud Taking Camera, op. cit. (76), 3.
184. For specific technical information about nineteenth-century photography I have relied upon B. E. Jones (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Early Photography (reprint of 1911 edn), London, 1981. The Steinheil optical manufacturer was a well-known German firm; Smyth was probably using a lens designed by Hugo Adolph Steinheil (1832-93), who developed speciality lenses for landscape and cartographic work.
185. On Sidebotham, see F. Boase, Modern English Biography, 6 vols., London, 1965, vi, 558.
186. Smyth, Cloud Taking Camera, op. cit. (76), 73.
187. Smyth, Cloud Taking Camera, op. cit. (76), 21.
188. Smyth, Cloud Taking Camera, op. cit. (76), 95.
189. Smyth's two-volume copy, titled Clova Clouds, is now held at the ROE; the Royal Society copy, titled Cloud Forms That Have Been; To the Glory of God Their Creator and the Wonderment of Learned Men as Recorded by Instant Photographs Taken at Clova, Ripon in 1894 & 1895, 3 volumes, has more extensive introductory remarks, and is the copy from which the subsequent quotations have been drawn. The quotation here is from Cloud Forms, i, 3.
190. Smyth's two-volume copy, titled Clova Clouds, is now held at the ROE; the Royal Society copy, titled Cloud Forms That Have Been; To the Glory of God Their Creator and the Wonderment of Learned Men as Recorded by Instant Photographs Taken at Clova, Ripon in 1894 & 1895, 3 volumes, has more
191. Smyth's two-volume copy, titled Clova Clouds, is now held at the ROE; the Royal Society copy, titled Cloud Forms That Have Been; To the Glory of God Their Creator and the Wonderment of Learned Men as Recorded by Instant Photographs Taken at Clova, Ripon in 1894 & 1895, 3 volumes, has more extensive introductory remarks, and is the copy from which the subsequent quotations have been drawn. The quotation here is from Cloud Forms, i, 3.
192. Smyth, Clova Cloud Photographs, Plate V, no. 29; Plate X, no. 57. PS/ROE.
193. See, for instance, R. Abercromby, 'Modern developments of cloud knowledge', Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society (1888), 8, 3-18; A. W. Clayden, Cloud Studies, London, 1905; F. Gaster, 'Suggestions, from a practical point of view, for a new classification of cloud forms,' Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society (1893), 19, 218-28; C. Ley, Cloudland, Study on the Structure and Characters of Clouds, London, 1894; A. Poey, Les Courants atmosphériques d'après les nuages au point de vue de la prévision du temps, Paris, 1882; idem, Comment on observe les Nuages pour prévoir le temps, 3rd edn, Paris, 1879; R. J. Mann, 'On Professor Poey's new classification of clouds', Proceedings of the British Meteorological Society (1871), 5, 276-81 and D. Wilson-Barker, 'Cloud nomenclature', Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, (1890), 16, 127-32; idem, Clouds and Weather Signs, London, 1902.
194. See, for instance, R. Abercromby, 'Modern developments of cloud knowledge', Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society (1888), 8, 3-18; A. W. Clayden, Cloud Studies, London, 1905; F. Gaster, 'Suggestions, from a practical point of view, for a new classification of cloud forms,' Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society (1893), 19, 218-28; C. Ley, Cloudland, Study on the Structure and Characters of Clouds, London, 1894; A. Poey, Les Courants atmosphériques d'après les nuages au point de vue de la prévision du temps, Paris, 1882; idem, Comment on observe les Nuages pour prévoir le temps, 3rd edn, Paris, 1879; R. J. Mann, 'On Professor Poey's new classification of clouds', Proceedings of the British Meteorological Society (1871), 5, 276-81 and D. Wilson-Barker, 'Cloud nomenclature', Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, (1890), 16, 127-32; idem, Clouds and Weather Signs, London, 1902.
195. See, for instance, R. Abercromby, 'Modern developments of cloud knowledge', Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society (1888), 8, 3-18; A. W. Clayden, Cloud Studies, London, 1905; F. Gaster, 'Suggestions, from a practical point of view, for a new classification of cloud forms,' Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society (1893), 19, 218-28; C. Ley, Cloudland, Study on the Structure and Characters of Clouds, London, 1894; A. Poey, Les Courants atmosphériques d'après les nuages au point de vue de la prévision du temps, Paris, 1882; idem, Comment on observe les Nuages pour prévoir le temps, 3rd edn, Paris, 1879; R. J. Mann, 'On Professor Poey's new classification of clouds', Proceedings of the British Meteorological Society (1871), 5, 276-81 and D. Wilson-Barker, 'Cloud nomenclature', Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, (1890), 16, 127-32; idem, Clouds and Weather Signs, London, 1902.
196. See, for instance, R. Abercromby, 'Modern developments of cloud knowledge', Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society (1888), 8, 3-18; A. W. Clayden, Cloud Studies, London, 1905; F. Gaster, 'Suggestions, from a practical point of view, for a new classification of cloud forms,' Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society (1893), 19, 218-28; C. Ley, Cloudland, Study on the Structure and Characters of Clouds, London, 1894; A. Poey, Les Courants atmosphériques d'après les nuages au point de vue de la prévision du temps, Paris, 1882; idem, Comment on observe les Nuages pour prévoir le temps, 3rd edn, Paris, 1879; R. J. Mann, 'On Professor Poey's new classification of clouds', Proceedings of the British Meteorological Society (1871), 5, 276-81 and D. Wilson-Barker, 'Cloud nomenclature', Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, (1890), 16, 127-32; idem, Clouds and Weather Signs, London, 1902.
197. See, for instance, R. Abercromby, 'Modern developments of cloud knowledge', Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society (1888), 8, 3-18; A. W. Clayden, Cloud Studies, London, 1905; F. Gaster, 'Suggestions, from a practical point of view, for a new classification of cloud forms,' Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society (1893), 19, 218-28; C. Ley, Cloudland, Study on the Structure and Characters of Clouds, London, 1894; A. Poey, Les Courants atmosphériques d'après les nuages au point de vue de la prévision du temps, Paris, 1882; idem, Comment on observe les Nuages pour prévoir le temps, 3rd edn, Paris, 1879; R. J. Mann, 'On Professor Poey's new classification of clouds', Proceedings of the British Meteorological Society (1871), 5, 276-81 and D. Wilson-Barker, 'Cloud nomenclature', Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, (1890), 16, 127-32; idem, Clouds and Weather Signs, London, 1902.
198. See, for instance, R. Abercromby, 'Modern developments of cloud knowledge', Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society (1888), 8, 3-18; A. W. Clayden, Cloud Studies, London, 1905; F. Gaster, 'Suggestions, from a practical point of view, for a new classification of cloud forms,' Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society (1893), 19, 218-28; C. Ley, Cloudland, Study on the Structure and Characters of Clouds, London, 1894; A. Poey, Les Courants atmosphériques d'après les nuages au point de vue de la prévision du temps, Paris, 1882; idem, Comment on observe les Nuages pour prévoir le temps, 3rd edn, Paris, 1879; R. J. Mann, 'On Professor Poey's new classification of clouds', Proceedings of the British Meteorological Society (1871), 5, 276-81 and D. Wilson-Barker, 'Cloud nomenclature', Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, (1890), 16, 127-32; idem, Clouds and Weather Signs, London, 1902.
199. See, for instance, R. Abercromby, 'Modern developments of cloud knowledge', Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society (1888), 8, 3-18; A. W. Clayden, Cloud Studies, London, 1905; F. Gaster, 'Suggestions, from a practical point of view, for a new classification of cloud forms,' Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society (1893), 19, 218-28; C. Ley, Cloudland, Study on the Structure and Characters of Clouds, London, 1894; A. Poey, Les Courants atmosphériques d'après les nuages au point de vue de la prévision du temps, Paris, 1882; idem, Comment on observe les Nuages pour prévoir le temps, 3rd edn, Paris, 1879; R. J. Mann, 'On Professor Poey's new classification of clouds', Proceedings of the British Meteorological Society (1871), 5, 276-81 and D. Wilson-Barker, 'Cloud nomenclature', Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, (1890), 16, 127-32; idem, Clouds and Weather Signs, London, 1902.
200. See, for instance, R. Abercromby, 'Modern developments of cloud knowledge', Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society (1888), 8, 3-18; A. W. Clayden, Cloud Studies, London, 1905; F. Gaster, 'Suggestions, from a practical point of view, for a new classification of cloud forms,' Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society (1893), 19, 218-28; C. Ley, Cloudland, Study on the Structure and Characters of Clouds, London, 1894; A. Poey, Les Courants atmosphériques d'après les nuages au point de vue de la prévision du temps, Paris, 1882; idem, Comment on observe les Nuages pour prévoir le temps, 3rd edn, Paris, 1879; R. J. Mann, 'On Professor Poey's new classification of clouds', Proceedings of the British Meteorological Society (1871), 5, 276-81 and D. Wilson-Barker, 'Cloud nomenclature', Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, (1890), 16, 127-32; idem, Clouds and Weather Signs, London, 1902.
201. See, for instance, R. Abercromby, 'Modern developments of cloud knowledge', Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society (1888), 8, 3-18; A. W. Clayden, Cloud Studies, London, 1905; F. Gaster, 'Suggestions, from a practical point of view, for a new classification of cloud forms,' Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society (1893), 19, 218-28; C. Ley, Cloudland, Study on the Structure and Characters of Clouds, London, 1894; A. Poey, Les Courants atmosphériques d'après les nuages au point de vue de la prévision du temps, Paris, 1882; idem, Comment on observe les Nuages pour prévoir le temps, 3rd edn, Paris, 1879; R. J. Mann, 'On Professor Poey's new classification of clouds', Proceedings of the British Meteorological Society (1871), 5, 276-81 and D. Wilson-Barker, 'Cloud nomenclature', Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, (1890), 16, 127-32; idem, Clouds and Weather Signs, London, 1902.
202. Two observers would stand along a measured baseline and, connected by telephone, fix through verbal exchange a common point on a certain cloud. With two angular measurements and the baseline, the height could be derived through triangulation. See N. Ekholm, 'A new instrument for cloud measurements', Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society (1893), 19, 38-45; K. L. Hagstrom and H. H. Hildebrandsson, Des principales Méthodes employées pour observer et mesurer les nuages, Uppsala, 1893; Capt. W. de W. Abney, 'Note E: Preliminary Report on the Photo-Nephoscope', Annual Report of the Meteorological Council (1880-1), 33-4, which described some of the technical difficulties in developing the instrument; G. Stokes, 'Note A: Memorandum on Cloud Photography', Annual Report of the Meteorological Council (1885-6), 22-3.
203. Two observers would stand along a measured baseline and, connected by telephone, fix through verbal exchange a common point on a certain cloud. With two angular measurements and the baseline, the height could be derived through triangulation. See N. Ekholm, 'A new instrument for cloud measurements', Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society (1893), 19, 38-45; K. L. Hagstrom and H. H. Hildebrandsson, Des principales Méthodes employées pour observer et mesurer les nuages, Uppsala, 1893; Capt. W. de W. Abney, 'Note E: Preliminary Report on the Photo-Nephoscope', Annual Report of the Meteorological Council (1880-1), 33-4, which described some of the technical difficulties in developing the instrument; G. Stokes, 'Note A: Memorandum on Cloud Photography', Annual Report of the Meteorological Council (1885-6), 22-3.
204. Two observers would stand along a measured baseline and, connected by telephone, fix through verbal exchange a common point on a certain cloud. With two angular measurements and the baseline, the height could be derived through triangulation. See N. Ekholm, 'A new instrument for cloud measurements', Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society (1893), 19, 38-45; K. L. Hagstrom and H. H. Hildebrandsson, Des principales Méthodes employées pour observer et mesurer les nuages, Uppsala, 1893; Capt. W. de W. Abney, 'Note E: Preliminary Report on the Photo-Nephoscope', Annual Report of the Meteorological Council (1880-1), 33-4, which described some of the technical difficulties in developing the instrument; G. Stokes, 'Note A: Memorandum on Cloud Photography', Annual Report of the Meteorological Council (1885-6), 22-3.
205. Two observers would stand along a measured baseline and, connected by telephone, fix through verbal exchange a common point on a certain cloud. With two angular measurements and the baseline, the height could be derived through triangulation. See N. Ekholm, 'A new instrument for cloud measurements', Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society (1893), 19, 38-45; K. L. Hagstrom and H. H. Hildebrandsson, Des principales Méthodes employées pour observer et mesurer les nuages, Uppsala, 1893; Capt. W. de W. Abney, 'Note E: Preliminary Report on the Photo-Nephoscope', Annual Report of the Meteorological Council (1880-1), 33-4, which described some of the technical difficulties in developing the instrument; G. Stokes, 'Note A: Memorandum on Cloud Photography', Annual Report of the Meteorological Council (1885-6), 22-3.
206. These required developers that could intensify the image, a tricky process of judgement in the development stage; or a yellow filter to reduce the glare; or a even a black-coated glass mounted in front of the lens of the camera at an angle, which again could diminish the glare and allow a photographer to time the exposure more easily. For a description of this device, see Clayden, op. cit. (86), 165-81.
207. [A. W. Clayden], 'Third Report of the Committee [on cloud photography]', Report of the British Association for 1893, 140-4, 142.
208. Over the objections of British delegates who thought it 'entirely empirical'. [Arthur Clayden], 'Second Report of the Committee [on Cloud Photography]', Report of the British Association for 1892, 77-93, 77. See also Abercromby, 'Suggestions for an international nomenclature of clouds', op. cit. (40).
209. Over the objections of British delegates who thought it 'entirely empirical'. [Arthur Clayden], 'Second Report of the Committee [on Cloud Photography]', Report of the British Association for 1892, 77-93, 77. See also Abercromby, 'Suggestions for an international nomenclature of clouds', op. cit. (40).
210. Brück and Brück, op. cit. (52), 252.
211. All these remarks are taken from Smyth, Cloud Forms, op. cit. (84), 1-17. The biblical quotation is Job 36: 27-8. It should be noted Smyth was not alone in giving meteorology special religious significance as a science that demonstrated the limits of physical law. See F. Turner, 'Rainfall, plagues and the Prince of Wales', Journal of British Studies (1974), 13, 46-55; A. MacLeod, Scripture Meteorology and Modern Science, Glasgow, 1867; K. Anderson, Prophecy and Prediction: Victorians and the Weather, Chicago, forthcoming.
212. All these remarks are taken from Smyth, Cloud Forms, op. cit. (84), 1-17. The biblical quotation is Job 36: 27-8. It should be noted Smyth was not alone in giving meteorology special religious significance as a science that demonstrated the limits of physical law. See F. Turner, 'Rainfall, plagues and the Prince of Wales', Journal of British Studies (1974), 13, 46-55; A. MacLeod, Scripture Meteorology and Modern Science, Glasgow, 1867; K. Anderson, Prophecy and Prediction: Victorians and the Weather, Chicago, forthcoming.
213. All these remarks are taken from Smyth, Cloud Forms, op. cit. (84), 1-17. The biblical quotation is Job 36: 27-8. It should be noted Smyth was not alone in giving meteorology special religious significance as a science that demonstrated the limits of physical law. See F. Turner, 'Rainfall, plagues and the Prince of Wales', Journal of British Studies (1974), 13, 46-55; A. MacLeod, Scripture Meteorology and Modern Science, Glasgow, 1867; K. Anderson, Prophecy and Prediction: Victorians and the Weather, Chicago, forthcoming.
214. All these remarks are taken from Smyth, Cloud Forms, op. cit. (84), 1-17. The biblical quotation is Job 36: 27-8. It should be noted Smyth was not alone in giving meteorology special religious significance as a science that demonstrated the limits of physical law. See F. Turner, 'Rainfall, plagues and the Prince of Wales', Journal of British Studies (1974), 13, 46-55; A. MacLeod, Scripture Meteorology and Modern Science, Glasgow, 1867; K. Anderson, Prophecy and Prediction: Victorians and the Weather, Chicago, forthcoming.
215. Consider for example the remark of the French physiologist E. J. Marey that his photographic accounts of the body were a replacement for conventional language, offering 'the language of the phenomena themselves'. Quoted in Daston and Galison, op. cit. (7), 81. The historical backdrop of linguistic studies in the period, especially the contending theories of Max Muller and William Dwight Whitney, is clearly relevant here, as are contemporary nomenclature debates and concerns with overly specialized language in science. For relevant discussions, see H. Aarsleff, From Locke to Saussure: Essays on the Study of Language and Intellectual History, Minneapolis, 1982, and idem, The Study of Language in England, 1780-1860, Princeton, 1967; L. Dowling, Language and Decadence in the Victorian Fin de Siecle, Princeton, 1986; O. Smith, The Politics of Language, 1791-1819, Oxford, 1984; G. R. McOual, 'Species, rules, meaning: the politics of language and the ends of definitions in 19th century natural history', Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1996), 27, 473-519; H. Ritvo, The platypus and the Mermaid, and Other Figments of the Classifying Imagination, Cambridge, MA, 1997; S. Schaffer, 'The history and geography of the intellectual world: Whewell's politics of language', in William Whewell: A Composite Portrait (ed. M. Fisch and S. Schaffer), Oxford, 1991; Dale, op. cit. (31).
216. Consider for example the remark of the French physiologist E. J. Marey that his photographic accounts of the body were a replacement for conventional language, offering 'the language of the phenomena themselves'. Quoted in Daston and Galison, op. cit. (7), 81. The historical backdrop of linguistic studies in the period, especially the contending theories of Max Muller and William Dwight Whitney, is clearly relevant here, as are contemporary nomenclature debates and concerns with overly specialized language in science. For relevant discussions, see H. Aarsleff, From Locke to Saussure: Essays on the Study of Language and Intellectual History, Minneapolis, 1982, and idem, The Study of Language in England, 1780-1860, Princeton, 1967; L. Dowling, Language and Decadence in the Victorian Fin de Siecle, Princeton, 1986; O. Smith, The Politics of Language, 1791-1819, Oxford, 1984; G. R. McOual, 'Species, rules, meaning: the politics of language and the ends of definitions in 19th century natural history', Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1996), 27, 473-519; H. Ritvo, The platypus and the Mermaid, and Other Figments of the Classifying Imagination, Cambridge, MA, 1997; S. Schaffer, 'The history and geography of the intellectual world: Whewell's politics of language', in William Whewell: A Composite Portrait (ed. M. Fisch and S. Schaffer), Oxford, 1991; Dale, op. cit. (31).
217. Consider for example the remark of the French physiologist E. J. Marey that his photographic accounts of the body were a replacement for conventional language, offering 'the language of the phenomena themselves'. Quoted in Daston and Galison, op. cit. (7), 81. The historical backdrop of linguistic studies in the period, especially the contending theories of Max Muller and William Dwight Whitney, is clearly relevant here, as are contemporary nomenclature debates and concerns with overly specialized language in science. For relevant discussions, see H. Aarsleff, From Locke to Saussure: Essays on the Study of Language and Intellectual History, Minneapolis, 1982, and idem, The Study of Language in England, 1780-1860, Princeton, 1967; L. Dowling, Language and Decadence in the Victorian Fin de Siecle, Princeton, 1986; O. Smith, The Politics of Language, 1791-1819, Oxford, 1984; G. R. McOual, 'Species, rules, meaning: the politics of language and the ends of definitions in 19th century natural history', Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1996), 27, 473-519; H. Ritvo, The platypus and the Mermaid, and Other Figments of the Classifying Imagination, Cambridge, MA, 1997; S. Schaffer, 'The history and geography of the intellectual world: Whewell's politics of language', in William Whewell: A Composite Portrait (ed. M. Fisch and S. Schaffer), Oxford, 1991; Dale, op. cit. (31).
218. Consider for example the remark of the French physiologist E. J. Marey that his photographic accounts of the body were a replacement for conventional language, offering 'the language of the phenomena themselves'. Quoted in Daston and Galison, op. cit. (7), 81. The historical backdrop of linguistic studies in the period, especially the contending theories of Max Muller and William Dwight Whitney, is clearly relevant here, as are contemporary nomenclature debates and concerns with overly specialized language in science. For relevant discussions, see H. Aarsleff, From Locke to Saussure: Essays on the Study of Language and Intellectual History, Minneapolis, 1982, and idem, The Study of Language in England, 1780-1860, Princeton, 1967; L. Dowling, Language and Decadence in the Victorian Fin de Siecle, Princeton, 1986; O. Smith, The Politics of Language, 1791-1819, Oxford, 1984; G. R. McOual, 'Species, rules, meaning: the politics of language and the ends of definitions in 19th century natural history', Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1996), 27, 473-519; H. Ritvo, The platypus and the Mermaid, and Other Figments of the Classifying Imagination, Cambridge, MA, 1997; S. Schaffer, 'The history and geography of the intellectual world: Whewell's politics of language', in William Whewell: A Composite Portrait (ed. M. Fisch and S. Schaffer), Oxford, 1991; Dale, op. cit. (31).
219. Consider for example the remark of the French physiologist E. J. Marey that his photographic accounts of the body were a replacement for conventional language, offering 'the language of the phenomena themselves'. Quoted in Daston and Galison, op. cit. (7), 81. The historical backdrop of linguistic studies in the period, especially the contending theories of Max Muller and William Dwight Whitney, is clearly relevant here, as are contemporary nomenclature debates and concerns with overly specialized language in science. For relevant discussions, see H. Aarsleff, From Locke to Saussure: Essays on the Study of Language and Intellectual History, Minneapolis, 1982, and idem, The Study of Language in England, 1780-1860, Princeton, 1967; L. Dowling, Language and Decadence in the Victorian Fin de Siecle, Princeton, 1986; O. Smith, The Politics of Language, 1791-1819, Oxford, 1984; G. R. McOual, 'Species, rules, meaning: the politics of language and the ends of definitions in 19th century natural history', Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1996), 27, 473-519; H. Ritvo, The platypus and the Mermaid, and Other Figments of the Classifying Imagination, Cambridge, MA, 1997; S. Schaffer, 'The history and geography of the intellectual world: Whewell's politics of language', in William Whewell: A Composite Portrait (ed. M. Fisch and S. Schaffer), Oxford, 1991; Dale, op. cit. (31).
220. Consider for example the remark of the French physiologist E. J. Marey that his photographic accounts of the body were a replacement for conventional language, offering 'the language of the phenomena themselves'. Quoted in Daston and Galison, op. cit. (7), 81. The historical backdrop of linguistic studies in the period, especially the contending theories of Max Muller and William Dwight Whitney, is clearly relevant here, as are contemporary nomenclature debates and concerns with overly specialized language in science. For relevant discussions, see H. Aarsleff, From Locke to Saussure: Essays on the Study of Language and Intellectual History, Minneapolis, 1982, and idem, The Study of Language in England, 1780-1860, Princeton, 1967; L. Dowling, Language and Decadence in the Victorian Fin de Siecle, Princeton, 1986; O. Smith, The Politics of Language, 1791-1819, Oxford, 1984; G. R. McOual, 'Species, rules, meaning: the politics of language and the ends of definitions in 19th century natural history', Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1996), 27, 473-519; H. Ritvo, The platypus and the Mermaid, and Other Figments of the Classifying Imagination, Cambridge, MA, 1997; S. Schaffer, 'The history and geography of the intellectual world: Whewell's politics of language', in William Whewell: A Composite Portrait (ed. M. Fisch and S. Schaffer), Oxford, 1991; Dale, op. cit. (31).
221. Consider for example the remark of the French physiologist E. J. Marey that his photographic accounts of the body were a replacement for conventional language, offering 'the language of the phenomena themselves'. Quoted in Daston and Galison, op. cit. (7), 81. The historical backdrop of linguistic studies in the period, especially the contending theories of Max Muller and William Dwight Whitney, is clearly relevant here, as are contemporary nomenclature debates and concerns with overly specialized language in science. For relevant discussions, see H. Aarsleff, From Locke to Saussure: Essays on the Study of Language and Intellectual History, Minneapolis, 1982, and idem, The Study of Language in England, 1780-1860, Princeton, 1967; L. Dowling, Language and Decadence in the Victorian Fin de Siecle, Princeton, 1986; O. Smith, The Politics of Language, 1791-1819, Oxford, 1984; G. R. McOual, 'Species, rules, meaning: the politics of language and the ends of definitions in 19th century natural history', Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1996), 27, 473-519; H. Ritvo, The platypus and the Mermaid, and Other Figments of the Classifying Imagination, Cambridge, MA, 1997; S. Schaffer, 'The history and geography of the intellectual world: Whewell's politics of language', in William Whewell: A Composite Portrait (ed. M. Fisch and S. Schaffer), Oxford, 1991; Dale, op. cit. (31).
222. Consider for example the remark of the French physiologist E. J. Marey that his photographic accounts of the body were a replacement for conventional language, offering 'the language of the phenomena themselves'. Quoted in Daston and Galison, op. cit. (7), 81. The historical backdrop of linguistic studies in the period, especially the contending theories of Max Muller and William Dwight Whitney, is clearly relevant here, as are contemporary nomenclature debates and concerns with overly specialized language in science. For relevant discussions, see H. Aarsleff, From Locke to Saussure: Essays on the Study of Language and Intellectual History, Minneapolis, 1982, and idem, The Study of Language in England, 1780-1860, Princeton, 1967; L. Dowling, Language and Decadence in the Victorian Fin de Siecle, Princeton, 1986; O. Smith, The Politics of Language, 1791-1819, Oxford, 1984; G. R. McOual, 'Species, rules, meaning: the politics of language and the ends of definitions in 19th century natural history', Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1996), 27, 473-519; H. Ritvo, The platypus and the Mermaid, and Other Figments of the Classifying Imagination, Cambridge, MA, 1997; S. Schaffer, 'The history and geography of the intellectual world: Whewell's politics of language', in William Whewell: A Composite Portrait (ed. M. Fisch and S. Schaffer), Oxford, 1991; Dale, op. cit. (31).
223. Consider for example the remark of the French physiologist E. J. Marey that his photographic accounts of the body were a replacement for conventional language, offering 'the language of the phenomena themselves'. Quoted in Daston and Galison, op. cit. (7), 81. The historical backdrop of linguistic studies in the period, especially the contending theories of Max Muller and William Dwight Whitney, is clearly relevant here, as are contemporary nomenclature debates and concerns with overly specialized language in science. For relevant discussions, see H. Aarsleff, From Locke to Saussure: Essays on the Study of Language and Intellectual History, Minneapolis, 1982, and idem, The Study of Language in England, 1780-1860, Princeton, 1967; L. Dowling, Language and Decadence in the Victorian Fin de Siecle, Princeton, 1986; O. Smith, The Politics of Language, 1791-1819, Oxford, 1984; G. R. McOual, 'Species, rules, meaning: the politics of language and the ends of definitions in 19th century natural history', Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science (1996), 27, 473-519; H. Ritvo, The platypus and the Mermaid, and Other Figments of the Classifying Imagination, Cambridge, MA, 1997; S. Schaffer, 'The history and geography of the intellectual world: Whewell's politics of language', in William Whewell: A Composite Portrait (ed. M. Fisch and S. Schaffer), Oxford, 1991; Dale, op. cit. (31).
224. Smith, op. cit. (3), 42.
225. FitzRoy to Airy, 12 June 1860, Royal Greenwich Observatory papers, 6/702, Cambridge University Library.
226. FitzRoy to Herschel, 15 January 1863. Herschel papers, HS 7 262, Royal Society of London. Original emphasis.
227. Ruskin, 'Storm Cloud', op. cit. (43), xxxiv, 25; xxxiv, 47 and xxxiv, 59-62.
228. Ruskin, op. cit. (97), 76, 66, 17. Original emphasis.
229. Hamblyn, op. cit. (4), 17.
230. For Howard, see Hamblyn, op. cit. (4), and the obituaries in Proceedings of the Royal Society (1865), 14, pp. x-xii, and Quarterly Journal of the British Meteorological Society (1864), 2, 254-5. Lamarck also produced an independent classification in 1802, which was ignored even in France. See Hamblyn, op. cit. (4). For more on the history of classification, see J. A. Kingston, 'A century of cloud classification', Weather (1968), 23, 349-56; idem, 'A historical review of cloud study', Weather (1969), 24, 84-8; Poey, Comment on observe, op. cit. (86).
231. For Howard, see Hamblyn, op. cit. (4), and the obituaries in Proceedings of the Royal Society (1865), 14, pp. x-xii, and Quarterly Journal of the British Meteorological Society (1864), 2, 254-5. Lamarck also produced an independent classification in 1802, which was ignored even in France. See Hamblyn, op. cit. (4). For more on the history of classification, see J. A. Kingston, 'A century of cloud classification', Weather (1968), 23, 349-56; idem, 'A historical review of cloud study', Weather (1969), 24, 84-8; Poey, Comment on observe, op. cit. (86).
232. For Howard, see Hamblyn, op. cit. (4), and the obituaries in Proceedings of the Royal Society (1865), 14, pp. x-xii, and Quarterly Journal of the British Meteorological Society (1864), 2, 254-5. Lamarck also produced an independent classification in 1802, which was ignored even in France. See Hamblyn, op. cit. (4). For more on the history of classification, see J. A. Kingston, 'A century of cloud classification', Weather (1968), 23, 349-56; idem, 'A historical review of cloud study', Weather (1969), 24, 84-8; Poey, Comment on observe, op. cit. (86).
233. For Howard, see Hamblyn, op. cit. (4), and the obituaries in Proceedings of the Royal Society (1865), 14, pp. x-xii, and Quarterly Journal of the British Meteorological Society (1864), 2, 254-5. Lamarck also produced an independent classification in 1802, which was ignored even in France. See Hamblyn, op. cit. (4). For more on the history of classification, see J. A. Kingston, 'A century of cloud classification', Weather (1968), 23, 349-56; idem, 'A historical review of cloud study', Weather (1969), 24, 84-8; Poey, Comment on observe, op. cit. (86).
234. For Howard, see Hamblyn, op. cit. (4), and the obituaries in Proceedings of the Royal Society (1865), 14, pp. x-xii, and Quarterly Journal of the British Meteorological Society (1864), 2, 254-5. Lamarck also produced an independent classification in 1802, which was ignored even in France. See Hamblyn, op. cit. (4). For more on the history of classification, see J. A. Kingston, 'A century of cloud classification', Weather (1968), 23, 349-56; idem, 'A historical review of cloud study', Weather (1969), 24, 84-8; Poey, Comment on observe, op. cit. (86).
235. For Howard, see Hamblyn, op. cit. (4), and the obituaries in Proceedings of the Royal Society (1865), 14, pp. x-xii, and Quarterly Journal of the British Meteorological Society (1864), 2, 254-5. Lamarck also produced an independent classification in 1802, which was ignored even in France. See Hamblyn, op. cit. (4). For more on the history of classification, see J. A. Kingston, 'A century of cloud classification', Weather (1968), 23, 349-56; idem, 'A historical review of cloud study', Weather (1969), 24, 84-8; Poey, Comment on observe, op. cit. (86).
236. For Howard, see Hamblyn, op. cit. (4), and the obituaries in Proceedings of the Royal Society (1865), 14, pp. x-xii, and Quarterly Journal of the British Meteorological Society (1864), 2, 254-5. Lamarck also produced an independent classification in 1802, which was ignored even in France. See Hamblyn, op. cit. (4). For more on the history of classification, see J. A. Kingston, 'A century of cloud classification', Weather (1968), 23, 349-56; idem, 'A historical review of cloud study', Weather (1969), 24, 84-8; Poey, Comment on observe, op. cit. (86).
237. L. Howard, Essay on the Modifications of Clouds, 3rd edn, London, 1865, 1-2. Howard's comparison with medical knowledge was significant, for debates over 'experience' and 'instrument-based' knowledge similar to those in meteorology recurred in nineteenth-century medicine. See C. Lawrence, 'Incommunicable knowledge: science, technology and the clinical art in Britain, 1850-1914', Journal of Contemporary History (1985), 20, 503-20.
238. L. Howard, Essay on the Modifications of Clouds, 3rd edn, London, 1865, 1-2. Howard's comparison with medical knowledge was significant, for debates over 'experience' and 'instrument-based' knowledge similar to those in meteorology recurred in nineteenth-century medicine. See C. Lawrence, 'Incommunicable knowledge: science, technology and the clinical art in Britain, 1850-1914', Journal of Contemporary History (1985), 20, 503-20.
239. H. F. Blanford, A Practical Guide to the Climate and Weather of India, Ceylon and Burmah and the Storms of the Indian Seas, London, 1889, 56.
240. Poey, 'Tableau de la nomenclature vulgaire des nuages en cinq langues' in Comment on observe, op. cit. (86), 39.
241. Abercromby, 'Modern developments of cloud knowledge', op. cit. (86), 18.
242. Blanford, op. cit. (102), 56.