Management of Severe Sepsis: Integration of Multiple Pharmacologic Interventions

Pharmacotherapy

Volumn 23, Issue 11, 2003, Pages 1486-1496

  Micek, Scott T ^a   Shah, Rina A ^a   Kollef, Marin H ^b  

^a BARNES JEWISH HOSPITAL   (United States)

^b WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACTIVATED PROTEIN C; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; CORTICOSTEROID; CORTICOTROPIN; DROTRECOGIN; GLUCOCORTICOID; HYDROCORTISONE; MINERALOCORTICOID; PLACEBO; PREDNISONE; TETRACOSACTIDE;

ADRENAL INSUFFICIENCY; ANIMAL; ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY; BLEEDING; BLOOD; BRAIN HEMORRHAGE; CHRONIC KIDNEY FAILURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; DIABETES CONTROL; DISEASE MANAGEMENT; DISEASE SEVERITY; DRUG COMBINATION; DRUG EFFECT; ENTEROCOCCUS; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; HUMAN; INFECTION; METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; MICROBIOLOGY; NEUTROPENIA; PANCREATITIS; PATIENT CARE; PHYSIOLOGY; PSEUDOMONAS AERUGINOSA; RESUSCITATION; REVIEW; SEPSIS; SEPTIC SHOCK; SIDE EFFECT; STROKE;

ANIMALS; ANTI-INFECTIVE AGENTS; BLOOD GLUCOSE; DISEASE MANAGEMENT; DRUG THERAPY, COMBINATION; GLUCOCORTICOIDS; HUMANS; SYSTEMIC INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE SYNDROME;

EID: 0142213714     PISSN: 02770008     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1592/phco.23.14.1486.31945     Document Type: Review

References (87)

1. Angus DC, Linde-Zwirble WT, Lidicker J, et al. Epidemiology of severe sepsis in the United States: analysis of incidence, outcome, and associated costs of care. Crit Care Med 2001;29:1303-10.
2. Martin GS, Mannino DM, Eaton S, et al. The epidemiology of sepsis in the United States from 1979 through 2000. N Engl J Med 2003;348:1546-54.
3. Angus DC, Wax RS. Epidemiology of sepsis: an update. Crit Care Med 2001;29(suppl):S109-16.
4. Wheeler AP, Bernard GR. Treating patients with severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 1999;340:207-14.
5. Hotchkiss RS, Karl IE. The pathophysiology and treatment of sepsis. N Engl J Med 2003;348:138-50.
6. Vervloet MG, Thijs LG, Hack CE. Derangements of coagulation and fibrinolysis in critically ill patients with sepsis and septic shock. Semin Thromb Haemost 1998724:33-44.
7. Bone RC, Balk RA, Cerra FB, et al. American College of Chest Physicians-Society of Critical Care Medicine consensus conference: definitions for sepsis and organ failure and guidelines for use of innovative therapies in sepsis. Chest 1992;101:1644-55.
8. Bernard GR, Vincent J-L, Laterre PF, et al. Efficacy and safety of recombinant human activated protein C for severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 2001;344:699-709.
9. Annane D, Sebille V, Charpentier C, et al. Effect of treatment with low doses of hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone on mortality in patients with septic shock. JAMA 2002;288:862-71.
10. Warren BL, Eid A, Singer P, et al. High-dose antithrombin III in severe sepsis: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2001;286:1869-78.
11. O'Grady NP, Barie PS, Bartlett JG, et al. Practice guidelines for evaluating new fever in critically ill adult patients. Clin Infect Dis 1998;26:1042-59.
12. Llewelyn M, Cohen J. Diagnosis of infection in sepsis. Int Care Med 2001;27(suppl):S10-32.
13. Choi PTL, Yip G, Quinonez LG, et al. Crystalloids vs. colloids in fluid resuscitation: a systematic review. Crit Care Med 1999;27:200-10.
14. Schierhout G, Roberts I. Fluid resuscitation with colloid or crystalloid solutions in critically ill patients: a systematic review of randomised trials. BMJ 1998;316:961-4.
15. Rackow EC, Falk JL, Fein IA, et al. Fluid resuscitation circulatory shock: a comparison of the cardiorespiratory effects of albumin, hetastarch, and saline solutions in patients with hypovolemic and septic shock. Crit Care Med 1983;11:839-50.
16. Task Force of the American College of Critical Care Medicine-Society of Critical Care Medicine. Practice parameters for hemodynamic support in adult patients with sepsis. Crit Care Med 1999;27:639-60.
17. Rivers E, Nguyen B, Havstad S, et al. Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med 2001;345:1368-77.
18. Michaud I, Pietropaoli AP, Trawick DR, et al. Early fluid resuscitation and outcome in severe sepsis and septic shock. Available from http://www.abstracts2view.com/ats/view.php? nu=ATS3L_3825. Accessed May 12, 2003.
19. Meadows D, Edwards JD, Wilkins RG, et al. Reversal of intractable septic shock with norepinephrine therapy. Crit Care Med 1988;16:663-6.
20. Martin C, Papazian L, Perrin G, et al. Norepinephrine or dopamine for the treatment of hyperdynamic septic shock? Chest 1993;103:1826-31.
21. Martin C, Viviand X, Leone M, et al. Effect of norepinephrine on the outcome of septic shock. Crit Care Med 2000;28:2758-65.
22. Desjars P, Pinaud M, Bugnon D, et al. Norepinephrine therapy has no deleterious renal effects in human septic shock. Crit Care Med 1989;17:426-9.
23. Rendl-Wenzl EM, Armbruster C, Edelmann G, et al. The effects of norepinephrine on hemodynamics and renal function in severe septic shock states. Int Care Med 1993;19:151-4.
24. Landry DW, Oliver JA. The pathogenesis of vasodilatory shock. N Engl J Med 2001;345:588-95.
25. Sharshar T, Carlier R, Blanchard A, et al. Depletion of neurohypophyseal content of vasopressin in septic shock. Crit Care Med 2002;30:497-500.
26. Landry DW, Levin HR, Gallant EM, et al. Vasopressin deficiency contributes to the vasodilation of septic shock. Circulation 1997;95:1122-5.
27. Holmes CL, Walley KR, Chittock DR, et al. The effects of vasopressin in hemodynamics and renal function in severe septic shock: a case series. Intensive Care Med 2001;27:1416-21.
28. Patel BM, Chittock DR, Russell JA, et al. Beneficial effects of short-term vasopressin infusion during severe septic shock. Anesthesiology 2002;96:576-82.
29. Tsuneyoshi I, Yamada K, Nakamura M, et al. Hemodynamic and metabolic effects of low-dose vasopressin infusions in vasodilatory septic shock. Crit Care Med 2001;29:487-93.
30. Mariscalo MM. More than skin deep? Complications associated with vasopressin infusion: a cautionary tale. Crit Care Med 2003;31:1587-8.
31. Dunser MW, Mayr AJ, Tur A, et al. Ischemic skin lesions as a complication of continuous vasopressin infusion in catecholamine-resistant vasodilatory shock: incidence and risk factors. Crit Care Med 2003;31:1394-8.
32. Kahn JM, Kress JP, Hall JB. Skin necrosis after extravasation of low-dose vasopressin administered for septic shock. Crit Care Med 2002;30:1899-901.
33. De Backer D, Vincent J-L. Norepinephrine administration in septic shock: how much is enough? Crit Care Med 2002;30:1398-9.
34. Hayes MA, Timmins AC, Yau E, et al. Elevation of systemic oxygen delivery in the treatment of critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 1994;330:1717-22.
35. Gattinoni L, Brazzi L, Pelosi P, et al. A trial of goal-oriented hemodynamic therapy in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 1995;333:1025-32.
36. Marik PE. Pulmonary artery catheterization and esophageal Doppler monitoring in the ICU. Chest 1999;116:1085-91.
37. Iregui MG, Prentice D, Sherman G, et al. Physicians' estimates of cardiac index and intravascular volume based on clinical assessment versus transesophageal Doppler measurements obtained by critical care nurses. Am J Crit Care 2003;12:336-42.
38. Garnacho-Montero J, Garcia-Garmendia JL, Barrero-Almodovar AE, et al. Impact on the outcome of adequate empirical antibiotherapy in patients admitted to the ICU for sepsis. Crit Care Med, in press.
39. Ibrahim EH, Sherman G, Ward S, et al. The influence of inadequate antimicrobial treatment of bloodstream infection on patient outcomes in the ICU setting. Chest 2000;118:146-55.
40. Leibovici L, Shraga I, Drucker M, et al. The benefit of appropriate empirical antibiotic treatment in patients with bloodstream infection. J Intern Med 1998;244:379-86.
41. Kollef MH, Ward S. The influence of mini-BAL cultures on patient outcomes: implications for the antibiotic management of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest 1998;113:412-20.
42. Alvarez-Lerma F. Modification of empiric antibiotic treatment in patients with pneumonia acquired in the intensive care unit. ICU-acquired pneumonia study group. Intensive Care Med 1996;22:387-94.
43. Rello J, Ausina V, Ricart M, et al. Impact of previous antimicrobial therapy on the etiology and outcome of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest 1993;104:1230-5.
44. Abraham E, Laterre P-F, Garbino J, et al. Lenercept (p55 tumor necrosis factor receptor fusion protein) in severe sepsis and early septic shock: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter phase III trial with 1,342 patients. Crit Care Med 2001;29:503-10.
45. Trouillet JL, Chastre J, Vuagnat A, et al. Ventilator-associated pneumonia caused by potentially drug-resistant bacteria. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;157:531-9.
46. Richards MJ, Edwards JR, Culver DH, et al. Nosocomial infections in medical intensive care units in the United States. Crit Care Med 1999;27:887-92.
47. Dennesen PJW, van der Ven AJAM, Kessels AGH, et al. Resolution of infectious parameters after antimicrobial therapy in patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;163:1371-5.
48. American Thoracic Society. Guidelines for the management of adults with community-acquired pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;163:1730-54.
49. Rezende NA, Blumberg HM, Metzger BS, et al. Risk factors for methicillin resistance among patients with Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia at the time of hospital admission. Am J Med Sci 2002;323:117-23.
50. Pai MP, Rodvold KA, Schreckenberger PC, et al. Risk factors associated with the development of infection with linezolid-and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium. Clin Infect Dis 2002;35:1269-72.
51. Peset, V, Tallon P, Sola C, et al. Epidemiological, microbiological, clinical, and prognostic factors of bacteremia caused by high-level vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus species. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2000;19:742-9.
52. Fraser VJ, Jones M, Dunkel J, et al. Candidemia in a tertiary care hospital: epidemiology, risk factors, and predictors of mortality. Clin Infect Dis 1992;15:414-21.
53. Blumberg HM, Jarvis WR, Soucie JM, et al. Risk factors for candidal bloodstream infections in surgical intensive care unit patients: the NEMIS prospective multicenter study. Clin Infect Dis 2001;33:177-86.
54. Hoffken G, Niederman MS. Nosocomial pneumonia: the importance of a de-escalating strategy for antibiotic treatment of pneumonia in the ICU. Chest 2002;122:2183-96.
55. Singh N, Rogers P, Atwood CW, et al. Short-course empiric antibiotic therapy for patients with pulmonary infiltrates in the intensive care unit. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000;162:505-11.
56. Ibrahim EH, Ward S, Sherman G, et al. Experience with a clinical guideline for the treatment of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care Med 2001;29:1109-15.
57. Chastre J, Wolff M, Fagon JY, et al. Comparison of two durations of antibiotic therapy to treat ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP). Available from http://www.abstracts2view. com/ats/viewphp?nu=ATS3L_1695. Accessed May 12, 2003.
58. Bernard GR, Margolis B, Shanies H, et al. Efficacy and safety of drotrecogin alfa (activated) in the treatment of adult patients with severe sepsis: report from a single-arm open-label trial in the United States. Chest 2002;122(suppl):50S-1.
59. Laterre P-F, Levy H, Ball D, et al. The effects of drotrecogin alfa (activated) on hospital mortality, length of stay, and discharge location [abstr]. Chest 2002;122(suppl):51S.
60. Angus DC, Laterre P-F, Helterbrand J, et al. The effects of drotrecogin alfa (activated) on long-term survival after severe sepsis [abstr]. Chest 2002;122(suppl):51S.
61. Eli Lilly, Inc. Xigris (drotrecogin alfa [activated]) prescribing information, Indianapolis, IN; 2001.
62. Warren HS, Suffredini AF, Eichacker PQ, et al. Risks and benefits of activated protein C treatment for severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 2002;347:1027-30.
63. Ely EW, Laterre P-F, Angus DC, et al. Drotrecogin alfa (activated) administration across clinically important subgroups of patients with severe sepsis. Crit Care Med 2003;31:12-19.
64. Dhainaut J-F, Laterre P-F, Janes JM, et al. Drotrecogin alfa (activated) in the treatment of severe sepsis patients with multiple-organ dysfunction: data from the PROWESS trial. Int Care Med 2003;29:894-903.
65. Bernard GR, Macias WL, Vincent J-L. Drotrecogin alfa (activated) cumulative safety update [abstr]. Chest 2002;122(suppl):50S.
66. Ely EW, Bernard GR, Vincent J-L. Activated protein C for severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 2002;347:1035-6.
67. Marik PE, Zaloga GP. Adrenal insufficiency in the critically ill; a new look at an old problem. Chest 2002;122:1784-96.
68. Annane D, Sebille V, Troche G, et al. A 3-level prognostic classification in septic shock based on cortisol levels and cortisol response to corticotropin. JAMA 2000;283:1038-45.
69. Lefering R, Neugebauer EA. Steroid controversy in sepsis and septic shock: a meta-analysis. Crit Care Med 1995;23:1294-303.
70. Cronin L, Cook DJ, Carlet J, et al. Corticosteroid treatment for sepsis: a critical appraisal and meta-analysis of the literature. Crit Care Med 1995;23:1430-9.
71. Shenker Y, Skatrud JB. Adrenal insufficiency in critically ill patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;163:1520-3.
72. Cooper MS, Stewart PM. Corticosteroid insufficiency in acutely ill patients. N Engl J Med 2003;348:727-34.
73. Schein RM, Sprung CL, Marcial E, et al. Plasma cortisol levels in patients with septic shock. Crit Care Med 1990;18:259-63.
74. Dickstein G, Shechner C, Nicholson WE, et al. Adrenocorticotropin stimulation test: effects of basal cortisol level, time of day, and suggested new sensitive low dose test. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1991;72:773-8.
75. Marik PE, Zaloga GP. Adrenal insufficiency during septic shock. Crit Care Med 2003;31:141-5.
76. MacLaren R, Jung R. Stress-dose corticosteroid therapy for sepsis and acute lung injury or acute respiratory distress syndrome in critically ill patients. Pharmacotherapy 2002;22:1140-56.
77. Montori VM, Bistrian BR, McMahon MM. Hyperglycemia in acutely ill patients. JAMA 2002;288(17):2167-9.
78. McMahon MM, Bistrian BR. Host defenses and susceptibility to infection in patients with diabetes mellitus. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1995;9(1):1-9.
79. McCowen KC, Malhotra A, Bistrian BR. Stress-induced hyperglycemia. Crit Care Clin 2001;17(91):107-23.
80. Capes SE, Hunt D, Malmberg K, et al. Stress hyperglycemia and increased risk of death after myocardial infarction in patients with and without diabetes: a systematic overview. Lancet 2000;355:773-8.
81. Furnary AP, Zerr KJ, Grunkemeier GL, et al. Continuous intravenous insulin infusion reduces the incidence of deep sternal wound infection in diabetic patients after cardiac surgical procedures. Ann Thorac Surg 1999;67:352-62.
82. Van den Berghe G, Wouters P, Weekers F, et al. Intensive insulin therapy in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 2001;345:1359-67.
83. Van den Berghe G, Wouters P, Bouillon R, et al. Outcome benefit of intensive insulin therapy in the critically ill: insulin dose versus glycemic control. Crit Care Med 2003;31:359-66.
84. Schiffl H, Lang SM, Fischer R. Daily hemodialysis and the outcome of acute renal failure. N Engl J Med 2002;346:305-10.
85. Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2000;342:1301-8.
86. Vincent J-L, Baron J-F, Reinhart K, et al. Anemia and blood transfusion in critically ill patients. JAMA 2002;288:1499-507.
87. Taylor RW, Manganaro L, O'Brien J, et al. Impact of allogenic packed red blood cell transfusion on nosocomial infection rates in the critically ill patient. Crit Care Med 2002;30:2249-54.