'Stars should henceforth register themselves': Astrophotography at the early Lick Observatory

British Journal for the History of Science

Volumn 30, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 177-202

  Pang, Alex Soojung Kim ^a  

^a NONE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 18844401164     PISSN: 00070874     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007087497003002     Document Type: Article

References (106)

1. Edward S. Holden, 'Photography the servant of astronomy', Overland Monthly (1886), 8, 459-70, on 468.
2. Agnes M. Clerke, 'Sidereal photography', Edinburgh Review (1888), 167, 23-46, on 24, and 34, reprinted as 'Astronomical photography', in Sidereal Messenger (1888), 7, 138-91.
3. Agnes M. Clerke, 'Sidereal photography', Edinburgh Review (1888), 167, 23-46, on 24, and 34, reprinted as 'Astronomical photography', in Sidereal Messenger (1888), 7, 138-91.
4. Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, 'The image of objectivity', Representations (1992), 40, 81-128.
5. Charles Piazzi Smyth, 'On astronomical drawing', Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society (1846), 15, 71-82, on 75.
6. The evolution of incommensurability between drawing and photography can be seen in contemporary articles, including David Gill, 'Recent researches on the distances of fixed stars', Royal Institution Proceedings (1884), 11, 91-106; Andrew A. Common, 'Note on a photography of the Great Nebula in Orion and some new stars near ø Orionis', Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (1883), 255-7; and 'Photography as an aid to astronomy', Proceedings of the Royal Institution (1886), 11, 367-75; E. E. Barnard, 'Recent stellar photography', Sidereal Messenger (1887), 6, 58-65; David Gill, 'The applications of photography in astronomy', Observatory (1887), 10, 267-72, 283-94; Charles Young, 'Astronomical photography', New Princeton Review (1887), 3, 354-69. On the impact of photography on astronomy, see John Herschel, Outlines of Astronomy, 4th edn, Philadelphia, 1860, 512; Owen Gingerich (ed.), The General History of Astronomy, Volume 4. Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, Cambridge, 1984, pt 1; John Lankford, 'Amateurs and astrophysics: a neglected aspect in the development of a scientific specialty', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 275-303; Simon Schaffer, 'Astronomers mark time: discipline and the personal equation', Science in Context (1988), 2, 115-45. For the American case, see Marc Rothenberg, 'Organization and control: professionals and amateurs in American astronomy, 1899-1918', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 305-25.
7. The evolution of incommensurability between drawing and photography can be seen in contemporary articles, including David Gill, 'Recent researches on the distances of fixed stars', Royal Institution Proceedings (1884), 11, 91-106; Andrew A. Common, 'Note on a photography of the Great Nebula in Orion and some new stars near ø Orionis', Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (1883), 255-7; and 'Photography as an aid to astronomy', Proceedings of the Royal Institution (1886), 11, 367-75; E. E. Barnard, 'Recent stellar photography', Sidereal Messenger (1887), 6, 58-65; David Gill, 'The applications of photography in astronomy', Observatory (1887), 10, 267-72, 283-94; Charles Young, 'Astronomical photography', New Princeton Review (1887), 3, 354-69. On the impact of photography on astronomy, see John Herschel, Outlines of Astronomy, 4th edn, Philadelphia, 1860, 512; Owen Gingerich (ed.), The General History of Astronomy, Volume 4. Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, Cambridge, 1984, pt 1; John Lankford, 'Amateurs and astrophysics: a neglected aspect in the development of a scientific specialty', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 275-303; Simon Schaffer, 'Astronomers mark time: discipline and the personal equation', Science in Context (1988), 2, 115-45. For the American case, see Marc Rothenberg, 'Organization and control: professionals and amateurs in American astronomy, 1899-1918', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 305-25.
8. The evolution of incommensurability between drawing and photography can be seen in contemporary articles, including David Gill, 'Recent researches on the distances of fixed stars', Royal Institution Proceedings (1884), 11, 91-106; Andrew A. Common, 'Note on a photography of the Great Nebula in Orion and some new stars near ø Orionis', Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (1883), 255-7; and 'Photography as an aid to astronomy', Proceedings of the Royal Institution (1886), 11, 367-75; E. E. Barnard, 'Recent stellar photography', Sidereal Messenger (1887), 6, 58-65; David Gill, 'The applications of photography in astronomy', Observatory (1887), 10, 267-72, 283-94; Charles Young, 'Astronomical photography', New Princeton Review (1887), 3, 354-69. On the impact of photography on astronomy, see John Herschel, Outlines of Astronomy, 4th edn, Philadelphia, 1860, 512; Owen Gingerich (ed.), The General History of Astronomy, Volume 4. Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, Cambridge, 1984, pt 1; John Lankford, 'Amateurs and astrophysics: a neglected aspect in the development of a scientific specialty', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 275-303; Simon Schaffer, 'Astronomers mark time: discipline and the personal equation', Science in Context (1988), 2, 115-45. For the American case, see Marc Rothenberg, 'Organization and control: professionals and amateurs in American astronomy, 1899-1918', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 305-25.
9. The evolution of incommensurability between drawing and photography can be seen in contemporary articles, including David Gill, 'Recent researches on the distances of fixed stars', Royal Institution Proceedings (1884), 11, 91-106; Andrew A. Common, 'Note on a photography of the Great Nebula in Orion and some new stars near ø Orionis', Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (1883), 255-7; and 'Photography as an aid to astronomy', Proceedings of the Royal Institution (1886), 11, 367-75; E. E. Barnard, 'Recent stellar photography', Sidereal Messenger (1887), 6, 58-65; David Gill, 'The applications of photography in astronomy', Observatory (1887), 10, 267-72, 283-94; Charles Young, 'Astronomical photography', New Princeton Review (1887), 3, 354-69. On the impact of photography on astronomy, see John Herschel, Outlines of Astronomy, 4th edn, Philadelphia, 1860, 512; Owen Gingerich (ed.), The General History of Astronomy, Volume 4. Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, Cambridge, 1984, pt 1; John Lankford, 'Amateurs and astrophysics: a neglected aspect in the development of a scientific specialty', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 275-303; Simon Schaffer, 'Astronomers mark time: discipline and the personal equation', Science in Context (1988), 2, 115-45. For the American case, see Marc Rothenberg, 'Organization and control: professionals and amateurs in American astronomy, 1899-1918', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 305-25.
10. The evolution of incommensurability between drawing and photography can be seen in contemporary articles, including David Gill, 'Recent researches on the distances of fixed stars', Royal Institution Proceedings (1884), 11, 91-106; Andrew A. Common, 'Note on a photography of the Great Nebula in Orion and some new stars near ø Orionis', Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (1883), 255-7; and 'Photography as an aid to astronomy', Proceedings of the Royal Institution (1886), 11, 367-75; E. E. Barnard, 'Recent stellar photography', Sidereal Messenger (1887), 6, 58-65; David Gill, 'The applications of photography in astronomy', Observatory (1887), 10, 267-72, 283-94; Charles Young, 'Astronomical photography', New Princeton Review (1887), 3, 354-69. On the impact of photography on astronomy, see John Herschel, Outlines of Astronomy, 4th edn, Philadelphia, 1860, 512; Owen Gingerich (ed.), The General History of Astronomy, Volume 4. Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, Cambridge, 1984, pt 1; John Lankford, 'Amateurs and astrophysics: a neglected aspect in the development of a scientific specialty', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 275-303; Simon Schaffer, 'Astronomers mark time: discipline and the personal equation', Science in Context (1988), 2, 115-45. For the American case, see Marc Rothenberg, 'Organization and control: professionals and amateurs in American astronomy, 1899-1918', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 305-25.
11. The evolution of incommensurability between drawing and photography can be seen in contemporary articles, including David Gill, 'Recent researches on the distances of fixed stars', Royal Institution Proceedings (1884), 11, 91-106; Andrew A. Common, 'Note on a photography of the Great Nebula in Orion and some new stars near ø Orionis', Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (1883), 255-7; and 'Photography as an aid to astronomy', Proceedings of the Royal Institution (1886), 11, 367-75; E. E. Barnard, 'Recent stellar photography', Sidereal Messenger (1887), 6, 58-65; David Gill, 'The applications of photography in astronomy', Observatory (1887), 10, 267-72, 283-94; Charles Young, 'Astronomical photography', New Princeton Review (1887), 3, 354-69. On the impact of photography on astronomy, see John Herschel, Outlines of Astronomy, 4th edn, Philadelphia, 1860, 512; Owen Gingerich (ed.), The General History of Astronomy, Volume 4. Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, Cambridge, 1984, pt 1; John Lankford, 'Amateurs and astrophysics: a neglected aspect in the development of a scientific specialty', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 275-303; Simon Schaffer, 'Astronomers mark time: discipline and the personal equation', Science in Context (1988), 2, 115-45. For the American case, see Marc Rothenberg, 'Organization and control: professionals and amateurs in American astronomy, 1899-1918', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 305-25.
12. The evolution of incommensurability between drawing and photography can be seen in contemporary articles, including David Gill, 'Recent researches on the distances of fixed stars', Royal Institution Proceedings (1884), 11, 91-106; Andrew A. Common, 'Note on a photography of the Great Nebula in Orion and some new stars near ø Orionis', Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (1883), 255-7; and 'Photography as an aid to astronomy', Proceedings of the Royal Institution (1886), 11, 367-75; E. E. Barnard, 'Recent stellar photography', Sidereal Messenger (1887), 6, 58-65; David Gill, 'The applications of photography in astronomy', Observatory (1887), 10, 267-72, 283-94; Charles Young, 'Astronomical photography', New Princeton Review (1887), 3, 354-69. On the impact of photography on astronomy, see John Herschel, Outlines of Astronomy, 4th edn, Philadelphia, 1860, 512; Owen Gingerich (ed.), The General History of Astronomy, Volume 4. Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, Cambridge, 1984, pt 1; John Lankford, 'Amateurs and astrophysics: a neglected aspect in the development of a scientific specialty', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 275-303; Simon Schaffer, 'Astronomers mark time: discipline and the personal equation', Science in Context (1988), 2, 115-45. For the American case, see Marc Rothenberg, 'Organization and control: professionals and amateurs in American astronomy, 1899-1918', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 305-25.
13. The evolution of incommensurability between drawing and photography can be seen in contemporary articles, including David Gill, 'Recent researches on the distances of fixed stars', Royal Institution Proceedings (1884), 11, 91-106; Andrew A. Common, 'Note on a photography of the Great Nebula in Orion and some new stars near ø Orionis', Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (1883), 255-7; and 'Photography as an aid to astronomy', Proceedings of the Royal Institution (1886), 11, 367-75; E. E. Barnard, 'Recent stellar photography', Sidereal Messenger (1887), 6, 58-65; David Gill, 'The applications of photography in astronomy', Observatory (1887), 10, 267-72, 283-94; Charles Young, 'Astronomical photography', New Princeton Review (1887), 3, 354-69. On the impact of photography on astronomy, see John Herschel, Outlines of Astronomy, 4th edn, Philadelphia, 1860, 512; Owen Gingerich (ed.), The General History of Astronomy, Volume 4. Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, Cambridge, 1984, pt 1; John Lankford, 'Amateurs and astrophysics: a neglected aspect in the development of a scientific specialty', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 275-303; Simon Schaffer, 'Astronomers mark time: discipline and the personal equation', Science in Context (1988), 2, 115-45. For the American case, see Marc Rothenberg, 'Organization and control: professionals and amateurs in American astronomy, 1899-1918', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 305-25.
14. The evolution of incommensurability between drawing and photography can be seen in contemporary articles, including David Gill, 'Recent researches on the distances of fixed stars', Royal Institution Proceedings (1884), 11, 91-106; Andrew A. Common, 'Note on a photography of the Great Nebula in Orion and some new stars near ø Orionis', Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (1883), 255-7; and 'Photography as an aid to astronomy', Proceedings of the Royal Institution (1886), 11, 367-75; E. E. Barnard, 'Recent stellar photography', Sidereal Messenger (1887), 6, 58-65; David Gill, 'The applications of photography in astronomy', Observatory (1887), 10, 267-72, 283-94; Charles Young, 'Astronomical photography', New Princeton Review (1887), 3, 354-69. On the impact of photography on astronomy, see John Herschel, Outlines of Astronomy, 4th edn, Philadelphia, 1860, 512; Owen Gingerich (ed.), The General History of Astronomy, Volume 4. Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, Cambridge, 1984, pt 1; John Lankford, 'Amateurs and astrophysics: a neglected aspect in the development of a scientific specialty', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 275-303; Simon Schaffer, 'Astronomers mark time: discipline and the personal equation', Science in Context (1988), 2, 115-45. For the American case, see Marc Rothenberg, 'Organization and control: professionals and amateurs in American astronomy, 1899-1918', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 305-25.
15. The evolution of incommensurability between drawing and photography can be seen in contemporary articles, including David Gill, 'Recent researches on the distances of fixed stars', Royal Institution Proceedings (1884), 11, 91-106; Andrew A. Common, 'Note on a photography of the Great Nebula in Orion and some new stars near ø Orionis', Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (1883), 255-7; and 'Photography as an aid to astronomy', Proceedings of the Royal Institution (1886), 11, 367-75; E. E. Barnard, 'Recent stellar photography', Sidereal Messenger (1887), 6, 58-65; David Gill, 'The applications of photography in astronomy', Observatory (1887), 10, 267-72, 283-94; Charles Young, 'Astronomical photography', New Princeton Review (1887), 3, 354-69. On the impact of photography on astronomy, see John Herschel, Outlines of Astronomy, 4th edn, Philadelphia, 1860, 512; Owen Gingerich (ed.), The General History of Astronomy, Volume 4. Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, Cambridge, 1984, pt 1; John Lankford, 'Amateurs and astrophysics: a neglected aspect in the development of a scientific specialty', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 275-303; Simon Schaffer, 'Astronomers mark time: discipline and the personal equation', Science in Context (1988), 2, 115-45. For the American case, see Marc Rothenberg, 'Organization and control: professionals and amateurs in American astronomy, 1899-1918', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 305-25.
16. The evolution of incommensurability between drawing and photography can be seen in contemporary articles, including David Gill, 'Recent researches on the distances of fixed stars', Royal Institution Proceedings (1884), 11, 91-106; Andrew A. Common, 'Note on a photography of the Great Nebula in Orion and some new stars near ø Orionis', Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (1883), 255-7; and 'Photography as an aid to astronomy', Proceedings of the Royal Institution (1886), 11, 367-75; E. E. Barnard, 'Recent stellar photography', Sidereal Messenger (1887), 6, 58-65; David Gill, 'The applications of photography in astronomy', Observatory (1887), 10, 267-72, 283-94; Charles Young, 'Astronomical photography', New Princeton Review (1887), 3, 354-69. On the impact of photography on astronomy, see John Herschel, Outlines of Astronomy, 4th edn, Philadelphia, 1860, 512; Owen Gingerich (ed.), The General History of Astronomy, Volume 4. Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, Cambridge, 1984, pt 1; John Lankford, 'Amateurs and astrophysics: a neglected aspect in the development of a scientific specialty', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 275-303; Simon Schaffer, 'Astronomers mark time: discipline and the personal equation', Science in Context (1988), 2, 115-45. For the American case, see Marc Rothenberg, 'Organization and control: professionals and amateurs in American astronomy, 1899-1918', Social Studies of Science (1981), 11, 305-25.
17. Alex Soojung-Kim Pang, 'Victorian observing practices, printing technology, and representations of the solar corona', Journal of the History of Astronomy (1994), 25, 249-74, and (1995), 26, 63-75.
18. Alex Soojung-Kim Pang, 'Victorian observing practices, printing technology, and representations of the solar corona', Journal of the History of Astronomy (1994), 25, 249-74, and (1995), 26, 63-75.
19. More detailed descriptions of these processes can be found in Bamber Gascoigne, How to Identify Prints: A Complete Guide to Manual and Mechanical Processes from Woodcut to Ink-Jet, New York, 1986, and Pang, op. cit. (6), 67-9.
20. More detailed descriptions of these processes can be found in Bamber Gascoigne, How to Identify Prints: A Complete Guide to Manual and Mechanical Processes from Woodcut to Ink-Jet, New York, 1986, and Pang, op. cit. (6), 67-9.
21. Wilhelm Cronenberg, Half-Tone on the American Basis (tr. William Gamble), London, 1896; H. Jenkins, A Manual of Photoengraving: Containing Practical Instructions for Producing Photoengraved Plates in Relief-Line and Half-Tone, Chicago, 1902; Alfred Elson, 'The reproductive processes of the graphic arts', Lectures on Printing, Cambridge, MA, 1912; and, for screens, see the entry under 'Levy, Max', Dictionary of American Biography, 1928, ix, 203.
22. Wilhelm Cronenberg, Half-Tone on the American Basis (tr. William Gamble), London, 1896; H. Jenkins, A Manual of Photoengraving: Containing Practical Instructions for Producing Photoengraved Plates in Relief-Line and Half-Tone, Chicago, 1902; Alfred Elson, 'The reproductive processes of the graphic arts', Lectures on Printing, Cambridge, MA, 1912; and, for screens, see the entry under 'Levy, Max', Dictionary of American Biography, 1928, ix, 203.
23. Wilhelm Cronenberg, Half-Tone on the American Basis (tr. William Gamble), London, 1896; H. Jenkins, A Manual of Photoengraving: Containing Practical Instructions for Producing Photoengraved Plates in Relief-Line and Half-Tone, Chicago, 1902; Alfred Elson, 'The reproductive processes of the graphic arts', Lectures on Printing, Cambridge, MA, 1912; and, for screens, see the entry under 'Levy, Max', Dictionary of American Biography, 1928, ix, 203.
24. Wilhelm Cronenberg, Half-Tone on the American Basis (tr. William Gamble), London, 1896; H. Jenkins, A Manual of Photoengraving: Containing Practical Instructions for Producing Photoengraved Plates in Relief-Line and Half-Tone, Chicago, 1902; Alfred Elson, 'The reproductive processes of the graphic arts', Lectures on Printing, Cambridge, MA, 1912; and, for screens, see the entry under 'Levy, Max', Dictionary of American Biography, 1928, ix, 203.
25. Anon., 'Some Highlights in the History of Photogravure & Color Company', undated MS in the Division of Graphic Arts, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. My thanks to Helena Wright for a copy of this document. Information on Photogravure's work comes from advertisements in Ernest Edwards, The Heliotype Process, Boston, MA, 1876, 13-16; William Hogarth, The Works of William Hogarth Reproduced by the Heliotype Process from the Original Engravings, Boston, MA, 1876; Paolo Toschi, Toschi's Engravings from Frescos by Correggio and Parmegiano, Boston, MA, 1875. On Edwards' work for Muybridge, see Robert Haas, Muybridge: Man in Motion, Berkeley, 1976, 154-5, 180; Gordon Hendricks, Eadweard Muybridge: The Father of the Motion Picture, New York, 1975, ch. 8; Estelle Jussim, Visual Communication and the Graphic Arts: Photographic Technologies in the Nineteenth Century, New York, 1983, 229.
26. Anon., 'Some Highlights in the History of Photogravure & Color Company', undated MS in the Division of Graphic Arts, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. My thanks to Helena Wright for a copy of this document. Information on Photogravure's work comes from advertisements in Ernest Edwards, The Heliotype Process, Boston, MA, 1876, 13-16; William Hogarth, The Works of William Hogarth Reproduced by the Heliotype Process from the Original Engravings, Boston, MA, 1876; Paolo Toschi, Toschi's Engravings from Frescos by Correggio and Parmegiano, Boston, MA, 1875. On Edwards' work for Muybridge, see Robert Haas, Muybridge: Man in Motion, Berkeley, 1976, 154-5, 180; Gordon Hendricks, Eadweard Muybridge: The Father of the Motion Picture, New York, 1975, ch. 8; Estelle Jussim, Visual Communication and the Graphic Arts: Photographic Technologies in the Nineteenth Century, New York, 1983, 229.
27. Anon., 'Some Highlights in the History of Photogravure & Color Company', undated MS in the Division of Graphic Arts, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. My thanks to Helena Wright for a copy of this document. Information on Photogravure's work comes from advertisements in Ernest Edwards, The Heliotype Process, Boston, MA, 1876, 13-16; William Hogarth, The Works of William Hogarth Reproduced by the Heliotype Process from the Original Engravings, Boston, MA, 1876; Paolo Toschi, Toschi's Engravings from Frescos by Correggio and Parmegiano, Boston, MA, 1875. On Edwards' work for Muybridge, see Robert Haas, Muybridge: Man in Motion, Berkeley, 1976, 154-5, 180; Gordon Hendricks, Eadweard Muybridge: The Father of the Motion Picture, New York, 1975, ch. 8; Estelle Jussim, Visual Communication and the Graphic Arts: Photographic Technologies in the Nineteenth Century, New York, 1983, 229.
28. Anon., 'Some Highlights in the History of Photogravure & Color Company', undated MS in the Division of Graphic Arts, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. My thanks to Helena Wright for a copy of this document. Information on Photogravure's work comes from advertisements in Ernest Edwards, The Heliotype Process, Boston, MA, 1876, 13-16; William Hogarth, The Works of William Hogarth Reproduced by the Heliotype Process from the Original Engravings, Boston, MA, 1876; Paolo Toschi, Toschi's Engravings from Frescos by Correggio and Parmegiano, Boston, MA, 1875. On Edwards' work for Muybridge, see Robert Haas, Muybridge: Man in Motion, Berkeley, 1976, 154-5, 180; Gordon Hendricks, Eadweard Muybridge: The Father of the Motion Picture, New York, 1975, ch. 8; Estelle Jussim, Visual Communication and the Graphic Arts: Photographic Technologies in the Nineteenth Century, New York, 1983, 229.
29. Anon., 'Some Highlights in the History of Photogravure & Color Company', undated MS in the Division of Graphic Arts, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. My thanks to Helena Wright for a copy of this document. Information on Photogravure's work comes from advertisements in Ernest Edwards, The Heliotype Process, Boston, MA, 1876, 13-16; William Hogarth, The Works of William Hogarth Reproduced by the Heliotype Process from the Original Engravings, Boston, MA, 1876; Paolo Toschi, Toschi's Engravings from Frescos by Correggio and Parmegiano, Boston, MA, 1875. On Edwards' work for Muybridge, see Robert Haas, Muybridge: Man in Motion, Berkeley, 1976, 154-5, 180; Gordon Hendricks, Eadweard Muybridge: The Father of the Motion Picture, New York, 1975, ch. 8; Estelle Jussim, Visual Communication and the Graphic Arts: Photographic Technologies in the Nineteenth Century, New York, 1983, 229.
30. Anon., 'Some Highlights in the History of Photogravure & Color Company', undated MS in the Division of Graphic Arts, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. My thanks to Helena Wright for a copy of this document. Information on Photogravure's work comes from advertisements in Ernest Edwards, The Heliotype Process, Boston, MA, 1876, 13-16; William Hogarth, The Works of William Hogarth Reproduced by the Heliotype Process from the Original Engravings, Boston, MA, 1876; Paolo Toschi, Toschi's Engravings from Frescos by Correggio and Parmegiano, Boston, MA, 1875. On Edwards' work for Muybridge, see Robert Haas, Muybridge: Man in Motion, Berkeley, 1976, 154-5, 180; Gordon Hendricks, Eadweard Muybridge: The Father of the Motion Picture, New York, 1975, ch. 8; Estelle Jussim, Visual Communication and the Graphic Arts: Photographic Technologies in the Nineteenth Century, New York, 1983, 229.
31. Anon., 'Some Highlights in the History of Photogravure & Color Company', undated MS in the Division of Graphic Arts, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. My thanks to Helena Wright for a copy of this document. Information on Photogravure's work comes from advertisements in Ernest Edwards, The Heliotype Process, Boston, MA, 1876, 13-16; William Hogarth, The Works of William Hogarth Reproduced by the Heliotype Process from the Original Engravings, Boston, MA, 1876; Paolo Toschi, Toschi's Engravings from Frescos by Correggio and Parmegiano, Boston, MA, 1875. On Edwards' work for Muybridge, see Robert Haas, Muybridge: Man in Motion, Berkeley, 1976, 154-5, 180; Gordon Hendricks, Eadweard Muybridge: The Father of the Motion Picture, New York, 1975, ch. 8; Estelle Jussim, Visual Communication and the Graphic Arts: Photographic Technologies in the Nineteenth Century, New York, 1983, 229.
32. Quotes from Jussim, op. cit. (9), 133, 140; Ernest Edwards, 'The art of making photo-gravures', Anthony's Photographic Bulletin (1887), 17, 367-70, 400-3, 430-2.
33. Quotes from Jussim, op. cit. (9), 133, 140; Ernest Edwards, 'The art of making photo-gravures', Anthony's Photographic Bulletin (1887), 17, 367-70, 400-3, 430-2.
34. Quotes are from Jenkins, op. cit. (8), 55-7, and Cronenberg, op. cit. (8), 49, 123, 151-4. On retouching, see J. P. Ourdan, The Art of Retouching, New York, 1880; and letter from C. E. Wright to William Wallace Campbell, 14 February 1902, Mary Lea Shane Archives, Lick Observatory, California (hereafter MLS), Box 65, File 'Miscellaneous W 1900-1904'. On judgement of Wright's work, see George Ellery Hale to James Keeler, 9 May 1900, MLS, Box 22, File 'G. E. Hale, 1900'.
35. Quotes are from Jenkins, op. cit. (8), 55-7, and Cronenberg, op. cit. (8), 49, 123, 151-4. On retouching, see J. P. Ourdan, The Art of Retouching, New York, 1880; and letter from C. E. Wright to William Wallace Campbell, 14 February 1902, Mary Lea Shane Archives, Lick Observatory, California (hereafter MLS), Box 65, File 'Miscellaneous W 1900-1904'. On judgement of Wright's work, see George Ellery Hale to James Keeler, 9 May 1900, MLS, Box 22, File 'G. E. Hale, 1900'.
36. Quotes are from Jenkins, op. cit. (8), 55-7, and Cronenberg, op. cit. (8), 49, 123, 151-4. On retouching, see J. P. Ourdan, The Art of Retouching, New York, 1880; and letter from C. E. Wright to William Wallace Campbell, 14 February 1902, Mary Lea Shane Archives, Lick Observatory, California (hereafter MLS), Box 65, File 'Miscellaneous W 1900-1904'. On judgement of Wright's work, see George Ellery Hale to James Keeler, 9 May 1900, MLS, Box 22, File 'G. E. Hale, 1900'.
37. Edwards, op. cit. (10), 430, 431.
38. E. E. Barnard to Campbell, 9 February 1909, MLS, File 'E. E. Barnard, 1905-1912'. Barnard also made stereoscopic pictures of the comet: see William Sheehan, The Immortal Fire Within: The Life and Work of Edward Emerson Barnard, Cambridge, 1995, 361.
39. Cronenberg, op. cit (8), 77.
40. Carl Nemethy, 'Photo-etching and printing', American Art Printer (November 1891), 99-100.
41. Willis Wells to Campbell, 11 February 1909 and 6 October 1909, MLS, File 'Binner-Wells Co.'. See also Wells to Campbell, 8 May 1909, 18 October 1909, MLS, File 'Binner-Wells Co.'.
42. See, for example, Campbell to Barnard, 15 February 1907 and 3 February 1909, MLS, File 'E. E. Barnard, 1905-1912'; Campbell to Karl Arvidson, 29 January 1909, MLS, File 'Photogravure & Color Co.'.
43. Hale to Keeler, 12 June 1899, MLS, Box 22, File 'G. E. Hale, 1899'.
44. Keeler to Hale, 7 March 1900; and Keeler to Ernest Edwards, 11 January 1900, MLS, Director's Copybook 67.
45. Hale to Keeler, 12 April 1900 and 9 May 1900, MLS, Box 22, File 'G. E. Hale, 1900'; Keeler to Hale, 20 April 1900, and Keeler to Edwards, 10 April 1900, MLS, Director's Copybook 67. Chicago halftone printers Binner-Wells seconded Hale's judgement: a halftone plate 'will stand any number of impressions', they told Campbell, since it was the silver coating that wore down rather than the actual image. J. L. Shilling to Campbell, 26 November 1904, MLS, Box 7, File 'Miscellaneous Bin-Biz, 1874-1904'.
46. Campbell to C. L. Wright and Company (New York), Binner Engraving Company (Chicago), John Andrews and Son (Boston), Photogravure and Color Company (New York), W. S. Scudder (Houghton, Mifflin and Company, Boston), 6 February 1902, MLS, Director's Copybook 75; Campbell to Binner Engraving, 20 March 1902, MLS, Director's Copybook 76. Keeler had planned to send a few test subjects to C. L. Wright and Company. See Keeler to Hale, 20 April 1900, MLS, Director's Copybook 67.
47. C. L. Wright to Campbell, 14 February 1902; see also Wright to Campbell, 16 April 1902, MLS, Box 65, 'Wright & Co./Royal Engraving'.
48. Campbell to Photogravure and Color Company, 9 April 1904, 2 May 1904 and 24 May 1904, MLS, Director's Copybook 83.
49. Holden to Edwards, 7 December 1896, MLS, Director's Copybook 55.
50. Campbell to Barnes-Crosby, 12 March 1912, and Robert Aitken to Barnes-Crosby, 12 February 1927, MLS, File 'Barnes-Crosby, 1910-1933'.
51. Barnard to Campbell, 26 January 1909, MLS, File 'E. E. Barnard, 1905-1912.
52. Edwards to Holden, 30 May 1896, MLS, Box 16, File 'Misc. Ea-Ed'
53. Campbell to Royal Engraving, 12 April 1906, MLS, File 'Wright & Co./Royal Engraving'.
54. Wright to Campbell, 4 April 1905 and 26 April 1906; Campbell to Wright, 1 May 1906; Wright to Campbell, 3 May 1906, MLS, File 'Wright & Co./Royal Engraving'.
55. Barnard to Campbell, 15 May 1911, MLS, File 'E. E. Barnard, 1905-1912'.
56. Campbell to Chicago Photogravure Company, 9 January 1915, MLS, File 'Chicago Photogravure Co.'. See also Campbell to C. A. Hough, 22 May 1911, MLS, File 'Misc. Ch-Ci 1905-1914, and Barnard to Campbell, 5 August 1908, and Campbell to Barnard, 13 January 1909, MLS, File 'E. E. Barnard, 1905-1912'. Reliance on particular specialists improved the quality of work, but could also cause delays. When Campbell complained to the Photogravure and Color Company about delays in their work, he was told that their etcher had been sick and 'we did not dare to put another man ... [to] work on the "Star" plates'. Arvidson to Campbell, 25 January 1905, MLS, File 'Photogravure & Color Co.'.
57. Shilling to Campbell, 13 April 1904, MLS, Box 7, File 'Miscellaneous Bin-Biz, 1874-1904'; Barnard to Campbell, 9 February 1909 and 21 February 1909, MLS, File 'E. E. Barnard, 1905-1912'. See also Campbell to Arvidson, 5 November 1906, MLS, File 'Photogravure & Color Co.'.
58. Campbell to Barnard, 27 February 1909, MLS, File 'E. E. Barnard, 1905-1912'; Shilling to Campbell, 13 April 1904, MLS, Box 7, File 'Miscellaneous Bin-Biz, 1874-1904'; Barnes-Crosby to Campbell, 7 April 1910, and Campbell to Barnes-Crosby, 12 April 1910, MLS, File 'Barnes-Crosby, 1910-1933'; Keeler to Holden, 13 December 1898, MLS, Director's Copybook 63. See also Shilling to Campbell, 16 March 1906, MLS, File 'Binner-Wells Co.'.
59. Campbell to C. E. Wright, 8 April 1902, MLS, Director's Copybook 76; Campbell to Barnard, 18 February 1908, MLS, File 'E. E. Barnard, 1905-1912'. See also Shilling to Campbell, 13 April 1904, MLS, Box 7, File 'Miscellaneous Bin-Biz, 1874-1904'; Holden to J. K. Rees, 18 December 1896, MLS, Director's Copybook 55; Holden to Edwards, 3 August 1896, MLS, File 'Photogravure & Color Co.'.
60. Edwin Frost to Campbell, 27 January 1904, MLS, Box 18, File 'Edwin Frost, 1900-1904'; see also Campbell to Chicago Photogravure Company, 13 February 1915; Campbell to Alex Copelin, 21 April 1915, MLS, File 'Chicago Photogravure Co.'
61. For comments on the badly-made proof, see Campbell to Arvidson, 16 September 1907 and 30 January 1908, MLS, File 'Photogravure & Color Co.'.
62. Campbell to Barnes-Crosby, 9 July 1918, MLS, File 'Barnes-Crosby, 1910-1933'.
63. Complaints can be found in Keeler to Edwards, 21 September 1899, MLS, Director's Letterbook 65; Campbell to Wright, 19 June 1906 and 27 July 1906, MLS, File 'Wright & Co./Royal Engraving'; Campbell to Arvidson, 18 January 1905, 10 May 1907, 22 June 1907, 27 June 1907, 15 July 1907, 16 September 1907, 29 April 1908 and 18 July 1908, MLS, File 'Photogravure & Color Co.'. Seasonal problems are discussed in Campbell to Barnard, 28 December 1911, MLS, File 'E. E. Barnard, 1905-1912'. Bankruptcy is in Wright to Campbell, 4 April 1906 and 26 April 1906, MLS, File 'Wright & Co./Royal Engraving'; Edwards to Holden, 30 May 1896, MLS, File 'Photogravure & Color Co.'. Campbell also suspected printers who were given large orders for astronomical engravings regularly 'ran in' quick commercial work under their bigger projects, rather than turn them away: Campbell to Barnard, 14 August 1908, MLS, File 'E. E. Barnard, 1905-1912'.
64. Perrine to Barnard, 10 October 1911, MLS, File 'E. E. Barnard, 1905-1912'.
65. Arvidson to Campbell, 18 July 1904, MLS, File 'Photogravure & Color Co.'; C. D. Perrine to Campbell, 28 September 1904 and 30 September 1904, MLS, Box 44, File 'C. D. Perrine, 1900-1904'; Barnard to Campbell, 25 February 1907 and 27 January 1907, MLS, File 'E. E. Barnard, 1905-1912'. See also C. D. Perrine, 'Report of Work Done, July 1, 1904 to July 1, 1906', handwritten MS, n.d., MLS, File 'C. D. Perrine, 1905-1912', 7. Arvidson refers to only one etcher being assigned to this project in Arvidson to Campbell, 20 January 1905, MLS, File 'Photogravure & Color Co.'.
66. Samuel Y. Edgerton, The Heritage of Giotto's Geometry: Art and Science on the Eve of the Scientific Revolution, Ithaca, NY, 1991, 224. See also Edgerton, 'The Renaissance artist as quantifier', in The Perception of Pictures (ed. M. A. Hagen), New York, 1980, 179-212; 'Galileo, Florentine "disegno", and the "strange spottednesse" of the moon', Art Journal (1984), 44, 225-32; and 'The Renaissance development of scientific illustration', in Science and the Arts in the Renaissance (ed. J. Shirley and F. D. Hoeniger), Washington, 1985, 168-97.
67. Samuel Y. Edgerton, The Heritage of Giotto's Geometry: Art and Science on the Eve of the Scientific Revolution, Ithaca, NY, 1991, 224. See also Edgerton, 'The Renaissance artist as quantifier', in The Perception of Pictures (ed. M. A. Hagen), New York, 1980, 179-212; 'Galileo, Florentine "disegno", and the "strange spottednesse" of the moon', Art Journal (1984), 44, 225-32; and 'The Renaissance development of scientific illustration', in Science and the Arts in the Renaissance (ed. J. Shirley and F. D. Hoeniger), Washington, 1985, 168-97.
68. Samuel Y. Edgerton, The Heritage of Giotto's Geometry: Art and Science on the Eve of the Scientific Revolution, Ithaca, NY, 1991, 224. See also Edgerton, 'The Renaissance artist as quantifier', in The Perception of Pictures (ed. M. A. Hagen), New York, 1980, 179-212; 'Galileo, Florentine "disegno", and the "strange spottednesse" of the moon', Art Journal (1984), 44, 225-32; and 'The Renaissance development of scientific illustration', in Science and the Arts in the Renaissance (ed. J. Shirley and F. D. Hoeniger), Washington, 1985, 168-97.
69. Samuel Y. Edgerton, The Heritage of Giotto's Geometry: Art and Science on the Eve of the Scientific Revolution, Ithaca, NY, 1991, 224. See also Edgerton, 'The Renaissance artist as quantifier', in The Perception of Pictures (ed. M. A. Hagen), New York, 1980, 179-212; 'Galileo, Florentine "disegno", and the "strange spottednesse" of the moon', Art Journal (1984), 44, 225-32; and 'The Renaissance development of scientific illustration', in Science and the Arts in the Renaissance (ed. J. Shirley and F. D. Hoeniger), Washington, 1985, 168-97.
70. Samuel Edgerton and Michael Lynch, 'Aesthetics and digital image processing: representational craft in contemporary astronomy', in Picturing Power: Visual Depiction and Social Relations (ed. Gordon Fyfe and John Law), Sociological Review Monograph 35, London, 1988, 184-219, on 212.
71. Alfred Brothers, Photography: Its History, Processes, Apparatus, and Materials, 2nd edn, London, 1899, 295.
72. Campbell to Barnes-Crosby, 6 February 1921, MLS, File 'Barnes-Crosby, 1910-1933'; Campbell to C. E. Wright, 7 March 1906, MLS, File 'Wright & Co./Royal Engraving'.
73. Holden to Edwards, 7 December 1896, MLS, File 'Photogravure & Color Co.'.
74. James Keeler, 'Reviews', Astrophysical Journal (1897), 5, 150-1.
75. Aitken to Barnes-Crosby, 20 July 1911, MLS, File 'Barnes-Crosby, 1910-1933'; Aitken to Oakland National Engraving Company, 28 November 1928, MLS, File 'Oakland National Engraving Co., 1927-1933, Campbell to Oakland National Engraving Company, 22 March 1928, MLS, File 'Oakland National Engraving Co.'; Campbell to Barnes-Crosby, 6 February 1921, MLS, File 'Barnes-Crosby, 1910-1933'; Holden to Edwards, 23 October 1896 and 14 November 1896, MLS, File 'Photogravure & Color Co.'. See also Wright to San Francisco Photo-Engraving Company, 15 July 1915, and Campbell to San Francisco Photo-Engraving Company, 2 June 1917, MLS, File 'San Francisco Photo-Engraving Co.'; and Heber D. Curtis to Sunset Publishing House, 29 January 1917, MLS, File 'Sunset Publishing House, 1915-1932'.
76. Campbell to Barnes-Crosby, 12 April 1910 and 25 November 1913; and Wright to Barnes-Crosby, 12 March 1927, MLS, File 'Barnes-Crosby, 1910-1933'. On commercial versus scientific standards, see Wells to Campbell, 11 February 1909, 8 May 1909, 6 October 1909 and 18 October 1909, MLS, File 'Binner-Wells Co.'. For Campbell on overetching, see Campbell to Arvidson, 7 February 1905, 28 February 1905, 5 December 1906, 15 February 1907 and 10 May 1907, MLS, File 'Photogravure & Color Co.'.
77. Campbell to Binner-Wells, 9 January 1915; Campbell to Chicago Photogravure Company, 9 January 1915; Campbell to Charles Elliott Co., 9 January 1915 and to Chicago Photogravure Company, 13 February 1915, MLS, File 'Chicago Photogravure Co.'; Aitken to Oakland National Engraving Company, 17 August 1931 and 10 November 1932, MLS, File 'Oakland National Engraving Co., 1927-1933'. See also Pang, op. cit. (6).
78. Campbell to Barnes-Crosby, 30 January 1912, 12 March 1912 and 7 June 1915, MLS, File 'Barnes-Crosby, 1910-1933'.
79. Campbell to Barnes-Crosby, 15 August 1911, 28 August 1911 and 25 June 1914, MLS, File 'Barnes-Crosby, 1910-1933'; Brothers, op. cit. (43), 195. See also Wright to Barnes-Crosby, 11 February 1918, MLS, File 'Barnes-Crosby, 1910-1933'; Aitken to Oakland National Engraving Company, 30 December 1929 and 23 April 1932, MLS, File 'Oakland National Engraving Co., 1927-1933'.
80. Quotes from Barnes-Crosby to Aitken, 5 September 1911 and 23 July 1915, MLS, File 'Barnes-Crosby, 1910-1933'. See also Aitken to Barnes-Crosby, 28 August 1911; and Barnes-Crosby to Campbell, 1 July 1915 and 23 February 1918, MLS, File 'Barnes-Crosby, 1910-1933'. On Barnes-Crosby, see Anon., 'Mr. Gamble Visits a Chicago Photoengraving Company', Inland Printer (September 1906), 876.
81. Campbell to Arvidson, 24 May 1904, MLS, File 'Photogravure & Color Co.'; Campbell to San Francisco Photo-Engraving Company, 22 February 1918 and 10 July 1918, MLS, File 'San Francisco Photo-Engraving Co.'; Campbell to Sunset Publishing House, 9 December 1916, MLS, File 'Sunset Publishing House, 1915-1932'; and Campbell to Wells, 3 February 1909, MLS, File 'Binner-Wells Co.'.
82. Campbell to Arvidson, 9 April 1904, 2 May 1904 and 7 March 1906, MLS, File 'Photogravure & Color Co.' 55 Wells to Campbell, 8 March 1909, MLS, File 'Binner-Wells Co.'.
83. William Wright to Barnes-Crosby, 11 February 1918, MLS, File 'Barnes-Crosby, 1910-1933'; Campbell to C. E. Wright, 7 March 1906, MLS, File 'Wright & Co./Royal Engraving'; Campbell to Wells, 3 February 1909, MLS, File 'Binner-Wells Co.'. See also Campbell to Arvidson, 7 March 1906, MLS, File 'Photogravure & Color Co.'.
84. Campbell to C. E. Wright, 7 March 1906, MLS, File 'Wright & Co./Royal Engraving'; Barnard to Campbell, 15 May 1911, MLS, File 'E. E. Barnard, 1905-1911'.
85. James Keeler, 'The Ring nebula in Lyra', Astropbysical Journal (1899), 10, 193-201; 'The Annular nebular H IV-13 in Cygnus', ibid., (1899), 10, 266-8; 'The Spiral nebula H I-55 Pegasi', ibid., (1900), 11, 1-5; and 'Photograph of the Trifid nebula in Sagittarius', Proceedings of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific (1900), 12, 89-90.
86. James Keeler, 'The Ring nebula in Lyra', Astropbysical Journal (1899), 10, 193-201; 'The Annular nebular H IV-13 in Cygnus', ibid., (1899), 10, 266-8; 'The Spiral nebula H I-55 Pegasi', ibid., (1900), 11, 1-5; and 'Photograph of the Trifid nebula in Sagittarius', Proceedings of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific (1900), 12, 89-90.
87. James Keeler, 'The Ring nebula in Lyra', Astropbysical Journal (1899), 10, 193-201; 'The Annular nebular H IV-13 in Cygnus', ibid., (1899), 10, 266-8; 'The Spiral nebula H I-55 Pegasi', ibid., (1900), 11, 1-5; and 'Photograph of the Trifid nebula in Sagittarius', Proceedings of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific (1900), 12, 89-90.
88. James Keeler, 'The Ring nebula in Lyra', Astropbysical Journal (1899), 10, 193-201; 'The Annular nebular H IV-13 in Cygnus', ibid., (1899), 10, 266-8; 'The Spiral nebula H I-55 Pegasi', ibid., (1900), 11, 1-5; and 'Photograph of the Trifid nebula in Sagittarius', Proceedings of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific (1900), 12, 89-90.
89. Campbell to Sunset Publishing House, 9 December 1916, MLS, File 'Sunset Publishing House, 1915-1932'; Campbell to Barnes-Crosby, 7 June 1915, MLS, File 'Barnes-Crosby, 1910-1933'.
90. Campbell to Arvidson, 12 July 1904, MLS, File 'Photogravure & Color Co.'. See also Aitken to Barnes-Crosby, 23 February 1927, MLS, File 'Barnes-Crosby, 1910-1933'; Aitken to Oakland National Engraving Company, 23 April 1932, MLS, File 'Oakland National Engraving Co., 1927-1933'.
91. Arvidson to Campbell, 18 July 1904, MLS, File 'Photogravure & Color Co.'. Unfortunately, Campbell's reply - if he did reply - is lost.
92. Campbell to Barnes-Crosby, 16 January 1916 and 21 February 1916, MLS, File 'Barnes-Crosby, 1910-1933'. See also Campbell to Sunset Publishing House, 23 November 1916, MLS, File 'Sunset Publishing House, 1915-1932'; William H. Wright to Campbell, 16 March 1918, File 'Wright, W. H. 1918-1919'; Edward Pickering to James McKeen Cattell, 17 May 1915, MLS, File 'Cattell, J. M. 1905-1936'; Aitken to Oakland National Engraving Company, 20 December 1929, MLS, File 'Oakland National Engraving Co., 1927-1933'.
93. Perrine, handwritten MS, 9 November 1908, MLS, File 'C. D. Perrine, 1905-1912'. Engravers' use of this particular effect had been criticized by astronomers for decades: see Charles Piazzi Smyth's condemnation of such special effects in Smyth, op. cit. (4).
94. Campbell to Arvidson, 29 August 1908, MLS, File 'Photogravure & Color Co.'.
95. Barnard to Campbell, 26 January 1909, MLS, File 'E. E. Barnard, 1905-1912'. The erratum slip is discussed in Campbell to Arvidson, 29 January 1909, MLS, File 'Photogravure & Color Co.'.
96. Barnes-Crosby to Campbell, 24 October 1917, MLS, File 'Barnes-Crosby, 1910-1933'; Edwards to Holden, 19 June 1896, MLS, File 'Photogravure & Color Co.'; Campbell to Barnard, 3 February 1909, MLS, File 'E. E. Barnard, 1905-1912'; Barnard to Campbell, 26 January 1909, MLS, File 'E. E. Barnard, 1905-1912'.
97. Exceptions to this generalization are Ann Shelby Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth-Century Zoological Illustration Princeton, 1993; Michael Aaron Dennis, 'Graphic understanding: instruments and interpretation in Robert Hooke's Micrographia', Science in Context (1989), 3, 306-64; and Bernard Smith, Imagining the Pacific: In the Wake of Cook, New Haven, CT, 1992, especially ch. 3.
98. Exceptions to this generalization are Ann Shelby Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth-Century Zoological Illustration Princeton, 1993; Michael Aaron Dennis, 'Graphic understanding: instruments and interpretation in Robert Hooke's Micrographia', Science in Context (1989), 3, 306-64; and Bernard Smith, Imagining the Pacific: In the Wake of Cook, New Haven, CT, 1992, especially ch. 3.
99. Exceptions to this generalization are Ann Shelby Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth-Century Zoological Illustration Princeton, 1993; Michael Aaron Dennis, 'Graphic understanding: instruments and interpretation in Robert Hooke's Micrographia', Science in Context (1989), 3, 306-64; and Bernard Smith, Imagining the Pacific: In the Wake of Cook, New Haven, CT, 1992, especially ch. 3.
100. Philip Gilbert Hamerton, The Graphic Arts: A Treatise on Varieties of Drawing, Painting, and Engraving in Comparison with Each Other and with Nature, Boston, MA, 1882, 1-2.
101. Hamerton, op. cit. (68), 1-2.
102. This new turn can be seen, for example, in Robert Kohler, Lords of the Fly: Drosophila and the Experimental Life, Chicago, 1994; Jed Buchwald (ed.), Scientific Practice: Theories and Stories of Doing Physics, Chicago, 1995; Margaret Jacob, 'Science and politics in the late twentieth century', in The Politics of Western Science, 1640-1990 (ed. M. Jacob), Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1995, 1-17; Sergio Sismondo, Science without Myth: On Constructions, Reality, and Social Knowledge, Albany, NY, 1996; and Paul Rabinow, Making PCR: A Story of Biotechnology, Chicago, 1996.
103. This new turn can be seen, for example, in Robert Kohler, Lords of the Fly: Drosophila and the Experimental Life, Chicago, 1994; Jed Buchwald (ed.), Scientific Practice: Theories and Stories of Doing Physics, Chicago, 1995; Margaret Jacob, 'Science and politics in the late twentieth century', in The Politics of Western Science, 1640-1990 (ed. M. Jacob), Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1995, 1-17; Sergio Sismondo, Science without Myth: On Constructions, Reality, and Social Knowledge, Albany, NY, 1996; and Paul Rabinow, Making PCR: A Story of Biotechnology, Chicago, 1996.
104. This new turn can be seen, for example, in Robert Kohler, Lords of the Fly: Drosophila and the Experimental Life, Chicago, 1994; Jed Buchwald (ed.), Scientific Practice: Theories and Stories of Doing Physics, Chicago, 1995; Margaret Jacob, 'Science and politics in the late twentieth century', in The Politics of Western Science, 1640-1990 (ed. M. Jacob), Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1995, 1-17; Sergio Sismondo, Science without Myth: On Constructions, Reality, and Social Knowledge, Albany, NY, 1996; and Paul Rabinow, Making PCR: A Story of Biotechnology, Chicago, 1996.
105. This new turn can be seen, for example, in Robert Kohler, Lords of the Fly: Drosophila and the Experimental Life, Chicago, 1994; Jed Buchwald (ed.), Scientific Practice: Theories and Stories of Doing Physics, Chicago, 1995; Margaret Jacob, 'Science and politics in the late twentieth century', in The Politics of Western Science, 1640-1990 (ed. M. Jacob), Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1995, 1-17; Sergio Sismondo, Science without Myth: On Constructions, Reality, and Social Knowledge, Albany, NY, 1996; and Paul Rabinow, Making PCR: A Story of Biotechnology, Chicago, 1996.
106. This new turn can be seen, for example, in Robert Kohler, Lords of the Fly: Drosophila and the Experimental Life, Chicago, 1994; Jed Buchwald (ed.), Scientific Practice: Theories and Stories of Doing Physics, Chicago, 1995; Margaret Jacob, 'Science and politics in the late twentieth century', in The Politics of Western Science, 1640-1990 (ed. M. Jacob), Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1995, 1-17; Sergio Sismondo, Science without Myth: On Constructions, Reality, and Social Knowledge, Albany, NY, 1996; and Paul Rabinow, Making PCR: A Story of Biotechnology, Chicago, 1996.