Understanding understanding: A model for the public learning of radioactivity

Public Understanding of Science

Volumn 8, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 267-284

  Alsop, Steve ^a  

^a YORK UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0041939630     PISSN: 09636625     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1088/0963-6625/8/4/301     Document Type: Article

References (91)

1. M. O'Riordan and C. O'Riordan, "The Matter of Radon," paper presented at the Nuclear Inter Jura, Bath, UK, 1991.
2. See, for example, risk perception studies of T. Lee, Communities In Crisis; A Report On Four Communities Selected As Possible Locations For A Radioactive Waste Repository (Surrey, UK: Robens Institute of Health and Safety, 1987) and P. Solvic, B. Fischhoff, and S. Lichtenstein, "Informing the public about the risks due to ionizing radiation," Health Physics 41, no. 4 (1981): 589-598.
3. See, for example, risk perception studies of T. Lee, Communities In Crisis; A Report On Four Communities Selected As Possible Locations For A Radioactive Waste Repository (Surrey, UK: Robens Institute of Health and Safety, 1987) and P. Solvic, B. Fischhoff, and S. Lichtenstein, "Informing the public about the risks due to ionizing radiation," Health Physics 41, no. 4 (1981): 589-598.
4. The public understanding of radioactivity features in many PUS surveys; see, for example, INRA (Europe) and Report International, Europeans, Science and Technology: Public Understanding and Attitudes (Brussels: European Commission, DG XII, 1993); J. Durant, G. Evans, and G. Thomas, "The public understanding of science," Nature 340 (1989): 12-14; A. Lucas, "The public knowledge of radiation," Biologist 34:3 (1987): 125-129; and J. Miller, "Scientific literacy in the United States," in Communicating Science to the Public, ed. D. Evered and M. O'Connor (London: Wiley, 1987): 19-37.
5. The public understanding of radioactivity features in many PUS surveys; see, for example, INRA (Europe) and Report International, Europeans, Science and Technology: Public Understanding and Attitudes (Brussels: European Commission, DG XII, 1993); J. Durant, G. Evans, and G. Thomas, "The public understanding of science," Nature 340 (1989): 12-14; A. Lucas, "The public knowledge of radiation," Biologist 34:3 (1987): 125-129; and J. Miller, "Scientific literacy in the United States," in Communicating Science to the Public, ed. D. Evered and M. O'Connor (London: Wiley, 1987): 19-37.
6. The public understanding of radioactivity features in many PUS surveys; see, for example, INRA (Europe) and Report International, Europeans, Science and Technology: Public Understanding and Attitudes (Brussels: European Commission, DG XII, 1993); J. Durant, G. Evans, and G. Thomas, "The public understanding of science," Nature 340 (1989): 12-14; A. Lucas, "The public knowledge of radiation," Biologist 34:3 (1987): 125-129; and J. Miller, "Scientific literacy in the United States," in Communicating Science to the Public, ed. D. Evered and M. O'Connor (London: Wiley, 1987): 19-37.
7. The public understanding of radioactivity features in many PUS surveys; see, for example, INRA (Europe) and Report International, Europeans, Science and Technology: Public Understanding and Attitudes (Brussels: European Commission, DG XII, 1993); J. Durant, G. Evans, and G. Thomas, "The public understanding of science," Nature 340 (1989): 12-14; A. Lucas, "The public knowledge of radiation," Biologist 34:3 (1987): 125-129; and J. Miller, "Scientific literacy in the United States," in Communicating Science to the Public, ed. D. Evered and M. O'Connor (London: Wiley, 1987): 19-37.
8. A compilation of case studies are provided by D. Layton, E. Jenkins, S. Macgill, and A. Davey, Inarticulate Science? Perspectives on the Public Understanding of Science and some Implications for Science Education (Nafferton, UK: Studies in Education Ltd., 1993); and A. Irwin and B. Wynne, eds., Misunderstanding Science: The Public Reconstruction Of Science And Technology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
9. A compilation of case studies are provided by D. Layton, E. Jenkins, S. Macgill, and A. Davey, Inarticulate Science? Perspectives on the Public Understanding of Science and some Implications for Science Education (Nafferton, UK: Studies in Education Ltd., 1993); and A. Irwin and B. Wynne, eds., Misunderstanding Science: The Public Reconstruction Of Science And Technology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
10. A survey of BNFL workers is documented in Layton et al., Inarticulate Science? Other references include: B. Wynne, "Sheep farming after Chernobyl: a case study in communicating scientific information" in H. Bradby, Dirty Words: Writings On The History And Culture Of Pollution (London: EarthScan Publications, 1990): 139-160; B. Wynne, "Knowledges in Context," Science Technology and Human Values 16 (1991): 111-128; M. Michael, "Lay discourses of science: science-in-general; science-in-particular, and self," Science, Technology and Human Values 17 (1992): 313-333; and M. Michael, "Ignoring science: Discourses of ignorance in the public understanding of science" in Misunderstanding Science? The Public Reconstruction Of Science And Technology, ed. A. Irwin and B. Wynne, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996): 107-126.
11. A survey of BNFL workers is documented in Layton et al., Inarticulate Science? Other references include: B. Wynne, "Sheep farming after Chernobyl: a case study in communicating scientific information" in H. Bradby, Dirty Words: Writings On The History And Culture Of Pollution (London: EarthScan Publications, 1990): 139-160; B. Wynne, "Knowledges in Context," Science Technology and Human Values 16 (1991): 111-128; M. Michael, "Lay discourses of science: science-in-general; science-in-particular, and self," Science, Technology and Human Values 17 (1992): 313-333; and M. Michael, "Ignoring science: Discourses of ignorance in the public understanding of science" in Misunderstanding Science? The Public Reconstruction Of Science And Technology, ed. A. Irwin and B. Wynne, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996): 107-126.
12. A survey of BNFL workers is documented in Layton et al., Inarticulate Science? Other references include: B. Wynne, "Sheep farming after Chernobyl: a case study in communicating scientific information" in H. Bradby, Dirty Words: Writings On The History And Culture Of Pollution (London: EarthScan Publications, 1990): 139-160; B. Wynne, "Knowledges in Context," Science Technology and Human Values 16 (1991): 111-128; M. Michael, "Lay discourses of science: science-in-general; science-in-particular, and self," Science, Technology and Human Values 17 (1992): 313-333; and M. Michael, "Ignoring science: Discourses of ignorance in the public understanding of science" in Misunderstanding Science? The Public Reconstruction Of Science And Technology, ed. A. Irwin and B. Wynne, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996): 107-126.
13. A survey of BNFL workers is documented in Layton et al., Inarticulate Science? Other references include: B. Wynne, "Sheep farming after Chernobyl: a case study in communicating scientific information" in H. Bradby, Dirty Words: Writings On The History And Culture Of Pollution (London: EarthScan Publications, 1990): 139-160; B. Wynne, "Knowledges in Context," Science Technology and Human Values 16 (1991): 111-128; M. Michael, "Lay discourses of science: science-in-general; science-in-particular, and self," Science, Technology and Human Values 17 (1992): 313-333; and M. Michael, "Ignoring science: Discourses of ignorance in the public understanding of science" in Misunderstanding Science? The Public Reconstruction Of Science And Technology, ed. A. Irwin and B. Wynne, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996): 107-126.
14. A survey of BNFL workers is documented in Layton et al., Inarticulate Science? Other references include: B. Wynne, "Sheep farming after Chernobyl: a case study in communicating scientific information" in H. Bradby, Dirty Words: Writings On The History And Culture Of Pollution (London: EarthScan Publications, 1990): 139-160; B. Wynne, "Knowledges in Context," Science Technology and Human Values 16 (1991): 111-128; M. Michael, "Lay discourses of science: science-in-general; science-in-particular, and self," Science, Technology and Human Values 17 (1992): 313-333; and M. Michael, "Ignoring science: Discourses of ignorance in the public understanding of science" in Misunderstanding Science? The Public Reconstruction Of Science And Technology, ed. A. Irwin and B. Wynne, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996): 107-126.
15. A survey of BNFL workers is documented in Layton et al., Inarticulate Science? Other references include: B. Wynne, "Sheep farming after Chernobyl: a case study in communicating scientific information" in H. Bradby, Dirty Words: Writings On The History And Culture Of Pollution (London: EarthScan Publications, 1990): 139-160; B. Wynne, "Knowledges in Context," Science Technology and Human Values 16 (1991): 111-128; M. Michael, "Lay discourses of science: science-in-general; science-in-particular, and self," Science, Technology and Human Values 17 (1992): 313-333; and M. Michael, "Ignoring science: Discourses of ignorance in the public understanding of science" in Misunderstanding Science? The Public Reconstruction Of Science And Technology, ed. A. Irwin and B. Wynne, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996): 107-126.
16. See, for example, J. Durant and G. Thomas, "Why should we promote the public understanding of science," Scientific Literacy Papers (Oxford University, 1987): 1-15.
17. Miller, "Scientific literacy in the United States."
18. See, for example, P. Tamir, "Meta Analysis and Cognitive Preference and Learning," Journal of Research in Science Teaching 22 (1985): 1-97; and S. Withey, "Public opinion about science and the scientist," Public Opinion Quarterly 23 (1959): 382-88.
19. See, for example, P. Tamir, "Meta Analysis and Cognitive Preference and Learning," Journal of Research in Science Teaching 22 (1985): 1-97; and S. Withey, "Public opinion about science and the scientist," Public Opinion Quarterly 23 (1959): 382-88.
20. Cognition and context are linked in, for example, S. Hennessy, "Situated cognition and cognitive apprenticeship: implications for classroom learning," Studies in Science Education 22 (1993): 1-41; and the seminal work of B. Rogoff and J. Lave, Everyday Cognition, Its Development In Social Context (London/Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1987).
21. Cognition and context are linked in, for example, S. Hennessy, "Situated cognition and cognitive apprenticeship: implications for classroom learning," Studies in Science Education 22 (1993): 1-41; and the seminal work of B. Rogoff and J. Lave, Everyday Cognition, Its Development In Social Context (London/Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1987).
22. An analysis is provided by J. Wellington, "Newspaper science, school science: friends or enemies," International Journal of Science Education 13 (1991): 363-372.
23. L. Dierking and M. Martin, "Guest Editorial: Introduction," Science Education 81 (1997): 629-631; and A. Hofstein and S. Rosenfield, "Bridging the Gap Between Formal and Informal Science Learning" Studies in Science Education 28 (1996): 87-112.
24. L. Dierking and M. Martin, "Guest Editorial: Introduction," Science Education 81 (1997): 629-631; and A. Hofstein and S. Rosenfield, "Bridging the Gap Between Formal and Informal Science Learning" Studies in Science Education 28 (1996): 87-112.
25. L. Schauble and K. Bartlett, "Constructing a science gallery for children and families: The role of research in an innovative design process," Science Education 81 (1997): 781-793.
26. M. Chen, "Television and Informal Science Education: assessing the past, present, and future of research," in Informal Science Learning: What The Research Says About Television, Science Museums And Community Projects, ed. V. Crane, H. Nicholson, M. Chen, and S. Bitgood (Dedham, MA: Research Communication Ltd., 1994): 15-61.
27. A. Lucas, P. McManus, and G. Thomas, "Investigating learning from informal sources: listening to conversations and observing play in science museums," European Journal of Science Education 8 (1986): 341-381.
28. O' Riordan and Riordan, "The Matter of Radon" (cit. n. 1).
29. US Environmental Protection Agency, A Citizen's Guide To Radon (Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services, 1992).
30. J. Fremlin, Power Production What Are The Risks? (Bristol, UK: Adam Hilger, 1989); L. Roberts, "Why do we fear radiation?" Science and Public Affairs 14 (1996): 19-25.
31. J. Fremlin, Power Production What Are The Risks? (Bristol, UK: Adam Hilger, 1989); L. Roberts, "Why do we fear radiation?" Science and Public Affairs 14 (1996): 19-25.
32. National Radiological Protection Board, Radon In Dwellings In England 1997: A Review (Chilton: NRPB, 1997).
33. S. Alsop, "Modeling informal learning in the public understanding of science: the case of radon gas," (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Surrey, 1998).
34. G. Posner, K. Strike, P. Hewson, and W. Gertzog, "Conceptual change and science teaching," European Journal of Science Education 4 (1982): 231-40.
35. See for example: S. Demastes, G. Good, and P. Peebles, "Patterns of Conceptual Change in Evolution," Journal of Research in Science Teaching 3 (1996): 407-431; and N. Thorley and R. Stofflett, "Representation of the Conceptual Change Model in Science Teacher Education," Science Education 80 (1996): 317-339.
36. See for example: S. Demastes, G. Good, and P. Peebles, "Patterns of Conceptual Change in Evolution," Journal of Research in Science Teaching 3 (1996): 407-431; and N. Thorley and R. Stofflett, "Representation of the Conceptual Change Model in Science Teacher Education," Science Education 80 (1996): 317-339.
37. P. Hewson and M. Hewson, "The status of students' conceptions," In Research In Physics Learning: Theoretical Issues And Empirical Studies, ed. R. Druit, F. Goldberg, and H. Niedderer (Keil, Germany: IPN, 1991): 176-187; P. Hewson and S. Hennessey "Making status explicit: A case study of conceptual change," In Research In Physics Learning: Theoretical Issues And Empirical Studies, ed. R. Druit, F. Goldberg, and H. Niedderer (Keil, Germany: IPN, 1991): 176-187; and P. Hewson and N. Thorley, "The conditions of conceptual change in the classroom," International Journal of Science Education 11 (special issue, 1989): 541-553; K. Strike and G. Posner, "A revisionist theory of conceptual change," In Philosophy Of Science, Cognitive Science, And Educational Theory And Practice, ed. R. Duschl and R. J. Hamilton (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1992): 147-175.
38. P. Hewson and M. Hewson, "The status of students' conceptions," In Research In Physics Learning: Theoretical Issues And Empirical Studies, ed. R. Druit, F. Goldberg, and H. Niedderer (Keil, Germany: IPN, 1991): 176-187; P. Hewson and S. Hennessey "Making status explicit: A case study of conceptual change," In Research In Physics Learning: Theoretical Issues And Empirical Studies, ed. R. Druit, F. Goldberg, and H. Niedderer (Keil, Germany: IPN, 1991): 176-187; and P. Hewson and N. Thorley, "The conditions of conceptual change in the classroom," International Journal of Science Education 11 (special issue, 1989): 541-553; K. Strike and G. Posner, "A revisionist theory of conceptual change," In Philosophy Of Science, Cognitive Science, And Educational Theory And Practice, ed. R. Duschl and R. J. Hamilton (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1992): 147-175.
39. P. Hewson and M. Hewson, "The status of students' conceptions," In Research In Physics Learning: Theoretical Issues And Empirical Studies, ed. R. Druit, F. Goldberg, and H. Niedderer (Keil, Germany: IPN, 1991): 176-187; P. Hewson and S. Hennessey "Making status explicit: A case study of conceptual change," In Research In Physics Learning: Theoretical Issues And Empirical Studies, ed. R. Druit, F. Goldberg, and H. Niedderer (Keil, Germany: IPN, 1991): 176-187; and P. Hewson and N. Thorley, "The conditions of conceptual change in the classroom," International Journal of Science Education 11 (special issue, 1989): 541-553; K. Strike and G. Posner, "A revisionist theory of conceptual change," In Philosophy Of Science, Cognitive Science, And Educational Theory And Practice, ed. R. Duschl and R. J. Hamilton (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1992): 147-175.
40. P. Hewson and M. Hewson, "The status of students' conceptions," In Research In Physics Learning: Theoretical Issues And Empirical Studies, ed. R. Druit, F. Goldberg, and H. Niedderer (Keil, Germany: IPN, 1991): 176-187; P. Hewson and S. Hennessey "Making status explicit: A case study of conceptual change," In Research In Physics Learning: Theoretical Issues And Empirical Studies, ed. R. Druit, F. Goldberg, and H. Niedderer (Keil, Germany: IPN, 1991): 176-187; and P. Hewson and N. Thorley, "The conditions of conceptual change in the classroom," International Journal of Science Education 11 (special issue, 1989): 541-553; K. Strike and G. Posner, "A revisionist theory of conceptual change," In Philosophy Of Science, Cognitive Science, And Educational Theory And Practice, ed. R. Duschl and R. J. Hamilton (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1992): 147-175.
41. D. Treagust, "A multidimensional interpretative framework for understanding conceptual change learning," paper presented at the American Education Research Association, New York, April 8-12, 1996.
42. Strike and Posner, "A revisionist theory of conceptual change."
43. C. Chinn and W. Brewer, "The role of anomalous data in knowledge acquisition: a theoretical framework and implications for science education," Review of Educational Research 63 (1993): 1-49.
44. P. Pintrich, R. Marx, and R. Boyle, "Beyond cold conceptual change: the role of motivational beliefs and classroom contextual factors in the process of conceptual change," Review of Educational Research 63 (1993): 167-199.
45. B. Glaser and A. Strauss, The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research (New York: Aldine Publishing Company, 1967).
46. J. Powney and M. Watts, Interviewing in Educational Research (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1987).
47. See S. Alsop and M. Watts, "Sources from a Somerset Village: A model for informal learning about radiation and radioactivity," Science Education 18 (special edition, 1997): 633-650; and M. Watts and S. Alsop, "A study in the affective domain: student-teachers' learning about radiation and radioactivity," The Curriculum Journal 8 (1997): 351-365.
48. See S. Alsop and M. Watts, "Sources from a Somerset Village: A model for informal learning about radiation and radioactivity," Science Education 18 (special edition, 1997): 633-650; and M. Watts and S. Alsop, "A study in the affective domain: student-teachers' learning about radiation and radioactivity," The Curriculum Journal 8 (1997): 351-365.
49. A rationalist critique of the CCM is clearly summarized by Pintrich, Marx, and Boyle, "Beyond cold conceptual change: the role of motivational beliefs and classroom contextual factors in the process of conceptual change."
50. D.Treagust, "A multidimensional interpretative framework for understanding conceptual change learning," paper presented at the American Education Research Association, New York, April 8-12, 1996; and M. Tyson, G. Venville, J. Harrison, and D. Treagust, "A multidimensional framework for interpreting conceptual change events in the classroom," Science Education 81 (1997): 387-404.
51. D.Treagust, "A multidimensional interpretative framework for understanding conceptual change learning," paper presented at the American Education Research Association, New York, April 8-12, 1996; and M. Tyson, G. Venville, J. Harrison, and D. Treagust, "A multidimensional framework for interpreting conceptual change events in the classroom," Science Education 81 (1997): 387-404.
52. Posner, Strike, Hewson, and Gertzog, "Conceptual change and science teaching."
53. Definitions of conceptual status are from P. Hewson and R. Thorley, "The conditions of conceptual change in the classroom," International Journal of Science Education 11 (1989): 541-553.
54. Conceptual ecology, an ecological metaphor, is derived from S. Toulmin, Human Understanding: An Inquiry Into The Aims Of Science (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1972).
55. See, for example, Hewson and Thorley, "The conditions of conceptual change in the classroom."
56. J. Piaget, The Child's Conception Of The World (London: Routledge and Keegan Paul, 1929); a Piagetian viewpoint on interest is documented by S. Hidi, "Interest and its contribution as a mental resource for learning," Review of Educational Research 60 (1990): 549-571; and G. Kelly, A Theory Of Personality, The Psychology Of Personal Constructs (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1955).
57. J. Piaget, The Child's Conception Of The World (London: Routledge and Keegan Paul, 1929); a Piagetian viewpoint on interest is documented by S. Hidi, "Interest and its contribution as a mental resource for learning," Review of Educational Research 60 (1990): 549-571; and G. Kelly, A Theory Of Personality, The Psychology Of Personal Constructs (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1955).
58. J. Piaget, The Child's Conception Of The World (London: Routledge and Keegan Paul, 1929); a Piagetian viewpoint on interest is documented by S. Hidi, "Interest and its contribution as a mental resource for learning," Review of Educational Research 60 (1990): 549-571; and G. Kelly, A Theory Of Personality, The Psychology Of Personal Constructs (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1955).
59. Pintrich, Marx, and Boyle, "Beyond cold conceptual change: the role of motivational beliefs and classroom contextual factors in the process of conceptual change;" Alsop, "Modeling informal learning in the public understanding of science: the case of radon gas;" and Alsop and Watts, "Sources from a Somerset Village: A model for informal learning about radiation and radioactivity."
60. Pintrich, Marx, and Boyle, "Beyond cold conceptual change: the role of motivational beliefs and classroom contextual factors in the process of conceptual change;" Alsop, "Modeling informal learning in the public understanding of science: the case of radon gas;" and Alsop and Watts, "Sources from a Somerset Village: A model for informal learning about radiation and radioactivity."
61. Pintrich, Marx, and Boyle, "Beyond cold conceptual change: the role of motivational beliefs and classroom contextual factors in the process of conceptual change;" Alsop, "Modeling informal learning in the public understanding of science: the case of radon gas;" and Alsop and Watts, "Sources from a Somerset Village: A model for informal learning about radiation and radioactivity."
62. H. Eijkelhof, "Physics learning in personal and social contexts," in Papers from the 7th IOSTE Symposium: Science and Technology Education in a Democratic Society, ed. K. Boers, K. Kortland, and V. Trommel (Enshede, National Institute for Curriculum Development, 1994): 560-576.
63. S. Alsop, J. Hanson, and M. Watts, "Pupils' perceptions of radioactivity: the wary meet the unsavoury," School Science Review 289 (June 1998): 74-79; and M. Watts and S. Alsop, "A study in the affective domain: student-teachers' learning about radiation and radioactivity," The Curriculum Journal 8 (1997): 351-365.
64. S. Alsop, J. Hanson, and M. Watts, "Pupils' perceptions of radioactivity: the wary meet the unsavoury," School Science Review 289 (June 1998): 74-79; and M. Watts and S. Alsop, "A study in the affective domain: student-teachers' learning about radiation and radioactivity," The Curriculum Journal 8 (1997): 351-365.
65. A. Kruglanski, Lay Epistemics And Human Knowledge: Cognitive And Motivational Bases (New York: Plenum, 1989).
66. J. Solomon, "Higher level understanding of the nature of science," School Science Review 16 (1995): 15-22.
67. Watts and Alsop, "A study in the affective domain: student-teachers' learning about radiation and radioactivity."
68. J. Dewey, "My Pedagogic Creed" (1897) in John Dewey: Selected Educational Writings, ed. F.W. Garforth, (London: Heinemann, 1966): 1-19.
69. D. Layton, "Science education and praxis: the relationship of school science to practical action," Studies in Science Education 19 (1991): 43-79.
70. Trust is highlighted in A. Giddens, "Social theory" In Beyond Left And Right: The Future Of Radical Politics (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd., 1994); S. Krimsky and D. Golding "Theories of social risk perception" in Social Theories of Risk (London: Praeger, 1992); and Wynne, "Knowledges in Context."
71. Trust is highlighted in A. Giddens, "Social theory" In Beyond Left And Right: The Future Of Radical Politics (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd., 1994); S. Krimsky and D. Golding "Theories of social risk perception" in Social Theories of Risk (London: Praeger, 1992); and Wynne, "Knowledges in Context."
72. Trust is highlighted in A. Giddens, "Social theory" In Beyond Left And Right: The Future Of Radical Politics (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd., 1994); S. Krimsky and D. Golding "Theories of social risk perception" in Social Theories of Risk (London: Praeger, 1992); and Wynne, "Knowledges in Context."
73. Wynne, "Knowledges in Context."
74. Based on a concept of "fate control" articulated by M. Budd Rowe, "Science education: a framework for decision-makers," Daedalus 112 (1983): 123-42.
75. S. Alsop, "Modeling informal learning in the public understanding of science: the case of radon gas," (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Surrey, 1998); and four case studies are documented in Watts and Alsop, "A study in the affective domain: student-teachers' learning about radiation and radioactivity."
76. S. Alsop, "Modeling informal learning in the public understanding of science: the case of radon gas," (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Surrey, 1998); and four case studies are documented in Watts and Alsop, "A study in the affective domain: student-teachers' learning about radiation and radioactivity."
77. The differentiated model of radioactivity has been documented, for example see, H.M.C. Eijkelhof, Radiation and Risk in Physics Education (Utrecht: Uitgeverij CB. Press, 1990).
78. P. Hewson and M. Hewson, "The status of students' conceptions," In Research In Physics Learning: Theoretical Issues And Empirical Studies, eds. R. Druit, F. Goldberg, and H. Niedderer (Keil, Germany: IPN, 1991): 176-187.
79. The germ model of radioactivity has been documented by Eijkelhof, Radiation and Risk in Physics Education.
80. The condition fruitful has been defined as academically useful; this distinguishes it from the conative condition proposed. See, N. Thorley and R. Stofflett, "Representation of the Conceptual Change Model in Science Teacher Education," Science Education 80 (1996): 317-339.
81. Alsop, "Modeling informal learning in the public understanding of science: the case of radon gas."
82. Wynne, "Knowledges in Context."
83. For example, J. Miller, "Scientific Literacy: A Conceptual and Empirical Review," Daedalus 112 (1983): 29-48.
84. A. Fuṙnham, "Lay understandings of science: young people and adults' ideas of scientific concepts," Studies in Science Education 20 (1992): 29-64.
85. J. Durant, Editorial. Public Understanding of Science 6 (1997): 1-3.
86. For instance, L. Wolpert, "In praise of science," in Science today: problem or crisis, eds. R. Levinson and J. Thomas (London: Routledge, 1996); and Irwin and Wynne, Misunderstanding science.
87. For instance, L. Wolpert, "In praise of science," in Science today: problem or crisis, eds. R. Levinson and J. Thomas (London: Routledge, 1996); and Irwin and Wynne, Misunderstanding science.
88. E. Von Glaserfield, Construction Of Knowledge (Salinas, CA: Intersystems Publications, 1989).
89. Durant, Editorial.
90. A. Irwin, Citizen Science: A Study Of People, Expertise And Sustainable Development, (London: Routledge, 1995).
91. A. Hofstein and S. Rosenfield, "Bridging the Gap Between Formal and Informal Science Learning," Studies in Science Education 28 (1996): 87-112.