Of war and epidemics: Unnatural couplings, problematic conceptions

Social History of Medicine

Volumn 16, Issue 2, 2003, Pages 283-302

  Cooter, Roger ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Bacteriology; Epidemics; Epidemiology; Historical epidemiology; Metaphor; War and disease

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; EPIDEMIC; EPIDEMIOLOGY; HISTORY; WAR;

DISEASE OUTBREAKS; EPIDEMIOLOGY; HISTORIOGRAPHY; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; WAR;

EID: 0141429058     PISSN: 0951631X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/shm/16.2.283     Document Type: Review

References (163)

1. See www.who.int/disease-outbreak-news.
2. C. Gill, The Genesis of Epidemics (London, 1928), p. 468.
3. R. Herman, Fatal Partners, War and Disease (Garden City, 1941).
4. 'War' finds no place in the index of the extensive Cambridge World History of Human Diseases, ed. K. Kiple (Cambridge, 1993). Nor is the relationship discussed (or indexed) in, for example, M. Anderson (ed.), British Population History (Cambridge, 1996); A. Cliff et al., Deciphering Global Epidemics: Analytical Approaches to the Disease Records of World Cities, 1888-1912 (Cambridge, 1998); or S. Scott and C. Duncan, Human Demography and Disease (Cambridge, 1998). For criticism of the avoidance of war in recent historical demography, see J. Theibault, 'The Demography of the Thirty Years War Re-visited: G̈nther Franz and his Critics', German History, 15 (1997), 1-21.
5. 'War' finds no place in the index of the extensive Cambridge World History of Human Diseases, ed. K. Kiple (Cambridge, 1993). Nor is the relationship discussed (or indexed) in, for example, M. Anderson (ed.), British Population History (Cambridge, 1996); A. Cliff et al., Deciphering Global Epidemics: Analytical Approaches to the Disease Records of World Cities, 1888-1912 (Cambridge, 1998); or S. Scott and C. Duncan, Human Demography and Disease (Cambridge, 1998). For criticism of the avoidance of war in recent historical demography, see J. Theibault, 'The Demography of the Thirty Years War Re-visited: G̈nther Franz and his Critics', German History, 15 (1997), 1-21.
6. 'War' finds no place in the index of the extensive Cambridge World History of Human Diseases, ed. K. Kiple (Cambridge, 1993). Nor is the relationship discussed (or indexed) in, for example, M. Anderson (ed.), British Population History (Cambridge, 1996); A. Cliff et al., Deciphering Global Epidemics: Analytical Approaches to the Disease Records of World Cities, 1888-1912 (Cambridge, 1998); or S. Scott and C. Duncan, Human Demography and Disease (Cambridge, 1998). For criticism of the avoidance of war in recent historical demography, see J. Theibault, 'The Demography of the Thirty Years War Re-visited: G̈nther Franz and his Critics', German History, 15 (1997), 1-21.
7. 'War' finds no place in the index of the extensive Cambridge World History of Human Diseases, ed. K. Kiple (Cambridge, 1993). Nor is the relationship discussed (or indexed) in, for example, M. Anderson (ed.), British Population History (Cambridge, 1996); A. Cliff et al., Deciphering Global Epidemics: Analytical Approaches to the Disease Records of World Cities, 1888-1912 (Cambridge, 1998); or S. Scott and C. Duncan, Human Demography and Disease (Cambridge, 1998). For criticism of the avoidance of war in recent historical demography, see J. Theibault, 'The Demography of the Thirty Years War Re-visited: G̈nther Franz and his Critics', German History, 15 (1997), 1-21.
8. 'War' finds no place in the index of the extensive Cambridge World History of Human Diseases, ed. K. Kiple (Cambridge, 1993). Nor is the relationship discussed (or indexed) in, for example, M. Anderson (ed.), British Population History (Cambridge, 1996); A. Cliff et al., Deciphering Global Epidemics: Analytical Approaches to the Disease Records of World Cities, 1888-1912 (Cambridge, 1998); or S. Scott and C. Duncan, Human Demography and Disease (Cambridge, 1998). For criticism of the avoidance of war in recent historical demography, see J. Theibault, 'The Demography of the Thirty Years War Re-visited: G̈nther Franz and his Critics', German History, 15 (1997), 1-21.
9. See, for example, S. Watts, Epidemics and History (New Haven, 1997); P. Curtin, Disease and Empire (Cambridge, 1998); R. MacLeod and M. Lewis (eds), Disease, Medicine, and Empire (London, 1988); D. Arnold (ed.), Imperial Medicine and Indigenous Societies (Manchester, 1988); and J. Hays, The Burdens of Disease (New Brunswick, 1998).
10. See, for example, S. Watts, Epidemics and History (New Haven, 1997); P. Curtin, Disease and Empire (Cambridge, 1998); R. MacLeod and M. Lewis (eds), Disease, Medicine, and Empire (London, 1988); D. Arnold (ed.), Imperial Medicine and Indigenous Societies (Manchester, 1988); and J. Hays, The Burdens of Disease (New Brunswick, 1998).
11. See, for example, S. Watts, Epidemics and History (New Haven, 1997); P. Curtin, Disease and Empire (Cambridge, 1998); R. MacLeod and M. Lewis (eds), Disease, Medicine, and Empire (London, 1988); D. Arnold (ed.), Imperial Medicine and Indigenous Societies (Manchester, 1988); and J. Hays, The Burdens of Disease (New Brunswick, 1998).
12. See, for example, S. Watts, Epidemics and History (New Haven, 1997); P. Curtin, Disease and Empire (Cambridge, 1998); R. MacLeod and M. Lewis (eds), Disease, Medicine, and Empire (London, 1988); D. Arnold (ed.), Imperial Medicine and Indigenous Societies (Manchester, 1988); and J. Hays, The Burdens of Disease (New Brunswick, 1998).
13. See, for example, S. Watts, Epidemics and History (New Haven, 1997); P. Curtin, Disease and Empire (Cambridge, 1998); R. MacLeod and M. Lewis (eds), Disease, Medicine, and Empire (London, 1988); D. Arnold (ed.), Imperial Medicine and Indigenous Societies (Manchester, 1988); and J. Hays, The Burdens of Disease (New Brunswick, 1998).
14. R. Cooter, M. Harrison, and S. Sturdy (eds), War, Medicine and Modernity (Stroud, 1998); and R. Cooler, M. Harrison, and S. Sturdy (eds), Medicine and Modern Warfare (Amsterdam, 1999).
15. R. Cooter, M. Harrison, and S. Sturdy (eds), War, Medicine and Modernity (Stroud, 1998); and R. Cooler, M. Harrison, and S. Sturdy (eds), Medicine and Modern Warfare (Amsterdam, 1999).
16. For important aspecls of which, see M. Foucault, The Birth of the Clinic: An Archeology of Medical Perception (London, 1976), p. 25; idem, 'La naissance de la médecine sociale', Dits et écrits ([1977]; Paris, 1994), 207-28; W. Coleman, 'Inventing Demography: Montyon on Hygiene and the State', in E. Mendelsohn (ed.), Transformation and Tradition in the Sciences (Cambridge, 1984), 215-35; A. Aisenberg, Contagion: Disease, Government, and the 'Social Question' in Nineteenth-century France (Slanford, 1999); I. Hacking, The Taming of Chance (Cambridge, 1990); T. M. Porter, Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life (Princeton, 1995) ; and J. R. Matthews, Quantification and the Quest for Medical Certainty (Princeton, 1995).
17. For important aspecls of which, see M. Foucault, The Birth of the Clinic: An Archeology of Medical Perception (London, 1976), p. 25; idem, 'La naissance de la médecine sociale', Dits et écrits ([1977]; Paris, 1994), 207-28; W. Coleman, 'Inventing Demography: Montyon on Hygiene and the State', in E. Mendelsohn (ed.), Transformation and Tradition in the Sciences (Cambridge, 1984), 215-35; A. Aisenberg, Contagion: Disease, Government, and the 'Social Question' in Nineteenth-century France (Slanford, 1999); I. Hacking, The Taming of Chance (Cambridge, 1990); T. M. Porter, Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life (Princeton, 1995) ; and J. R. Matthews, Quantification and the Quest for Medical Certainty (Princeton, 1995).
18. For important aspecls of which, see M. Foucault, The Birth of the Clinic: An Archeology of Medical Perception (London, 1976), p. 25; idem, 'La naissance de la médecine sociale', Dits et écrits ([1977]; Paris, 1994), 207-28; W. Coleman, 'Inventing Demography: Montyon on Hygiene and the State', in E. Mendelsohn (ed.), Transformation and Tradition in the Sciences (Cambridge, 1984), 215-35; A. Aisenberg, Contagion: Disease, Government, and the 'Social Question' in Nineteenth-century France (Slanford, 1999); I. Hacking, The Taming of Chance (Cambridge, 1990); T. M. Porter, Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life (Princeton, 1995) ; and J. R. Matthews, Quantification and the Quest for Medical Certainty (Princeton, 1995).
19. For important aspecls of which, see M. Foucault, The Birth of the Clinic: An Archeology of Medical Perception (London, 1976), p. 25; idem, 'La naissance de la médecine sociale', Dits et écrits ([1977]; Paris, 1994), 207-28; W. Coleman, 'Inventing Demography: Montyon on Hygiene and the State', in E. Mendelsohn (ed.), Transformation and Tradition in the Sciences (Cambridge, 1984), 215-35; A. Aisenberg, Contagion: Disease, Government, and the 'Social Question' in Nineteenth-century France (Slanford, 1999); I. Hacking, The Taming of Chance (Cambridge, 1990); T. M. Porter, Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life (Princeton, 1995) ; and J. R. Matthews, Quantification and the Quest for Medical Certainty (Princeton, 1995).
20. For important aspecls of which, see M. Foucault, The Birth of the Clinic: An Archeology of Medical Perception (London, 1976), p. 25; idem, 'La naissance de la médecine sociale', Dits et écrits ([1977]; Paris, 1994), 207-28; W. Coleman, 'Inventing Demography: Montyon on Hygiene and the State', in E. Mendelsohn (ed.), Transformation and Tradition in the Sciences (Cambridge, 1984), 215-35; A. Aisenberg, Contagion: Disease, Government, and the 'Social Question' in Nineteenth-century France (Slanford, 1999); I. Hacking, The Taming of Chance (Cambridge, 1990); T. M. Porter, Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life (Princeton, 1995) ; and J. R. Matthews, Quantification and the Quest for Medical Certainty (Princeton, 1995).
21. For important aspecls of which, see M. Foucault, The Birth of the Clinic: An Archeology of Medical Perception (London, 1976), p. 25; idem, 'La naissance de la médecine sociale', Dits et écrits ([1977]; Paris, 1994), 207-28; W. Coleman, 'Inventing Demography: Montyon on Hygiene and the State', in E. Mendelsohn (ed.), Transformation and Tradition in the Sciences (Cambridge, 1984), 215-35; A. Aisenberg, Contagion: Disease, Government, and the 'Social Question' in Nineteenth-century France (Slanford, 1999); I. Hacking, The Taming of Chance (Cambridge, 1990); T. M. Porter, Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life (Princeton, 1995) ; and J. R. Matthews, Quantification and the Quest for Medical Certainty (Princeton, 1995).
22. For important aspecls of which, see M. Foucault, The Birth of the Clinic: An Archeology of Medical Perception (London, 1976), p. 25; idem, 'La naissance de la médecine sociale', Dits et écrits ([1977]; Paris, 1994), 207-28; W. Coleman, 'Inventing Demography: Montyon on Hygiene and the State', in E. Mendelsohn (ed.), Transformation and Tradition in the Sciences (Cambridge, 1984), 215-35; A. Aisenberg, Contagion: Disease, Government, and the 'Social Question' in Nineteenth-century France (Slanford, 1999); I. Hacking, The Taming of Chance (Cambridge, 1990); T. M. Porter, Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life (Princeton, 1995) ; and J. R. Matthews, Quantification and the Quest for Medical Certainty (Princeton, 1995).
23. As 'geographical and historical pathology', launched by the professor of medicine at the University of Berlin, August Hirsch (1817-94). His work, which extended from that of the Romantic, Justus Hecker and Hecker's disciple, Heinrich Haeser, was translated into English by Charles Creighton in the 1880s: Handbook of Geographical and Historical Pathology (3 vols., London, 1883-6). The original German edition was published in Erlanger between 1860 and 1864. For a contemporary tribute to Hirsch's impact on American medicine, see J. Billings, 'Address in Medicine', British Medical Journal, 14 August 1886, p. 306.
24. As 'geographical and historical pathology', launched by the professor of medicine at the University of Berlin, August Hirsch (1817-94). His work, which extended from that of the Romantic, Justus Hecker and Hecker's disciple, Heinrich Haeser, was translated into English by Charles Creighton in the 1880s: Handbook of Geographical and Historical Pathology (3 vols., London, 1883-6). The original German edition was published in Erlanger between 1860 and 1864. For a contemporary tribute to Hirsch's impact on American medicine, see J. Billings, 'Address in Medicine', British Medical Journal, 14 August 1886, p. 306.
25. H. Zinsser, Rats, Lice and History (Boston, 1935), p. 153.
26. For example, the English Civil War, on which see E. Wrigley and R. Schofield, The Population History of England 1541-1871 (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 31-2; and M. Dobson, Contours of Death and Disease in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 399-402. In contrast is the Civil War in Ireland: P. Cornish, 'The Cromwellian Regime, 1650-60', in T. Moody et al. (eds), A New History of Ireland, vol. 3, Early Modern Ireland 1534-1691 (Oxford, 1976), 353-86.
27. For example, the English Civil War, on which see E. Wrigley and R. Schofield, The Population History of England 1541-1871 (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 31-2; and M. Dobson, Contours of Death and Disease in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 399-402. In contrast is the Civil War in Ireland: P. Cornish, 'The Cromwellian Regime, 1650-60', in T. Moody et al. (eds), A New History of Ireland, vol. 3, Early Modern Ireland 1534-1691 (Oxford, 1976), 353-86.
28. For example, the English Civil War, on which see E. Wrigley and R. Schofield, The Population History of England 1541-1871 (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 31-2; and M. Dobson, Contours of Death and Disease in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 399-402. In contrast is the Civil War in Ireland: P. Cornish, 'The Cromwellian Regime, 1650-60', in T. Moody et al. (eds), A New History of Ireland, vol. 3, Early Modern Ireland 1534-1691 (Oxford, 1976), 353-86.
29. C. Creighton, A History of Epidemics in Great Britain (1891 and 1894; reprinted London, 1965), vol. II, pp. 163-7; and J. V. Pickstone, 'Dearth, Din and Fever Epidemic: Rewriting the History of British "Public Health", 1780-1850', in T. Ranger and P. Slack (eds), Epidemics and Ideas: Essays on the Historical Perception of Pestilence (Cambridge, 1992), 125-48, p. 141.
30. C. Creighton, A History of Epidemics in Great Britain (1891 and 1894; reprinted London, 1965), vol. II, pp. 163-7; and J. V. Pickstone, 'Dearth, Din and Fever Epidemic: Rewriting the History of British "Public Health", 1780-1850', in T. Ranger and P. Slack (eds), Epidemics and Ideas: Essays on the Historical Perception of Pestilence (Cambridge, 1992), 125-48, p. 141.
31. W. Guy, 'The Small Pox Epidemic as Affected by the States of War and Peace', Journal of the Statistical Society, 45 (1882), 576-87, p. 584.
32. E. L. Ladurie, 'A Concept: The Unification of the Globe by Disease (Fourteenth to Seventeenth Centuries)', in idem., The Mind and Method of the Historian, trs S. and B. Reynolds (Brighton, 1981), p. 50.
33. R. Evans, 'Epidemics and Revolutions: Cholera in Nineteenth-century Europe', in Ranger and Slack (eds), Epidemics and Ideas, 149-73, p. 161.
34. J. Post, The Last Great Subsistence Crisis in the Western World (Baltimore, 1977), and idem., Food Shortage, Climatic Variability, and Epidemic Disease in Preindustrial Europe (Ithaca, 1985).
35. J. Post, The Last Great Subsistence Crisis in the Western World (Baltimore, 1977), and idem., Food Shortage, Climatic Variability, and Epidemic Disease in Preindustrial Europe (Ithaca, 1985).
36. J. Landers, Death and the Metropolis: Studies in the Demographic History of London, 1670-1830 (Cambridge, 1993), p. 30.
37. Q. Outram, 'The Socio-Economic Relations of Warfare and the Military Mortality Crises of the Thirty Years' War', Medical History, 45 (2001), 151-84, p. 152.
38. F. Brooks, 'Revising the Conquest of Mexico: Smallpox, Sources, and Populations', Journal of Interdisplinary History, 24 (1993), 1-29.
39. R. Virchow, On Famine Fever and Some of the Other Cognate Forms of Typhus (London, 1868), p. 2.
40. See, for example, J. Brewer, The Sinews of Power: War, Money and the English State, 1688-1783 (New York, 1989); and L. Colley, Britons Forging the Nation, 1707-1837 (London, 1992).
41. See, for example, J. Brewer, The Sinews of Power: War, Money and the English State, 1688-1783 (New York, 1989); and L. Colley, Britons Forging the Nation, 1707-1837 (London, 1992).
42. R. Titmuss, 'War and Social Policy', in his Essays on the Welfare State, 2nd edn (London, 1963), p. 77.
43. C. Collier, The History of the Plague of Athens (London, 1857), p. xviii. See also, G. Blane, Elements of Medical Logick, 3rd edn (London, 1825), p. 276; W. Alton, Dissertations on Malaria, Contagion, and Cholera (London, 1832), pp. 188ff; and 'Epidemics', in C. Walford, The Insurance Cyclopedia, vol. II (London, 1873), p. 562.
44. C. Collier, The History of the Plague of Athens (London, 1857), p. xviii. See also, G. Blane, Elements of Medical Logick, 3rd edn (London, 1825), p. 276; W. Alton, Dissertations on Malaria, Contagion, and Cholera (London, 1832), pp. 188ff; and 'Epidemics', in C. Walford, The Insurance Cyclopedia, vol. II (London, 1873), p. 562.
45. C. Collier, The History of the Plague of Athens (London, 1857), p. xviii. See also, G. Blane, Elements of Medical Logick, 3rd edn (London, 1825), p. 276; W. Alton, Dissertations on Malaria, Contagion, and Cholera (London, 1832), pp. 188ff; and 'Epidemics', in C. Walford, The Insurance Cyclopedia, vol. II (London, 1873), p. 562.
46. C. Collier, The History of the Plague of Athens (London, 1857), p. xviii. See also, G. Blane, Elements of Medical Logick, 3rd edn (London, 1825), p. 276; W. Alton, Dissertations on Malaria, Contagion, and Cholera (London, 1832), pp. 188ff; and 'Epidemics', in C. Walford, The Insurance Cyclopedia, vol. II (London, 1873), p. 562.
47. See C. Galley, 'A Never-Ending Succession of Epidemics? Mortality in Early-Modern York', Social History of Medicine, 7 (1994), 29-57, p. 31.
48. Cited in R. Chandavarkar, 'Plague Panic and Epidemic Politics in India, 1896-1914', in Ranger and Slack (eds), Epidemics and Ideas, 203-40, p. 209.
49. Ibid., p. 205.
50. Landers, Death and the Metropolis, p. 22.
51. J. Longrigg, 'Epidemic, Ideas and Classical Athenian Society', in Ranger and Slack (eds), Epidemics and Ideas, 21-44.
52. Transactions of the British Association for 1834, cited in 'Epidemics' in Watford, Insurance Cyclopedia, vol. II, p. 555.
53. Transactions of the British Association for 1834, cited in 'Epidemics' in Watford, Insurance Cyclopedia, vol. II, p. 555.
54. Annals of Influenza or Epidemic Catarrhal Fever in Great Britain from 1510 to 1837, prepared, edited and compiled by T. Thompson (London, 1852).
55. B. G. Babington, 'Introductory Address to the Epidemiological Society', Lancet, 1850, 639-42, quoted in A. Evans, 'Benjamin Guy Babington: Founding President of the London Epidemiological Society', International Journal of Epidemiology, 30 (2001), 226-30.
56. B. G. Babington, 'Introductory Address to the Epidemiological Society', Lancet, 1850, 639-42, quoted in A. Evans, 'Benjamin Guy Babington: Founding President of the London Epidemiological Society', International Journal of Epidemiology, 30 (2001), 226-30.
57. As, for example, in F. Barker and J. Cheyne, An Account of the Rise, Progress, and Decline of the Fever Lately Epidemical in Ireland (Dublin, 1821), vol. I, pp. 14, 16. See also, L. Rather and J. Frerichs, 'On the Use of Military Metaphors in Western Medical Literature', Clio Medica, 7 (1972), 201-8.
58. As, for example, in F. Barker and J. Cheyne, An Account of the Rise, Progress, and Decline of the Fever Lately Epidemical in Ireland (Dublin, 1821), vol. I, pp. 14, 16. See also, L. Rather and J. Frerichs, 'On the Use of Military Metaphors in Western Medical Literature', Clio Medica, 7 (1972), 201-8.
59. See, for example, Thompson, Annals of Influenza, p. 42. On the British 'seed and soil' framework in discussion of epidemics and infection, see M. Worboys, Spreading Germs: Disease Theories and Medical Practice in Britain, 1865-1900 (Cambridge, 2000).
60. See, for example, Thompson, Annals of Influenza, p. 42. On the British 'seed and soil' framework in discussion of epidemics and infection, see M. Worboys, Spreading Germs: Disease Theories and Medical Practice in Britain, 1865-1900 (Cambridge, 2000).
61. See, for example, Blane, Elements of Medical Logick, p. 276; D. Monro, An Account of the Diseases Which Were Most Frequent in the British Military Hospitals in Germany (London, 1764); and J. Pringle, Observations on the Diseases of the Army (London, 1752).
62. See, for example, Blane, Elements of Medical Logick, p. 276; D. Monro, An Account of the Diseases Which Were Most Frequent in the British Military Hospitals in Germany (London, 1764); and J. Pringle, Observations on the Diseases of the Army (London, 1752).
63. See, for example, Blane, Elements of Medical Logick, p. 276; D. Monro, An Account of the Diseases Which Were Most Frequent in the British Military Hospitals in Germany (London, 1764); and J. Pringle, Observations on the Diseases of the Army (London, 1752).
64. T. R. Edmonds, 'On the Mortality and Sickness of Soldiers Engaged in War', Lancet, 28 April 1838, 143-8.
65. Walford, Insurance Cyclopedia, vol. II, pp. 470-4; and F. Boase, Modern English Biography (London, 1965), vol. I, column 961.
66. Walford, Insurance Cyclopedia, vol. II, pp. 470-4; and F. Boase, Modern English Biography (London, 1965), vol. I, column 961.
67. Edmonds, 'On the Mortality', p. 143.
68. Ibid., p. 145.
69. Report from the Poor Law Commissioners, on an Inquiry into the Sanitory Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain (London, 1842), ed. M. Flinn (Edinburgh, 1964), pp. 78-9. On Chadwick's politics, see C. Hamlin, Public Health and Social Justice in the Age of Chadwick (Cambridge, 1998).
70. Report from the Poor Law Commissioners, on an Inquiry into the Sanitory Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain (London, 1842), ed. M. Flinn (Edinburgh, 1964), pp. 78-9. On Chadwick's politics, see C. Hamlin, Public Health and Social Justice in the Age of Chadwick (Cambridge, 1998).
71. T. R. Edmonds, Practical, Moral and Political Economy (London, 1828), p. 152.
72. T. R. Edmonds, An Enquiry into the Principles of Population (London, 1832), pp. 72-4.
73. W. B. Hodge, 'Mortality Arising from Naval Operations', Journal of the Statistical Society of London, 18 (1855), 201-21, and idem., 'On the Mortality Arising from Military Operations, Journal of the Statistical Society of London, 19 (1856), 219-71.
74. W. B. Hodge, 'Mortality Arising from Naval Operations', Journal of the Statistical Society of London, 18 (1855), 201-21, and idem., 'On the Mortality Arising from Military Operations, Journal of the Statistical Society of London, 19 (1856), 219-71.
75. Hodge, 'Mortality from Military Operations', pp. 222, 247. On the Walcheren expedition, see K. Crowe, 'The Walcheren Expedition and the New Army Medical Board: A Reconsideration', English Historical Review, 88 (1973), 770-85.
76. Hodge, 'Mortality from Military Operations', pp. 222, 247. On the Walcheren expedition, see K. Crowe, 'The Walcheren Expedition and the New Army Medical Board: A Reconsideration', English Historical Review, 88 (1973), 770-85.
77. Hodge, 'Mortality from Naval Operations', p. 201.
78. D. Nicholls, 'Richard Cobden and the International Peace Congress, 1848-1853', Journal of British Studies, 30 (1991), 351-76; and D. Pick, War Machine: The Rationalization of Slaughter in the Modern Age (New Haven, 1993), pp. 19-27.
79. D. Nicholls, 'Richard Cobden and the International Peace Congress, 1848-1853', Journal of British Studies, 30 (1991), 351-76; and D. Pick, War Machine: The Rationalization of Slaughter in the Modern Age (New Haven, 1993), pp. 19-27.
80. Hodge, 'Mortality from Military Operations', p. 248.
81. See Medical and Surgical History of the British Army Which Served in Turkey and the Crimea During the War Against Russia in the years 1854-55-56, vol. II (London, 1858), pp. 207-11; J. Chenu, De la mortalité, dans l'armée et de moyens d'économser la vie humaine, extraits des statistiques médico-chirurgicales des campagnes de Crimée en 1854-1856, et d'Italie en 1859 et 1860 (Paris, 1870), p. 18.
82. See Medical and Surgical History of the British Army Which Served in Turkey and the Crimea During the War Against Russia in the years 1854-55-56, vol. II (London, 1858), pp. 207-11; J. Chenu, De la mortalité, dans l'armée et de moyens d'économser la vie humaine, extraits des statistiques médico-chirurgicales des campagnes de Crimée en 1854-1856, et d'Italie en 1859 et 1860 (Paris, 1870), p. 18.
83. L. C. Duncan, 'The Comparative Mortality of Disease and Battle Casualties in the Historical Wars of the World', Journal of the Military Service Institution of the United States, 54 (1914), 141-77, p. 142.
84. A. Clark, The Times, 22 February 1904, cited in C. Herrick, '"The Conquest of the Silent Foe": British and American Military Medical Reform Rhetoric and the Russo-Japanese War', in Cooter et al. (eds), Medicine and Modern Warfare, 99-130, p. 103.
85. A. Clark, The Times, 22 February 1904, cited in C. Herrick, '"The Conquest of the Silent Foe": British and American Military Medical Reform Rhetoric and the Russo-Japanese War', in Cooter et al. (eds), Medicine and Modern Warfare, 99-130, p. 103.
86. Cited in J. Woodward, 'Medicine, Law and Human Rights', in J. Woodward and R. Jütte (eds), Coping with Sickness (Sheffield, 2000), 1-7, p. 1.
87. F. F. Maccabe, War with Disease, 5th edn (London, 1906), 1909, p. ix.
88. MacLeod and Lewis, 'Introduction', Disease, Medicine and Empire; P. Weindling, 'A Virulent Strain: German Bacteriology as Scientific Racism, 1890-1920', in W. Ernst and B. Harris (eds), Race, Science and Medicine, 1700-1960 (London, 1999), 218-34; B. Latour, Les microbes: guerre et paix suivi de irreductions (Paris, 1984); and R. Procter, The Nazi War on Cancer (Princeton, 1999), p. 292, n. 44.
89. MacLeod and Lewis, 'Introduction', Disease, Medicine and Empire; P. Weindling, 'A Virulent Strain: German Bacteriology as Scientific Racism, 1890-1920', in W. Ernst and B. Harris (eds), Race, Science and Medicine, 1700-1960 (London, 1999), 218-34; B. Latour, Les microbes: guerre et paix suivi de irreductions (Paris, 1984); and R. Procter, The Nazi War on Cancer (Princeton, 1999), p. 292, n. 44.
90. MacLeod and Lewis, 'Introduction', Disease, Medicine and Empire; P. Weindling, 'A Virulent Strain: German Bacteriology as Scientific Racism, 1890-1920', in W. Ernst and B. Harris (eds), Race, Science and Medicine, 1700-1960 (London, 1999), 218-34; B. Latour, Les microbes: guerre et paix suivi de irreductions (Paris, 1984); and R. Procter, The Nazi War on Cancer (Princeton, 1999), p. 292, n. 44.
91. MacLeod and Lewis, 'Introduction', Disease, Medicine and Empire; P. Weindling, 'A Virulent Strain: German Bacteriology as Scientific Racism, 1890-1920', in W. Ernst and B. Harris (eds), Race, Science and Medicine, 1700-1960 (London, 1999), 218-34; B. Latour, Les microbes: guerre et paix suivi de irreductions (Paris, 1984); and R. Procter, The Nazi War on Cancer (Princeton, 1999), p. 292, n. 44.
92. See S. Montgomery, 'Codes and Combat in Biomedical Discourse', Science as Culture, 12 (1991), 341-90; D. Lupton, Medicine as Culture (London, 1994), pp. 61-4; L. Otis, Membranes: Metaphors of Invasion in Nineteenth-century Literature, Science, and Politics (Baltimore, 1999); and A. Moulin, 'The Defended Body', in R. Cooter and J. Pickstone (eds), Medicine in the Twentieth Century (Amsterdam, 2000), 385-98.
93. See S. Montgomery, 'Codes and Combat in Biomedical Discourse', Science as Culture, 12 (1991), 341-90; D. Lupton, Medicine as Culture (London, 1994), pp. 61-4; L. Otis, Membranes: Metaphors of Invasion in Nineteenth-century Literature, Science, and Politics (Baltimore, 1999); and A. Moulin, 'The Defended Body', in R. Cooter and J. Pickstone (eds), Medicine in the Twentieth Century (Amsterdam, 2000), 385-98.
94. See S. Montgomery, 'Codes and Combat in Biomedical Discourse', Science as Culture, 12 (1991), 341-90; D. Lupton, Medicine as Culture (London, 1994), pp. 61-4; L. Otis, Membranes: Metaphors of Invasion in Nineteenth-century Literature, Science, and Politics (Baltimore, 1999); and A. Moulin, 'The Defended Body', in R. Cooter and J. Pickstone (eds), Medicine in the Twentieth Century (Amsterdam, 2000), 385-98.
95. See S. Montgomery, 'Codes and Combat in Biomedical Discourse', Science as Culture, 12 (1991), 341-90; D. Lupton, Medicine as Culture (London, 1994), pp. 61-4; L. Otis, Membranes: Metaphors of Invasion in Nineteenth-century Literature, Science, and Politics (Baltimore, 1999); and A. Moulin, 'The Defended Body', in R. Cooter and J. Pickstone (eds), Medicine in the Twentieth Century (Amsterdam, 2000), 385-98.
96. O. Amsterdamska, 'Standardizing Epidemics: Infection, Inheritance, and Environment in Prewar Experimental Epidemiology', in J.-P. Gaudillière and I. Löwy (eds), Heredity and Infection: The History of Disease Transmission (London, 2001), 135-79.
97. R. Evans, Death in Hamburg: Society and Politics in the Cholera Years, 1830-1910 (Harmondsworth, 1990), p. 271.
98. M. Lyons, 'Sleeping Sickness Epidemics and Public Health in the Belgian Congo", in Arnold (ed.), Imperial Medicine, 105-24, pp. 106-7. For a contemporary example, see A. Balfour, War against Tropical Disease (London, 1920).
99. M. Lyons, 'Sleeping Sickness Epidemics and Public Health in the Belgian Congo", in Arnold (ed.), Imperial Medicine, 105-24, pp. 106-7. For a contemporary example, see A. Balfour, War against Tropical Disease (London, 1920).
100. S. Lewis, Martin Arrowsmith ([1924]; New York, 1998), p. 370.
101. R. C. Ileto, 'Cholera and the Origins of the American Sanitary Order in the Philippines', in Arnold (ed.), Imperial Medicine, 125-48, pp. 131-3.
102. G. B. Shaw, 'Preface' to The Doctor's Dilemma ([1911]; London, 1918), p. xxxiii.
103. B. Webb, War Against Poverty: Complete National Provision for Sickness (London, 1912); Moore, 'The Warfare with the Great White Plague', in idem., The Dawn of the Health Age (London, 1911).
104. B. Webb, War Against Poverty: Complete National Provision for Sickness (London, 1912); Moore, 'The Warfare with the Great White Plague', in idem., The Dawn of the Health Age (London, 1911).
105. D. Stark Murray, Man's Microbic Enemies (London, 1932). On Murray, see J. Stewart, '"Science Fights Death": David Stark Murray, Science, and Socialism in Interwar Britain', Annals of Science, 57 (2000), 143-61.
106. D. Stark Murray, Man's Microbic Enemies (London, 1932). On Murray, see J. Stewart, '"Science Fights Death": David Stark Murray, Science, and Socialism in Interwar Britain', Annals of Science, 57 (2000), 143-61.
107. J. B. Clarke, 'Introductory Note by the Director', in F. Prinzing, Epidemics Resulting from Wars, ed. H. Westergaard (Oxford, 1916), p. v.
108. Prinzing, Epidemics, p. viii. Prinzing was here heavily reliant on the medical historian, G. Lammert's Geschichte der Seuchen-, Hungers- und Kriegsnoth zur Zeit des Dreissigjährigen Krieges ([1890]; Wiesbaden, 1971).
109. Prinzing, Epidemics, p. viii. Prinzing was here heavily reliant on the medical historian, G. Lammert's Geschichte der Seuchen-, Hungers- und Kriegsnoth zur Zeit des Dreissigjährigen Krieges ([1890]; Wiesbaden, 1971).
110. Prinzing, Epidemics, p. 333.
111. Prinzing's message as heard by Gill, Genesis of Epidemics, p. 468. For a slightly different reception, in relation to the epidemic potential of returning American soldiers at the end of the First World War, see G. Soper, 'Epidemics After Wars', Journal of the American Medical Association (5 April 1919), 988-91.
112. Prinzing's message as heard by Gill, Genesis of Epidemics, p. 468. For a slightly different reception, in relation to the epidemic potential of returning American soldiers at the end of the First World War, see G. Soper, 'Epidemics After Wars', Journal of the American Medical Association (5 April 1919), 988-91.
113. See P. Weindling, Epidemics and Genocide in Eastern Europe, 1890-1945 (Oxford, 2000).
114. E. Meir, 'Friedrich Prinzing, der Enzylopädist der medizinischen Statistik', in Bundesgesundheitsblatt 2 (1959), 101-2; K. Fohlen, 'Frederich Prinzing', in Deutsches Statistisches Jahrbuch, 30 (1938), Spalte 1-4; and D. Tutzke, 'Die Bedeutung Friedrich Prinzings für die medizinische Statistik', in Medizinhistorisches Jahrbuch, 2 (1967), 13-35, which contains a full list of his extensive publications in medical statistics. I am grateful to Sybilla Nikolow for these references.
115. E. Meir, 'Friedrich Prinzing, der Enzylopädist der medizinischen Statistik', in Bundesgesundheitsblatt 2 (1959), 101-2; K. Fohlen, 'Frederich Prinzing', in Deutsches Statistisches Jahrbuch, 30 (1938), Spalte 1-4; and D. Tutzke, 'Die Bedeutung Friedrich Prinzings für die medizinische Statistik', in Medizinhistorisches Jahrbuch, 2 (1967), 13-35, which contains a full list of his extensive publications in medical statistics. I am grateful to Sybilla Nikolow for these references.
116. E. Meir, 'Friedrich Prinzing, der Enzylopädist der medizinischen Statistik', in Bundesgesundheitsblatt 2 (1959), 101-2; K. Fohlen, 'Frederich Prinzing', in Deutsches Statistisches Jahrbuch, 30 (1938), Spalte 1-4; and D. Tutzke, 'Die Bedeutung Friedrich Prinzings für die medizinische Statistik', in Medizinhistorisches Jahrbuch, 2 (1967), 13-35, which contains a full list of his extensive publications in medical statistics. I am grateful to Sybilla Nikolow for these references.
117. P. Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics Between National Unification and Nazism, 1870-1945 (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 141-2; on Prinzing, pp. 221, 263, 447.
118. P. Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics Between National Unification and Nazism, 1870-1945 (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 141-2; on Prinzing, pp. 221, 263, 447.
119. On Kellogg, see Dictionary of Scientific Biography, vol. 7 (New York, 1972), 285-6, and P. Crook, Darwinism, War and History (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 76-7, 119-20ff.
120. On Kellogg, see Dictionary of Scientific Biography, vol. 7 (New York, 1972), 285-6, and P. Crook, Darwinism, War and History (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 76-7, 119-20ff.
121. Dumas wrote part I, covering the period to 1913 (pp. 1-127) attending to international statistics and absolute numbers of those killed according to rank, branches of service, and cause; Vedel-Peterson wrote Part II (pp. 128-82) on the losses sustained by the belligerents in the First World War.
122. G. Bodart, Losses of Life in Modern Wars, ed. H. Westergaard (Oxford, 1916), p. 81.
123. Clark, 'Introductory Note', in Prinzing, Epidemics, p. vii. K. O. Vedel-Peterson (1892-1946), of the Danish Statistical Department, was the author of Denmarks Statistik (1946); Unemployment in Denmark (1947); and the editor of Sweden, Noway, Denmark and Iceland in the World War (1930). In 1918, he translated Alexande Helphand's Socialdenokratiet og krigen. Dumas (1881-1923), a professor at the University of Lausanne, had written on insurance risk and war in the journal of the Swiss statistical society in 1911.
124. Clark, 'Introductory Note', in Prinzing, Epidemics, p. vii. K. O. Vedel-Peterson (1892-1946), of the Danish Statistical Department, was the author of Denmarks Statistik (1946); Unemployment in Denmark (1947); and the editor of Sweden, Noway, Denmark and Iceland in the World War (1930). In 1918, he translated Alexande Helphand's Socialdenokratiet og krigen. Dumas (1881-1923), a professor at the University of Lausanne, had written on insurance risk and war in the journal of the Swiss statistical society in 1911.
125. Clark, 'Introductory Note', in Prinzing, Epidemics, p. vii. K. O. Vedel-Peterson (1892-1946), of the Danish Statistical Department, was the author of Denmarks Statistik (1946); Unemployment in Denmark (1947); and the editor of Sweden, Noway, Denmark and Iceland in the World War (1930). In 1918, he translated Alexande Helphand's Socialdenokratiet og krigen. Dumas (1881-1923), a professor at the University of Lausanne, had written on insurance risk and war in the journal of the Swiss statistical society in 1911.
126. Clark, 'Introductory Note', in Prinzing, Epidemics, p. vii. K. O. Vedel-Peterson (1892-1946), of the Danish Statistical Department, was the author of Denmarks Statistik (1946); Unemployment in Denmark (1947); and the editor of Sweden, Noway, Denmark and Iceland in the World War (1930). In 1918, he translated Alexande Helphand's Socialdenokratiet og krigen. Dumas (1881-1923), a professor at the University of Lausanne, had written on insurance risk and war in the journal of the Swiss statistical society in 1911.
127. Clark, 'Introductory Note', in Prinzing, Epidemics, p. vii. K. O. Vedel-Peterson (1892-1946), of the Danish Statistical Department, was the author of Denmarks Statistik (1946); Unemployment in Denmark (1947); and the editor of Sweden, Noway, Denmark and Iceland in the World War (1930). In 1918, he translated Alexande Helphand's Socialdenokratiet og krigen. Dumas (1881-1923), a professor at the University of Lausanne, had written on insurance risk and war in the journal of the Swiss statistical society in 1911.
128. S. Greenhalgh, 'The Social Construction of Population Science: An Intellectual, Institutional, and Political History of Twentieth-century Demography', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 38 (1996), 26-66; P. Thane, 'Population Politics in Post-War British Culture', in B. Conekin et al. (eds), Moments of Modernity: Reconstructing Britain, 1945-1964 (London, 1999), 114-33. On the scattered nature of the field in the 1870s, see the entry, 'Geographical Distribution of Diseases', in Walford, Insurance Cyclopedia, vol. III (London, 1873).
129. S. Greenhalgh, 'The Social Construction of Population Science: An Intellectual, Institutional, and Political History of Twentieth-century Demography', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 38 (1996), 26-66; P. Thane, 'Population Politics in Post-War British Culture', in B. Conekin et al. (eds), Moments of Modernity: Reconstructing Britain, 1945-1964 (London, 1999), 114-33. On the scattered nature of the field in the 1870s, see the entry, 'Geographical Distribution of Diseases', in Walford, Insurance Cyclopedia, vol. III (London, 1873).
130. S. Greenhalgh, 'The Social Construction of Population Science: An Intellectual, Institutional, and Political History of Twentieth-century Demography', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 38 (1996), 26-66; P. Thane, 'Population Politics in Post-War British Culture', in B. Conekin et al. (eds), Moments of Modernity: Reconstructing Britain, 1945-1964 (London, 1999), 114-33. On the scattered nature of the field in the 1870s, see the entry, 'Geographical Distribution of Diseases', in Walford, Insurance Cyclopedia, vol. III (London, 1873).
131. K. R. Buch, 'Westergaard', in D. Sills (ed.), International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, vol. 16 (New York, 1968), pp. 528-9. My thanks to Arne Hessenbruch for information on Westergaard.
132. H. L. Westergaard, Contributions to the History of Statistics (London, 1932), see especially p. 261. With Greenwood, Westergaard prepared some of the volumes in the Statistical Handbook Series (Geneva, 1924-30).
133. H. L. Westergaard, Contributions to the History of Statistics (London, 1932), see especially p. 261. With Greenwood, Westergaard prepared some of the volumes in the Statistical Handbook Series (Geneva, 1924-30).
134. A. W. Crosby, Epidemic and Peace, 1918 (Westport, Conn, 1976); and G. B. Kolata, Flu: The Story of the Great Influenza Pandemic of 1918 and the Search for the Virus that Caused It (London, 2000). On the influenza pandemic, '[bringing] the bacteriological era to a close', see J. Doull, 'The Bacteriological Era (1876-1920)', in F. Top (ed.), The History of American Epidemiology (London, 1952), 74-113. Significantly, the military metaphor also shifted away from bacteriology as, for example, in Morley Robert's Warfare in the Human Body (London, 1920), which posits battle between the rational brain and impulsive hormones. See R. Haywood, 'The Biopolitics of Arthur Keith and Morley Roberts', in C. Lawrence and A-K. Mayer (eds), Regenerating England: Science, Medicine and Culture in Inter-War Britain (Amsterdam, 2000), 251-74.
135. A. W. Crosby, Epidemic and Peace, 1918 (Westport, Conn, 1976); and G. B. Kolata, Flu: The Story of the Great Influenza Pandemic of 1918 and the Search for the Virus that Caused It (London, 2000). On the influenza pandemic, '[bringing] the bacteriological era to a close', see J. Doull, 'The Bacteriological Era (1876-1920)', in F. Top (ed.), The History of American Epidemiology (London, 1952), 74-113. Significantly, the military metaphor also shifted away from bacteriology as, for example, in Morley Robert's Warfare in the Human Body (London, 1920), which posits battle between the rational brain and impulsive hormones. See R. Haywood, 'The Biopolitics of Arthur Keith and Morley Roberts', in C. Lawrence and A-K. Mayer (eds), Regenerating England: Science, Medicine and Culture in Inter-War Britain (Amsterdam, 2000), 251-74.
136. A. W. Crosby, Epidemic and Peace, 1918 (Westport, Conn, 1976); and G. B. Kolata, Flu: The Story of the Great Influenza Pandemic of 1918 and the Search for the Virus that Caused It (London, 2000). On the influenza pandemic, '[bringing] the bacteriological era to a close', see J. Doull, 'The Bacteriological Era (1876-1920)', in F. Top (ed.), The History of American Epidemiology (London, 1952), 74-113. Significantly, the military metaphor also shifted away from bacteriology as, for example, in Morley Robert's Warfare in the Human Body (London, 1920), which posits battle between the rational brain and impulsive hormones. See R. Haywood, 'The Biopolitics of Arthur Keith and Morley Roberts', in C. Lawrence and A-K. Mayer (eds), Regenerating England: Science, Medicine and Culture in Inter-War Britain (Amsterdam, 2000), 251-74.
137. A. W. Crosby, Epidemic and Peace, 1918 (Westport, Conn, 1976); and G. B. Kolata, Flu: The Story of the Great Influenza Pandemic of 1918 and the Search for the Virus that Caused It (London, 2000). On the influenza pandemic, '[bringing] the bacteriological era to a close', see J. Doull, 'The Bacteriological Era (1876-1920)', in F. Top (ed.), The History of American Epidemiology (London, 1952), 74-113. Significantly, the military metaphor also shifted away from bacteriology as, for example, in Morley Robert's Warfare in the Human Body (London, 1920), which posits battle between the rational brain and impulsive hormones. See R. Haywood, 'The Biopolitics of Arthur Keith and Morley Roberts', in C. Lawrence and A-K. Mayer (eds), Regenerating England: Science, Medicine and Culture in Inter-War Britain (Amsterdam, 2000), 251-74.
138. A. W. Crosby, Epidemic and Peace, 1918 (Westport, Conn, 1976); and G. B. Kolata, Flu: The Story of the Great Influenza Pandemic of 1918 and the Search for the Virus that Caused It (London, 2000). On the influenza pandemic, '[bringing] the bacteriological era to a close', see J. Doull, 'The Bacteriological Era (1876-1920)', in F. Top (ed.), The History of American Epidemiology (London, 1952), 74-113. Significantly, the military metaphor also shifted away from bacteriology as, for example, in Morley Robert's Warfare in the Human Body (London, 1920), which posits battle between the rational brain and impulsive hormones. See R. Haywood, 'The Biopolitics of Arthur Keith and Morley Roberts', in C. Lawrence and A-K. Mayer (eds), Regenerating England: Science, Medicine and Culture in Inter-War Britain (Amsterdam, 2000), 251-74.
139. See R. Strong et al., Typhus Fever with Particular Reference to the Serbian Epidemic [of 1915] (Cambridge, MA, 1920).
140. A. Wright, 'A Lecture on Wound Infections and Their Treatment', British Medical Journal (30 October 1915), 629-35, p. 629.
141. D. Cohen, The War Come Home: Disabled Veterans in Britain and Germany, 1914-1939 (Berkeley, 2001),.p. 193.
142. For the quotation and the precise context of its deployment, see A. Hardy, '"Straight Back to Barbarism": Antityphoid Inoculation and the Great War, 1914', Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 74 (2000), 265-90, p. 265.
143. T. Mitchell and G. Smith, Casualties and Medical Statistics of the Great War (London, 1931).
144. G. Skinner, 'Influence of Epidemic Diseases on Military Operations in the History of the Western Hemisphere', Military Surgeon, 69 (1931), 579-94.
145. M. Greenwood, 'British Loss of Life in the Wars of 1794-1815 and 1914-18', Journal of the Statistical Society, 105, 1 (1942), 1-11, with discussion on the paper, pp. 11-16.
146. Ibid., p. 4.
147. D. Mackenzie, Statistics in Britain, 1865-1930: The Social Construction of Scientific Knowledge (Edinburgh, 1981), p. 111. On Greenwood, see also L. Hogben, 'Major Greenwood', Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society, vol. vii, 1950-1 (London, 1950-1), pp. 139-41; E. Higgs, 'Medical Statistics, Patronage and the State: The Development of the MRC Statistical Unit, 1911-1948', Medical History, 44 (2000), 323-40; and J. Matthews, 'Major Greenwood versus Almroth Wright: Contrasting Visions of "Scientific" Medicine in Edwardian Britain', Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 69 (1995), 30-43.
148. D. Mackenzie, Statistics in Britain, 1865-1930: The Social Construction of Scientific Knowledge (Edinburgh, 1981), p. 111. On Greenwood, see also L. Hogben, 'Major Greenwood', Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society, vol. vii, 1950-1 (London, 1950-1), pp. 139-41; E. Higgs, 'Medical Statistics, Patronage and the State: The Development of the MRC Statistical Unit, 1911-1948', Medical History, 44 (2000), 323-40; and J. Matthews, 'Major Greenwood versus Almroth Wright: Contrasting Visions of "Scientific" Medicine in Edwardian Britain', Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 69 (1995), 30-43.
149. D. Mackenzie, Statistics in Britain, 1865-1930: The Social Construction of Scientific Knowledge (Edinburgh, 1981), p. 111. On Greenwood, see also L. Hogben, 'Major Greenwood', Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society, vol. vii, 1950-1 (London, 1950-1), pp. 139-41; E. Higgs, 'Medical Statistics, Patronage and the State: The Development of the MRC Statistical Unit, 1911-1948', Medical History, 44 (2000), 323-40; and J. Matthews, 'Major Greenwood versus Almroth Wright: Contrasting Visions of "Scientific" Medicine in Edwardian Britain', Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 69 (1995), 30-43.
150. D. Mackenzie, Statistics in Britain, 1865-1930: The Social Construction of Scientific Knowledge (Edinburgh, 1981), p. 111. On Greenwood, see also L. Hogben, 'Major Greenwood', Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society, vol. vii, 1950-1 (London, 1950-1), pp. 139-41; E. Higgs, 'Medical Statistics, Patronage and the State: The Development of the MRC Statistical Unit, 1911-1948', Medical History, 44 (2000), 323-40; and J. Matthews, 'Major Greenwood versus Almroth Wright: Contrasting Visions of "Scientific" Medicine in Edwardian Britain', Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 69 (1995), 30-43.
151. See Higgs, 'Medical Statistics', pp. 323-40; R. E. Serfling, 'Historical Review of Epidemic Theory', Human Biology, 24 (1952), 145-66; and W. Hamer, Epidemiology Old and New (New York, 1929).
152. See Higgs, 'Medical Statistics', pp. 323-40; R. E. Serfling, 'Historical Review of Epidemic Theory', Human Biology, 24 (1952), 145-66; and W. Hamer, Epidemiology Old and New (New York, 1929).
153. See Higgs, 'Medical Statistics', pp. 323-40; R. E. Serfling, 'Historical Review of Epidemic Theory', Human Biology, 24 (1952), 145-66; and W. Hamer, Epidemiology Old and New (New York, 1929).
154. J. A. Mendelsohn, 'From Eradication to Equilibrium: How Epidemics Became Complex after World War I', in C. Lawrence and G. Weisz (eds), Greater Than the Parts: Holism in Biomedicine, 1920-1950 (Oxford, 1998), 303-31.
155. M. Greenwood, Authority in Medicine: Old and New (Linacre Lecture, 1943). See also idem., Epidemiology, Historical and Experimental (Herter Lecture, 1931).
156. M. Greenwood, Authority in Medicine: Old and New (Linacre Lecture, 1943).
157. M. Greenwood, A Report on the Causes of Wastage of Labour in Munitions Factories Employing Women (London, 1918).
158. See P. Gorer, 'Bacterial Warfare', in F. Soddy (ed.), The Frustrations of Science (London, 1935), 115-28. Under the Committee of Imperial Defence, a Sub-committee on Bacteriological Warfare was formed in 1936. Greenwood's colleague at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, the cellular pathologist who had been involved in the study of typhus in Serbia in 1915, William Topley, was among its members. See B. Balmer, Britain and Biological Warfare; Expert Advice and Science Policy, 1930-1965 (Basingstoke, 2001); and P. M. Hammond and G. Carter, From Biological Warfare to Healthcare: Porton Down, 1940-2000 (Basingstoke, 2002) .
159. See P. Gorer, 'Bacterial Warfare', in F. Soddy (ed.), The Frustrations of Science (London, 1935), 115-28. Under the Committee of Imperial Defence, a Sub-committee on Bacteriological Warfare was formed in 1936. Greenwood's colleague at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, the cellular pathologist who had been involved in the study of typhus in Serbia in 1915, William Topley, was among its members. See B. Balmer, Britain and Biological Warfare; Expert Advice and Science Policy, 1930-1965 (Basingstoke, 2001); and P. M. Hammond and G. Carter, From Biological Warfare to Healthcare: Porton Down, 1940-2000 (Basingstoke, 2002) .
160. See P. Gorer, 'Bacterial Warfare', in F. Soddy (ed.), The Frustrations of Science (London, 1935), 115-28. Under the Committee of Imperial Defence, a Sub-committee on Bacteriological Warfare was formed in 1936. Greenwood's colleague at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, the cellular pathologist who had been involved in the study of typhus in Serbia in 1915, William Topley, was among its members. See B. Balmer, Britain and Biological Warfare; Expert Advice and Science Policy, 1930-1965 (Basingstoke, 2001); and P. M. Hammond and G. Carter, From Biological Warfare to Healthcare: Porton Down, 1940-2000 (Basingstoke, 2002) .
161. B. Luckin, 'States and Epidemic Threats', Bulletin of the Social History of Medicine, 34 (June, 1984), p. 26.
162. M. Lindemann, Medicine and Society in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge, 1999), p. 62.
163. C. Clausewitz, On War, quoted in J. Winter, The Great War and the British People (London, 1985), p. 67.