Fifty years' experience of reduced-tar cigarettes: What do we know about their health effects?

Inhalation Toxicology

Volumn 15, Issue 11, 2003, Pages 1059-1102

  Kabat, Geoffrey C ^a  

^a NONE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

NICOTINE; TAR;

ADULT; CANCER RISK; CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE LUNG DISEASE; CIGARETTE SMOKING; EVALUATION; FEMALE; FOLLOW UP; HUMAN; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; LUNG CANCER; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; MORTALITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0141989667     PISSN: 08958378     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/713857298     Document Type: Review

References (95)

1. Agudo, A., Barnadas, A., Pallareas, C., Martinez, I., Fabregat, X., Rosello, J., Estape, J., Planas, J., and Gonzalez, C. A. 1994. Lung cancer and cigarette smoking in women: A case-control study in Barcelona (Spain). Int. J. Cancer 59:165-169.
2. Alderson, M. R., Lee, P. N., and Wang, R. 1985. Risks of lung cancer, chronic bronchitis, ischaemic heart disease, and stroke in relation to type of cigarette smoked. J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health 39:286-293.
3. Armadans-Gil, L., Vaqué-Rafart, J., Rosselló, J., Olona, M., and Alsedà, M. 1999. Cigarette smoking and male lung cancer risk with special regard to type of tobacco. Int. J. Epidemiol. 28:614-619.
4. Auerbach, O., Hammond, E. C., and Garfinkel, L. 1979. Changes in bronchial epithelium in relation to cigarette smoking, 1955-1960 vs. 1970-1977. N. Engl. J. Med. 300:381-386.
5. Augustine, A., Harris, R. E., and Wynder, E. L. 1989. Compensation as a risk factor for lung cancer in smokers who switch from nonfilter to filter cigarettes. Am. J. Public Health 79:188-191.
6. Bailar, J. C. 1999. Passive smoking, coronary heart disease, and meta-analysis [editorial]. N. Engl. J. Med. 340:958-959.
7. Benhamou, S., Benhamou, E., Tirmarche, M., and Flamant, R. 1985. Lung cancer and use of cigarettes: A French case-control study. JNCI 74:1169-1175.
8. Benhamou, E., Benhamou, S., and Flamant, R. 1987. Lung cancer and women: Results from a French case-control study. Br. J. Cancer 55:91-95.
9. Benhamou, E., Benhamou, S., Auquier, A., and Flamant, R. 1989. Changes in patterns of cigarette smoking and lung cancer risk: Results of a case-control study. Br. J. Cancer 60:601-604.
10. Benhamou, S., Benhamou, E., Auquier, A., and Flamant, R. 1994. Differential effects of tar content, type of tobacco and use of a filter on lung cancer risk in male cigarette smokers. Int. J. Epidemiol. 23:437-443.
11. Benowitz, N. L. 2001. Compensatory smoking of low-yield cigarettes. In National Cancer Institute, Risks associated with smoking cigarettes with low machine-measured yields of tar and nicotine, chap. 3. Smoking and Tobacco Control Monograph No. 13. Bethesda, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute. NIH Pub. No. 02-5074.
12. Borland, C., Chamberlain, A., Higenbottam, T., Shipley, M., and Rose, G. 1983. Carbon monoxide yield of cigarettes and its relation to cardiorespiratory disease. Br. Med. J. 287:1583-1586.
13. Bross, I. D. J., and Gibson, R. 1968. Risks of lung cancer in smokers who switch to filter cigarettes. Am. J. Public Health 58:1396-1403.
14. Buffler, P. A., Contant, C. F., Pickle, L. W., Burau, K., Cooper, S. P., and Mason, T. J. 1986. Environmental associations with lung cancer in Texas coastal counties. In Lung cancer: Current status and prospects for the future, pp. 27-34. Austin: University of Texas Press.
15. Burns, D. M., Major, J. M., Shanks, T. G., Thun, M. J., and Samet, J. M. 2001. Smoking lower yield cigarettes and disease risks. In National Cancer Institute, Risks associated with smoking cigarettes with low machine-measured yields of tar and nicotine, chap. 4. Smoking and Tobacco Control Monograph No. 13. Bethesda, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute. NIH Pub. No. 02-5074.
16. Castelli, W. P., Garrison, R. J., Dawber, T. R., McNamara, P. M., Feinleib, M., and Kannel, W. B. 1981. The filter cigarette and coronary heart disease: The Framingham study. Lancet 2:109-113.
17. Choi, S.-Y., Lee, K. H., and Lee, T.-O. 1989. A case-control study on risk factors in lung cancer. Korean J. Epidemiol. 11:66-80.
18. Correa, P., Pickle, L. W., Fontham, E., Dalager, N., Lin, Y., Haenszel, W., and Johnson, W. D. 1984. The causes of lung cancer in Louisiana. In Lung cancer: Causes and prevention, eds. M. Mizell and P. Correa, pp. 73-82. New York: Verlag Chemie International.
19. Dean, G., Lee, P. N., Todd, G. F., and Wicken, A. J. 1977. Report on a second retrospective mortality study in northeast England-Part I. Factors related to mortality from lung cancer, bronchitis, heart disease and stroke in Cleveland County, with particular emphasis on the relative risks associated with smoking filter and plain cigarettes (Research Paper 14). London: Tobacco Research Council.
20. deStefani, E., Fiero, L., Correa, P., Fontham, E., Ronco, A., Larrinaga, M., Balbi, J., and Mendilaharsu, M. 1996. Mate drinking and risk of lung cancer in males: A case-control study from Uruguay. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 5:515-519.
21. Doll, R., and Hill, A. B. 1952. A study of the aetiology of carcinoma of the lung. Br. Med. J. 2:1271-1286.
22. Doll, R., and Peto, R. 1978. Cigarette smoking and bronchial carcinoma: Dose and time relationships among regular smokers and lifelong nonsmokers. J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health 32:303-313.
23. Engeland, A., Haldorsen, T., Andersen, A., and Tretli, S. 1996. The impact of smoking habits on lung cancer risk: 28 Years' observation of 26,000 Norwegian men and women. Cancer Causes Control 7:366-376.
24. Garfinkel, L. 1979. Changes in the cigarette consumption of smokers in relation to changes in tar/nicotine content of cigarettes smoked. Am. J. Public Health 69:1274-1276.
25. Garfinkel, L., and Stellman, S. D. 1988. Smoking and lung cancer in women: Findings in a prospective study. Cancer Res. 48:6951-6955.
26. Gillis, C. R., Hole, D. J., and Boyle, P. 1988. Cigarette smoking and male lung cancer in an area of very high incidence. J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health 42:38-43.
27. Giovino, G. A., Tomar, S. L., Reddy, M. N., Peddicord, J. P., Zhu, B.-P., Escobedo, L. G., and Eriksen, M. P. 1996. Attitudes, knowledge, and beliefs about low-yield cigarettes among adolescents and adults. In The FTC cigarette test method for determining tar, nicotine, and carbon monoxide yields of U.S. cigarettes, chap. 4. Smoking and Tobacco Control Monograph 7. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health.
28. Greenland, S. 1994. A critical look at some popular meta-analytic methods. Am. J. Epidemiol. 140:290-296.
29. Guyatt, A. R., Kirkham, J. T., Mariner D. C., Baldry A. G., and Cumming G. 1989. Long-term effects of switching to cigarettes with lower tar and nicotine yields. Psychopharmacology 99:80-86.
30. Hammond, E. C., Garfinkel, L., Seidman, H., and Lew, E. A. 1976. "Tar" and nicotine content of cigarette smoke in relation to death rates. Environ. Res. 12:263-274.
31. Hawthorne, V. M., and Fry, J. S. 1978. Smoking and health: the association between smoking behavior, total mortality, and cardiorespiratory disease in west central Scotland. J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health 32:260-266.
32. Higenbottam, T., Clark, T. J., Shipley, M. J., and Rose, G. 1980. Lung function and symptoms of cigarette smokers related to tar and number of cigarettes smoked. Lancet 1:409-411.
33. Higenbottam, T., Shipley, M. J., and Rose, G. 1982. Cigarettes, lung cancer, and coronary heart disease: the effects of inhalation and tar yield. J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health 36:113-117.
34. Hill, B. A. 1966. The environment and disease: association or causation? Proc. R. Soc. Med. 58:295.
35. Hoffann, D., and Hoffmann, I. 2001. The changing cigarette: Chemical studies and bioassays. In National Cancer Institute, Risks associated with smoking cigarettes with low machine-measured yields of tar and nicotine, chap. 5. Smoking and Tobacco Control Monograph No. 13. Bethesda, MD: Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute. NIH Pub. No. 02-5074.
36. Institute of Medicine. 2001. Clearing the smoke: Assessing the science base for tobacco harm reduction, eds. K. Stratton, P. Shetty, R. Wallace, and S. Bondurant. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
37. International Agency for Research on Cancer. 1986. Tobacco smoking. IARC Monogr. Carcinogen. Risk Chem. Hum. 38.
38. Ives, J. C. 1984. Environmental exposures and lung cancer risk among women in Harris County, Texas, 1977-1980 [thesis]. Houston: University of Texas, Health Science Center.
39. Jöckel, K.-H., Ahrens, W., Wichmann H.-E., Becher, H., Bolm-Audorff, U., Jahn, I., Molik, B., Greiser, E., and Timm, J. 1992. Occupational and environmental hazard associated with lung cancer. Int. J. Epidemiol. 21:202-213.
40. Kaufman, D. W., Helmrich, S. P., Rosenberg, L., Miettinen, O. S., and Shapiro, S. 1983. Nicotine and carbon monoxide content of cigarette smoke and the risk of myocardial infarction in young men. N. Engl. J. Med. 308:409-413.
41. Kaufman, D. W., Palmer, J. R., Rosenberg, L., Stolley, P., Warshauer, E., and Shapiro, S. 1989. Tar content of cigarettes in relation to lung cancer. Am. J. Epidemiol. 129:703-711.
42. Khuder, S. A., Dayal, H. H., Mutgi, A. B., Willey, J. C., and Dayal, G. 1998. Effect of cigarette smoking on major histological types of lung cancer in men. Lung Cancer 22:15-21.
43. Knoth, A., Bohn, H., and Schmidt, F. 1983. Filterzigaretten als Lungenkrebsursache. Med. Klin. 78:47-52.
44. Kozlowski, L. T., Goldberg, M. E., Yost, B. A., White, E. L., Sweeney, C. T., and Pillitteri, J. L. 1998. Smokers' misperceptions of light and ultra-light cigarettes may keep them smoking. Am. J. Prev. Med. 15:9-16.
45. Kuller, L. H., Ockene, J. K., Meilahn, E., Wentworth, D. N., Svendsen, K. H., and Neaton, J. D. 1991. Cigarette smoking and mortality. Prev. Med. 20:638-654.
46. Lange, P., Nyboe, J., Appleyard, M., Jensen, G., and Schnohr, P. 1992. Relationship of the type of tobacco and inhalation pattern to pulmonary and total mortality. Eur. Respir. J. 5:1111-1117.
47. Lee, P. N. 2001. Lung cancer and type of cigarette. Inhal. Toxicol. 13:951-976.
48. Lee, P. N., and Garfinkel, L. 1981. Mortality and type of cigarette smoked. J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health 35:16-22.
49. Lubin, J. H., Blot, W. J., Berrino, F., Flamant, R., Gillis, C. R., Kunze, M., Schmähl, D., and Visco, G. 1984. Patterns of lung cancer risk according to type of cigarette smoked. Int. J. Cancer 33:569-576.
50. Matos, E., Vilensky, M., Boffetta, P., and Kongevinas, M. 1998. Lung cancer and smoking: A case-control study in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Lung Cancer 21:155-163.
51. National Cancer Institute, ed. 2001. Risks associated with smoking cigarettes with low machine-measured yields of tar and nicotine. Smoking and Tobacco Control Monograph No. 13. Bethesda, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute. NIH Pub. No. 02-5074.
52. Negri, E., Franzosi, M. G., La Vecchia, C., Santoro, L., Nobili, A., and Tognoni, G. 1993. Tar yield of cigarettes and risk of acute myocardial infarction. Br. Med. J. 306:1567-1570.
53. Palmer, J. R., Rosenberg, L., and Shapiro, S. 1989. Low-yield cigarettes and the risk of nonfatal myocardial infarction in women. N. Engl. J. Med. 320:1569-1573.
54. Parish, S., Collins, R., Peto, R., Youngman, L., Barton, J., Jayne, K., Clarke, R., Appleby, P., Lyon, V., Cederholm-Winters, S., Marshall, J., and Sleight, P. 1995. Cigarette smoking, tar yields, and nonfatal myocardial infarction: 14000 Cases and 32000 controls in the United Kingdom. Br. Med. J. 311:471-477.
55. Pathak, D. R., Samet, J. M., Humble, C. G., and Skipper, B. J. 1986. Determinants of lung cancer risk in cigarette smokers in New Mexico. JNCI 76:597-604.
56. Peach, H., Shah, D., and Morris, R. W. 1986. Validity of smokers' information about present and past cigarette brands-implications for studies of the effects of falling tar yields of cigarettes on health. Thorax 41:203-207.
57. Pernu, J. 1960. An epidemiological study on cancer of the digestive organs and respiratory system: A study based on 7078 cases. Ann. Med. Intern. Fenn. 49(suppl. 3):1-117.
58. Petitti, D. B., and Friedman G. 1983. Evidence for compensation in smokers of low-yield cigarettes. Int. J. Epidemiol. 12:487-489.
59. Petitti, D. B., and Friedman, G. D. 1985. Cardiovascular and other diseases in smokers of low yield cigarettes. J. Chron. Dis. 38:581-588.
60. Peto, R., Lopez, A., Boreham, J., Thun, M., and Heath, C. 1992. Mortality from tobacco in developed countries: Indirect estimation from national vital statistics. Lancet 339:1268-1278.
61. Peto, R., Darby, S., Deo, H., Silcocks, P., Whitley, E., and Doll, R. 2000. Smoking, smoking cessation, and lung cancer in the UK since 1950: Combination of national statistics with two case-control studies. Br. Med. J. 321:323-329.
62. Pezzotto, S. M., Mahaud, R., Bay, M. L., Morini, J. C., and Poletto, L. 1993. Variation in smoking-related lung cancer risk factors by cell type among men in Argentina: A case-control study. Cancer Causes Control 4:231-237.
63. Reid, D. D. 1966. Studies of disease among migrants and native populations in Great Britain, Norway, and the United States. I. Background and design. National Cancer Institute Monograph No. 19, pp. 287-299. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health.
64. Rimington, J. 1981. The effect of filters on the incidence of lung cancer in cigarette smokers. Environ. Res. 24:162-166.
65. Russell, M. A. H. 1980. The case for medium-nicotine, low-tar, low-carbon monoxide cigarettes. In Banbury report 3-A safe cigarette?, eds. G. B. Gori and F. B. Bock, pp. 297-310. Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory.
66. Samet, J. M. 1996. The changing cigarette and disease risk: Current status of the evidence. In U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Smoking and Tobacco Control Monograph 7, chap. 6. The FTC cigarette test method for determining tar, nicotine, and carbon monoxide yields of U.S. cigarettes. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health.
67. Shapiro, S. 1994. Meta-analysis/shmeta-analysis. Am. J. Epidemiol. 140:771-778.
68. Schenker, M. B., Samet, J. M., and Speizer, F. E. 1982. Effect of cigarette tar content and smoking habits on respiratory symptoms in women. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 125:684-690.
69. Scherer, G. 1999. Smoking behaviour and compensation: A review of the literature. Psychopharmacology 145:1-20.
70. Shiffman, S., Pillitteri, J. L., Burton, S. L., Rohay, J. M., and Gitchell, J. G. 2001. Smokers' beliefs about "light" and "ultra light" cigarettes. Tobacco Control 10(suppl. I):i17-i23.
71. Sidney, S., Tekawa, I. S., and Friedman, G. D. 1993. A prospective study of cigarette tar yield and lung cancer. Cancer Causes Control 4:3-10.
72. Simonato, L., Agudo, A., Ahrens, W., Benhamou, E., Benhamou, S., Boffetta, P., Brennans, P., Darby, S. C., Forastière, F., Fortes, C., Gaborieau, V., Gerken, M., Gonzales, C. A., Jöckel, K.-H., Kreuzer, M., Merletti, F., Nyberg, F., Pershagen, G., Pohlabeln, H., Rösch, F., Whitley, E., Wichmann, H.-E., and Zambon, P. 2001. Lung cancer and cigarette smoking in Europe: An update of risk estimates and an assessment of inter-country heterogeneity. Int. J. Cancer 91:876-887.
73. Stellman, S. D., and Garfinkel, L. 1986. Smoking habits and tar levels in a new American Cancer Society prospective study of 1.2 million men and women. JNCI 76:1057-1063.
74. Stellman, S. D., Muscat, J. E., Thompson, S., Hoffmann, D., and Wynder, E. L. 1997. Risk of squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma of the lung in relation to lifetime filter cigarette smoking. Cancer 80:382-388.
75. Tang, J.-L., Morris, J. K., Wald, N. J., Hole, D., Shipley, M., and Tunstall-Pedoe, H. 1995. Mortality in relation to tar yield of cigarettes: A prospective study of four cohorts. Br. Med. J. 311:1530-1533.
76. Thun, M. J., and Burns, D. M. 2001. Health impact of "reduced yield" cigarettes: A critical assessment of the epidemiological evidence. Tobacco Control 10(suppl. I):i4-i11.
77. Thun, M. J., and Heath, C. W. 1997. Changes in mortality from smoking in two American Cancer Society prospective studies since 1959. Prev. Med. 26:422-426.
78. Thun, M. J., Lally, C. A., Flannery, J. T., Calle, E. E., Flanders, W. D., and Heath, C. W. 1997. Cigarette smoking and changes in the histopathology of lung cancer. JNCI 89:1580-1586.
79. Todd, G. F., Hunt, B. M., and Lambert, P. M. 1978. Four cardiorespiratory symptoms as predictors of mortality. J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health 32:267-274.
80. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 1981. The health consequences of smoking: The changing cigarette. A report of the Surgeon General. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service. DHHS Pub. No 81-50156.
81. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 1983. The health consequences of smoking: Cardiovascular disease. A report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. DHHS Pub. No 84-50204.
82. Vutuc, C., and Kunze, M. 1982. Lung cancer risk in women in relation to tar yields of cigarettes. Prev. Med. 11:713-716.
83. Vutuc, C., and Kunze, M. 1983. Tar yields of cigarettes and male lung cancer risk. JNCI 71:435-437.
84. Wald, N. J. 1976. Mortality from lung cancer and coronary heart disease in relation to changes in smoking habits. Lancet 1:136-138.
85. Wakai, K., Ohno, Y., Genka, K., Ohmine, K., Kawamura, T., Tamakoshi, A., Aoki, R., Kojima, M., Lin, Y., Aoki, K., and Fukuma, S. 1997. Smoking habits, local brand cigarettes and lung cancer risk in Okinawa, Japan. J. Epidemiol. 7:99-105.
86. Weinberg, G. B., Kuller, L. H., and Redmond, C. K. 1982. The relationship between the geographic distribution of lung cancer incidence and cigarette smoking in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania. Am. J. Epidemiol. 115:40-58.
87. Wicken, A. J. 1966. Environmental and personal factors in lung cancer and bronchitis mortality in Northern Ireland 1960-62. Research Paper 9. London: Tobacco Research Council.
88. Wilcox, H. B., Schoenberg, J. B., Mason, T. J., Bill, J. S., and Stemhagen, A. 1988. Smoking and lung cancer: Risk as a function of cigarette tar content. Prev. Med. 17:263-272.
89. Wynder, E. L., ed. 1987. Workshop on guidelines to the epidemiology of weak association. Prev. Med. 16:139-210.
90. Wynder, E. L., and Hoffmann, D., eds. 1968. Toward a less harmful cigarette. Bethesda, MD: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health. National Cancer Institute Monograph No. 28.
91. Wynder, E. L., and Kabat, G. C. 1988. The effect of low-yield cigarette smoking on lung cancer risk. Cancer 62:1223-1230.
92. Wynder, E. L., and Stellman, S. D. 1979. Impact of long-term filter cigarette usage on lung and larynx cancer risk: A case-control study. JNCI 62:471-477.
93. Wynder, E. L., Graham, E. A., and Croninger, A. B. 1953. Experimental production of carcinoma with cigarette tar. Cancer Res. 13:855-864.
94. Wynder, E. L., Mabuchi, K., and Beattie, E. J. 1970. The epidemiology of lung cancer: recent trends. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 213:2221-2228.
95. Zemla, B., Zielonka, I., and Kolosza, Z. 1988. Tobacco smoking and exposure to dust and gas pollution in the place of work and lung cancer risk. Neoplasma 35:135-143.