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Volumn 40, Issue 1, 2002, Pages 37-55

An educational imperative: The role of ethical codes and normative prohibitions in CBW-applicable research

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EID: 0041371004     PISSN: 00264695     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1015001429180     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (7)

References (104)
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    • See www.ornl.gov/TechResources/Human-Genome/home.html and Mildred K. Cho, David Magnus, Arthur Caplan, Daniel McGee and the Ethics of Genomics Group, 'Ethical Considerations in Synthesizing a Minimal Genome', Science, 286 (10 December 1999), 209.
    • See www.ornl.gov/TechResources/Human-Genome/home.html and Mildred K. Cho, David Magnus, Arthur Caplan, Daniel McGee and the Ethics of Genomics Group, 'Ethical Considerations in Synthesizing a Minimal Genome', Science, 286 (10 December 1999), 209.
  • 2
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    • In the Engine of Industry: Regulators of Biotechnology
    • Martin Bauer ed, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 86
    • Robert Bud, 'In the Engine of Industry: Regulators of Biotechnology, 1970-86', in Martin Bauer (ed.), Resistance to New Technology: Nuclear Power, Information Technology and Biotechnology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 300-302.
    • (1970) Resistance to New Technology: Nuclear Power, Information Technology and Biotechnology , pp. 300-302
    • Bud, R.1
  • 3
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    • Ibid., 296. In the 1970s, biotechnology, as a commercial technology, combined biochemistry, chemical engineering, microbiology, and their industrial frameworks. It includes the application of rapid chemical analysis in diagnostic microbiology.
    • Ibid., 296. In the 1970s, biotechnology, as a commercial technology, combined biochemistry, chemical engineering, microbiology, and their industrial frameworks. It includes the application of rapid chemical analysis in diagnostic microbiology.
  • 4
    • 66649129834 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See
    • See www.biodiv.org/biosafe/protocol/.
  • 5
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    • See www.forbes.com/asap/120296/html/jeremy-rifkin. htm and www.biotechcentury. org. Also, see J.T. Rifkin, The Biotech Century: The Coming Age of Genetic Commerce (London: Putnam Publishing Group, 1998).
    • See www.forbes.com/asap/120296/html/jeremy-rifkin. htm and www.biotechcentury. org. Also, see J.T. Rifkin, The Biotech Century: The Coming Age of Genetic Commerce (London: Putnam Publishing Group, 1998).
  • 6
    • 0007660944 scopus 로고
    • New York: Random House, Additionally, there are university courses on research integrity and responsible research, but these must be actively sought out. Moreover, these courses are mostly addressed to social scientists, rather than laboratory scientists
    • June Goodfield, Playing God (New York: Random House, 1977), 162. Additionally, there are university courses on research integrity and responsible research, but these must be actively sought out. Moreover, these courses are mostly addressed to social scientists, rather than laboratory scientists.
    • (1977) Playing God , pp. 162
    • Goodfield, J.1
  • 7
    • 66649126568 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Although the concept and application of genetic enhancement techniques (such as selective births) and the non-therapeutic use of growth hormones may be seen as improving the psychological component of a person, they can also be viewed as contributing to the new-eugenics, thus implying maleficence
    • Although the concept and application of genetic enhancement techniques (such as selective births) and the non-therapeutic use of growth hormones may be seen as improving the psychological component of a person, they can also be viewed as contributing to the new-eugenics - thus implying maleficence.
  • 8
    • 66649136954 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The GPC is contained in Article I of the BTWC and Article II of the CWC. Many of the technologies of relevance to both conventions are dual-use, and in order not to unduly hamper legitimate activities, prohibit only certain purposes to which these technologies may be applied. By 'dual-use', the authors mean research which has the potential to be utilized for both peaceful and aggressive purposes.
    • The GPC is contained in Article I of the BTWC and Article II of the CWC. Many of the technologies of relevance to both conventions are dual-use, and in order not to unduly hamper legitimate activities, prohibit only certain purposes to which these technologies may be applied. By 'dual-use', the authors mean research which has the potential to be utilized for both peaceful and aggressive purposes.
  • 9
    • 66649086763 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Other papers in this issue delve more deeply into the motivations involved in specific weapons programmes.
    • Other papers in this issue delve more deeply into the motivations involved in specific weapons programmes.
  • 10
    • 66649134942 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • As R.W. Reid states, '... it is because this boundary [between constructive and destructive work] can seldom be seen with clarity, and can be raised or lowered according to the height of the individual's moral judgement, that the unified cry of the conscience of science cannot be heard and the scientists' dilemma still exists in spite of themselves', R.W. Reid, Tongues of Conscience - War and the Scientist's Dilemma (London: Constable & Co., 1969), 328.
    • As R.W. Reid states, '... it is because this boundary [between constructive and destructive work] can seldom be seen with clarity, and can be raised or lowered according to the height of the individual's moral judgement, that the unified cry of the conscience of science cannot be heard and the scientists' dilemma still exists in spite of themselves', R.W. Reid, Tongues of Conscience - War and the Scientist's Dilemma (London: Constable & Co., 1969), 328.
  • 11
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    • Owing to the difficulties in assessing individual morality, this paper focuses upon norms at the social and group level. For more on norms, see, Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co
    • Owing to the difficulties in assessing individual morality, this paper focuses upon norms at the social and group level. For more on norms, see Frederick O. Bonkovsky, International Norms and National Policy (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1980);
    • (1980) International Norms and National Policy
    • Bonkovsky, F.O.1
  • 12
    • 85017051786 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • International Norm Dynamics and Political Change
    • Martha Finnemore and Katherine Sikkink, 'International Norm Dynamics and Political Change', I nternational Organization, 52 (4), (1998), 887-917;
    • (1998) I nternational Organization , vol.52 , Issue.4 , pp. 887-917
    • Finnemore, M.1    Sikkink, K.2
  • 13
    • 0001383064 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ann Florini, 'The Evolution of International Norms', International Studies Quarterly, 40 (3), (1996), 363-389. For more on international norms against CBW, see the Introduction to this issue.
    • Ann Florini, 'The Evolution of International Norms', International Studies Quarterly, 40 (3), (1996), 363-389. For more on international norms against CBW, see the Introduction to this issue.
  • 14
    • 66649132737 scopus 로고
    • Scientists and Research
    • Susan Wright ed, Cambridge, Mass, MIT Press
    • Robert L. Sinsheimer, 'Scientists and Research', in Susan Wright (ed.), Preventing a Biological Arms Race (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990), 73.
    • (1990) Preventing a Biological Arms Race , pp. 73
    • Sinsheimer, R.L.1
  • 15
    • 66649138842 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This paper deals only with norms, codes and laws in Western culture, and does not discuss individual countries in detail
    • This paper deals only with norms, codes and laws in Western culture, and does not discuss individual countries in detail.
  • 16
    • 84973978032 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Robert Axelrod has suggested eight mechanisms to be used to support a partially established norm; see, Robert Axelrod, An Evolutionary Approach to Norms, American Political Science Review, 80 4, December 1986, 1095-1111
    • Robert Axelrod has suggested eight mechanisms to be used to support a partially established norm; see, Robert Axelrod, 'An Evolutionary Approach to Norms', American Political Science Review, 80 (4), (December 1986), 1095-1111.
  • 17
    • 66649111839 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For a more general discussion of the development and evolution of norms see, Finnemore and Sikkink, op. cit. note 10, 887-917;
    • For a more general discussion of the development and evolution of norms see, Finnemore and Sikkink, op. cit. note 10, 887-917;
  • 18
    • 66649130155 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Florini, op. cit. note 10, 363-389;
    • Florini, op. cit. note 10, 363-389;
  • 19
    • 0001770402 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Norms, Identity, and Their Limits: A Theoretical Reprise
    • Peter J. Katzenstein ed, New York: Columbia University Press
    • Paul Kowert and Jeffrey Legro, 'Norms, Identity, and Their Limits: A Theoretical Reprise', in Peter J. Katzenstein (ed.), The Culture of National Security - Norms and Identity in World Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 451-497.
    • (1996) The Culture of National Security - Norms and Identity in World Politics , pp. 451-497
    • Kowert, P.1    Legro, J.2
  • 20
    • 66649125157 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Finnemore and Sikkink, op. cit. note 10, 896-904.
    • Finnemore and Sikkink, op. cit. note 10, 896-904.
  • 21
    • 84976040990 scopus 로고
    • Global Prohibition Regimes: The Evolution of Norms in International Society
    • Autumn, Nadelmann goes on to describe a common evolutionary pattern for the development of a global prohibition regime
    • Ethan A. Nadelmann, 'Global Prohibition Regimes: The Evolution of Norms in International Society', International Organization, 44 (4), (Autumn 1990), 484. Nadelmann goes on to describe a common evolutionary pattern for the development of a global prohibition regime.
    • (1990) International Organization , vol.44 , Issue.4 , pp. 484
    • Nadelmann, E.A.1
  • 22
    • 66649113018 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • According to ethicist Dorothy Wertz, 'Although the terms ethics and morals are often used interchangeably, they are not identical. Morals usually refers to practices; ethics refers to the overarching rationale that may or may not support such practices. Morals refers to actions, ethics to the reasoning behind such actions. Ethics is an examined and carefully considered structure that includes both practice and theory', Dorothy Wertz, Ethics: What is It and Why is It Important? A Primer for Non-Ethicists, at www.umassmed.edu/shriver/research/socialscience/staff/ wertz/ethics.cfm.
    • According to ethicist Dorothy Wertz, 'Although the terms "ethics" and "morals" are often used interchangeably, they are not identical. Morals usually refers to practices; ethics refers to the overarching rationale that may or may not support such practices. Morals refers to actions, ethics to the reasoning behind such actions. Ethics is an examined and carefully considered structure that includes both practice and theory', Dorothy Wertz, Ethics: What is It and Why is It Important? A Primer for Non-Ethicists, at www.umassmed.edu/shriver/research/socialscience/staff/ wertz/ethics.cfm.
  • 23
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    • For more on the distinction between ethics and morality see, Hong Kong: Macmillan
    • For more on the distinction between ethics and morality see J.E. Hare and Carey B. Joynt, Ethics and International Affairs (Hong Kong: Macmillan, 1982)
    • (1982) Ethics and International Affairs
    • Hare, J.E.1    Joynt, C.B.2
  • 24
    • 66649111840 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and J.H. Burns and H.L.A. Hart (eds.), An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (London: Athlone Press, 1970).
    • and J.H. Burns and H.L.A. Hart (eds.), An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (London: Athlone Press, 1970).
  • 25
    • 66649122238 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • By profession, we refer to 'a calling requiring specialized knowledge and often long and intensive academic preparation'. Science qualifies as a profession under this definition, albeit a profession in which there are many distinct disciplines. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, www.m-w.com/.
    • By profession, we refer to 'a calling requiring specialized knowledge and often long and intensive academic preparation'. Science qualifies as a profession under this definition, albeit a profession in which there are many distinct disciplines. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, www.m-w.com/.
  • 26
    • 66649096694 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note that while concerns about chemical and biological weapons and their legitimacy arose long before this, and especially after the use of CW in the First World War, these concerns did not lead immediately to discussions about the responsibilities of scientists for the consequences of their research
    • Note that while concerns about chemical and biological weapons and their legitimacy arose long before this, and especially after the use of CW in the First World War, these concerns did not lead immediately to discussions about the responsibilities of scientists for the consequences of their research.
  • 29
    • 0347908598 scopus 로고
    • Wolfgang Krohn, Edwin Layton, and Peter Weingart eds, Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Company
    • Wolfgang Krohn, Edwin Layton, and Peter Weingart (eds.), The Dynamics of Science and Technology. Sociology of the Sciences (Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Company, 1978), vol. II;
    • (1978) The Dynamics of Science and Technology. Sociology of the Sciences , vol.2
  • 31
    • 66649093147 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and Gerald M. Verschuuren, Life Scientists: Their Convictions, Their Activities and Their Values (North Andover, Mass.: Genesis Publishing Company, 1995).
    • and Gerald M. Verschuuren, Life Scientists: Their Convictions, Their Activities and Their Values (North Andover, Mass.: Genesis Publishing Company, 1995).
  • 32
    • 66649120160 scopus 로고
    • See 'The Responsibility of Scientists' in William Epstein and Toshiyuki Toyoda (eds, Kyoto Nottingham: Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation
    • See 'The Responsibility of Scientists' in William Epstein and Toshiyuki Toyoda (eds.), A New Design for Nuclear Disarmament - Pugwash Symposium, Kyoto (Nottingham: Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation, 1977);
    • (1977) A New Design for Nuclear Disarmament - Pugwash Symposium
  • 33
    • 66649103574 scopus 로고
    • Public Policy, Public Opinion and the Biomedical Scientist
    • Kurt Bayertz, Hilmar Stolte and Ursula Zimmerman eds, Frankfurt: Peter Lang
    • Joseph J. Byrne, 'Public Policy, Public Opinion and the Biomedical Scientist', in Kurt Bayertz, Hilmar Stolte and Ursula Zimmerman (eds.), Ethical Dimensions of Technology Transfer in Biomedicine (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1993), 117-125;
    • (1993) Ethical Dimensions of Technology Transfer in Biomedicine , pp. 117-125
    • Byrne, J.J.1
  • 36
    • 66649133314 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Reid, op. cit. note 10, 330
    • Reid, op. cit. note 10, 330.
  • 37
    • 66649110494 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This manifesto, signed by eleven prominent scientists who had been involved in the development of the nuclear bomb, called upon scientists to assemble to 'appraise the perils that have arisen as a result of the development of weapons of mass destruction, and to subscribe to the following resolution: 'In view of the fact that in any future world war nuclear weapons will certainly be employed, and that such weapons threaten the continued existence of mankind, we urge the Governments of the world to realize, and to acknowledge publicly, that their purpose cannot be furthered by a world war, and we urge them, consequently, to find peaceful means for the settlement of all matters of dispute between them, Russell-Einstein Manifesto, issued 9 July 1955
    • This manifesto, signed by eleven prominent scientists who had been involved in the development of the nuclear bomb, called upon scientists to assemble to 'appraise the perils that have arisen as a result of the development of weapons of mass destruction', and to subscribe to the following resolution: 'In view of the fact that in any future world war nuclear weapons will certainly be employed, and that such weapons threaten the continued existence of mankind, we urge the Governments of the world to realize, and to acknowledge publicly, that their purpose cannot be furthered by a world war, and we urge them, consequently, to find peaceful means for the settlement of all matters of dispute between them.' Russell-Einstein Manifesto, issued 9 July 1955.
  • 38
    • 66649117676 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For more information on this science culture, specifically within the international Pugwash movement, see J.P Perry Robinson, 'The Impact of Pugwash on the Debates over Chemical and Biological Weapons', in Allison L.C. de Cerreño and Alexander Keynan (eds.), Scientific Cooperation, State Conflict: The Role of Scientists in Mitigating International Discord, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1998), 866;
    • For more information on this science culture, specifically within the international Pugwash movement, see J.P Perry Robinson, 'The Impact of Pugwash on the Debates over Chemical and Biological Weapons', in Allison L.C. de Cerreño and Alexander Keynan (eds.), Scientific Cooperation, State Conflict: The Role of Scientists in Mitigating International Discord, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1998), 866;
  • 40
    • 66649138845 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Cold War saw a dramatic shift in research resources to the military-industrial sector, which left researchers compromised by secrecy and possible ethical breaches. See Sinsheimer, op. cit. note 11
    • The Cold War saw a dramatic shift in research resources to the military-industrial sector, which left researchers compromised by secrecy and possible ethical breaches. See Sinsheimer, op. cit. note 11.
  • 41
    • 66649119695 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For example, at the seventeenth Pugwash Conference in 1967, the Committee on Special Responsibility of Scientists recommended the formation of a study group to formulate ethical guidelines, 'Scientists and World Affairs', Proceedings of the Seventeenth Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs (London: Taylor and Francis Ltd, 1968), 70.
    • For example, at the seventeenth Pugwash Conference in 1967, the Committee on Special Responsibility of Scientists recommended the formation of a study group to formulate ethical guidelines, 'Scientists and World Affairs', Proceedings of the Seventeenth Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs (London: Taylor and Francis Ltd, 1968), 70.
  • 42
    • 66649095511 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A. Carl Leopold, 'The Science Community is Starved for Ethical Standards', The Scientist (6 January 1992), 11. Leopold cites a poll by the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1990, in which scientists listed the development of ethical principles as the most urgent requirement of the profession. Yet, as he says, despite this sentiment, there is little discussion of the matter in the scientific literature or curricula. Leopold is W.C. Crocker Scientist Emeritus at Cornell University.
    • A. Carl Leopold, 'The Science Community is Starved for Ethical Standards', The Scientist (6 January 1992), 11. Leopold cites a poll by the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1990, in which scientists listed the development of ethical principles as the most urgent requirement of the profession. Yet, as he says, despite this sentiment, there is little discussion of the matter in the scientific literature or curricula. Leopold is W.C. Crocker Scientist Emeritus at Cornell University.
  • 43
    • 66649128971 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jan Hult has proposed a distinction among several levels of ethics, from abstract recommendations to norms of action, including: (1) laws governing scientific research, (2) ethical rules, (3) ethical guidelines, and (4) ethical codes of conduct. He describes the latter as being 'formulated by learned societies to ensure the preservation of international norms and standards of scientific conduct'. See Joshua Jortner, 'Ethics in Modern Science -A Framework for Discussion', Chemistry International, 17 (5), (1995), 163.
    • Jan Hult has proposed a distinction among several levels of ethics, from abstract recommendations to norms of action, including: (1) laws governing scientific research, (2) ethical rules, (3) ethical guidelines, and (4) ethical codes of conduct. He describes the latter as being 'formulated by learned societies to ensure the preservation of international norms and standards of scientific conduct'. See Joshua Jortner, 'Ethics in Modern Science -A Framework for Discussion', Chemistry International, 17 (5), (1995), 163.
  • 44
    • 0000920419 scopus 로고
    • Changes in the Code of Ethics of the U.S. Accounting Profession, 1917 and 1988: The Continual Quest for Legitimation
    • Alistair Preston et al., 'Changes in the Code of Ethics of the U.S. Accounting Profession, 1917 and 1988: The Continual Quest for Legitimation', Accounting, Organizations and Society, 20 (6), (1995), 526.
    • (1995) Accounting, Organizations and Society , vol.20 , Issue.6 , pp. 526
    • Preston, A.1
  • 45
    • 0031073911 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Tightening One's Belt: Some Questions About Accounting, Modernity, and the Post-Modern'
    • February/ April
    • Edward C. Arrington, 'Tightening One's Belt: Some Questions About Accounting, Modernity, and the Post-Modern', Critical Perspectives in Accounting, 8 (1/2), (February/ April 1997), 5.
    • (1997) Critical Perspectives in Accounting , vol.8 , Issue.1-2 , pp. 5
    • Arrington, E.C.1
  • 46
    • 0011533566 scopus 로고
    • Rhetoric and Reality
    • August
    • Terry Thompson, 'Rhetoric and Reality', CA Magazine (August 1992), 54.
    • (1992) CA Magazine , pp. 54
    • Thompson, T.1
  • 47
    • 66649091727 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This discussion was central to a recent conference of the International Network of Scientists and Engineers INES, which developed a final statement on Science, Engineering and Social
    • This discussion was central to a recent conference of the International Network of Scientists and Engineers (INES), which developed a final statement on Science, Engineering and Social Responsibility. The student contingent of the conference is planning a website to increase awareness and discussion of these issues. Another example of a student-driven initiative regarding ethics is the Graduation Pledge Alliance. See ares.manchester.edu/department/Peacestudies/gpa. html.
  • 48
    • 66649134940 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'A Draft Convention to Prohibit Biological and Chemical Weapons under International Criminal Law', Quarterly Journal of the Harvard-Sussex Program on CBW Armament and Arms Limitation, 42 (December 1998), 1-2.
    • 'A Draft Convention to Prohibit Biological and Chemical Weapons under International Criminal Law', Quarterly Journal of the Harvard-Sussex Program on CBW Armament and Arms Limitation, 42 (December 1998), 1-2.
  • 49
    • 66649113611 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The CWC explicitly requires states to adopt national legislation to ensure treaty implementation, while the BTWC only requires states to take 'any necessary measures' to prohibit the development, production, stockpiling and acquisition of such weapons.
    • The CWC explicitly requires states to adopt national legislation to ensure treaty implementation, while the BTWC only requires states to take 'any necessary measures' to prohibit the development, production, stockpiling and acquisition of such weapons.
  • 50
    • 66649092289 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In the United States, The Chemist's Creed required chemists to 'discourage enterprises or practices inimical to the public interest or welfare, and to enrich science by 'contributions for the good of humanity, The Chemist's Creed American Chemical Society, 14 September 1965, This was replaced by The Chemist's Code of Conduct in 1994, see
    • In the United States, The Chemist's Creed required chemists to 'discourage enterprises or practices inimical to the public interest or welfare', and to enrich science by 'contributions for the good of humanity'. The Chemist's Creed (American Chemical Society, 14 September 1965). This was replaced by The Chemist's Code of Conduct in 1994, see www.acs.org:80/ membership.conduct.html.
  • 51
    • 66649133035 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The dual-use nature of technology can be positive in that a great deal of research initiated for military purposes has had useful 'spin-off civilian applications
    • The dual-use nature of technology can be positive in that a great deal of research initiated for military purposes has had useful 'spin-off civilian applications.
  • 52
    • 66649120754 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The definition a peremptory norm generally accepted in international law, found in Article 53 of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, is '... a norm accepted and recognized by the international community of states as a whole as a norm from which no derogation is permitted and which can be modified only by a subsequent norm of general international law having the same character'. The Vienna Convention can be found on the ICRC International Humanitarian Law database at www.icrc.org/ihl.
    • The definition a peremptory norm generally accepted in international law, found in Article 53 of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, is '... a norm accepted and recognized by the international community of states as a whole as a norm from which no derogation is permitted and which can be modified only by a subsequent norm of general international law having the same character'. The Vienna Convention can be found on the ICRC International Humanitarian Law database at www.icrc.org/ihl.
  • 53
    • 66649112708 scopus 로고
    • Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties
    • Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 1969.
    • (1969)
  • 54
    • 66649123080 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Lauri Hannikainen, 'Peremptory Norms (jus cogens)', International Law - Historical Development, Criteria, Present Status (Helsinki: Lakimiesliiton Kustannus, 1988), 622.
    • Lauri Hannikainen, 'Peremptory Norms (jus cogens)', International Law - Historical Development, Criteria, Present Status (Helsinki: Lakimiesliiton Kustannus, 1988), 622.
  • 55
    • 66649100154 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • These sentiments found expression in prohibitions on the use of poison in the 1899 and 1907 Hague Conventions and in the 1899 Hague Declaration IV (2) on the use of asphyxiating gases and then in the 1925 Geneva Protocol. The Martens Clause, first formulated in the 1899 Hague Convention II, supplements the treaties in the case of types of new weapons or if the international treaty ceased to be applicable. Marc Lappé, 'Ethics in Biological Warfare Research', in Susan Wright (ed.), Preventing a Biological Arms Race (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990), 78.
    • These sentiments found expression in prohibitions on the use of poison in the 1899 and 1907 Hague Conventions and in the 1899 Hague Declaration IV (2) on the use of asphyxiating gases and then in the 1925 Geneva Protocol. The Martens Clause, first formulated in the 1899 Hague Convention II, supplements the treaties in the case of types of new weapons or if the international treaty ceased to be applicable. Marc Lappé, 'Ethics in Biological Warfare Research', in Susan Wright (ed.), Preventing a Biological Arms Race (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990), 78.
  • 56
    • 66649138844 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • It provides protection for civilians and non-combatants via principles of customary international law, principles of humanity, and the dictates of public conscience that are not covered by specific international agreements. UN Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of its Forty-sixth Session, 2 May-11 July 1994, GAOR A749/10, 317
    • It provides protection for civilians and non-combatants via principles of customary international law, principles of humanity, and the dictates of public conscience that are not covered by specific international agreements. UN Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of its Forty-sixth Session, 2 May-11 July 1994, GAOR A749/10, 317.
  • 57
    • 66649089103 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This view was reinforced by the recent decision of the International Court of Justice on the legality of nuclear weapons. See 'Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, International Court of Justice Reports, 1996, para. 79
    • This view was reinforced by the recent decision of the International Court of Justice on the legality of nuclear weapons. See 'Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion', International Court of Justice Reports, 1996, para. 79.
  • 58
    • 66649130160 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • From a legal standpoint, it remains unclear what constitutes 'superfluous injury' or 'unnecessary suffering', and whether CBW falls under these headings. The SirUS Project, organized by the International Committee of the Red Cross, attempts to use health-related data to aid the legal community in defining these concepts. See Robin Coupland and Peter Herby, 'Review of the Legality of Weapons: A New Approach - The SirUS Project', International Review of the Red Cross, 835 (1 September 1999), 583-592.
    • From a legal standpoint, it remains unclear what constitutes 'superfluous injury' or 'unnecessary suffering', and whether CBW falls under these headings. The SirUS Project, organized by the International Committee of the Red Cross, attempts to use health-related data to aid the legal community in defining these concepts. See Robin Coupland and Peter Herby, 'Review of the Legality of Weapons: A New Approach - The SirUS Project', International Review of the Red Cross, 835 (1 September 1999), 583-592.
  • 59
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    • The Martens Clause and the Laws of Armed Conflict
    • 1 March
    • Rupert Ticehurst, 'The Martens Clause and the Laws of Armed Conflict', International Review of the Red Cross, 317 (1 March 1997), 132.
    • (1997) International Review of the Red Cross , vol.317 , pp. 132
    • Ticehurst, R.1
  • 60
    • 66649134062 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • International humanitarian law includes principles emerging from the Nuremberg Trials; the Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity (1968, and the European Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes 1974
    • International humanitarian law includes principles emerging from the Nuremberg Trials; the Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity (1968); and the European Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes (1974).
  • 61
    • 66649116515 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Examples include the 1948 Declaration of Geneva, the 1949 International Code of Medical Ethics, the 1956 Regulations in Time of Armed Conflict, and the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki. See the World Medical Association website, www.wma.net.
    • Examples include the 1948 Declaration of Geneva, the 1949 International Code of Medical Ethics, the 1956 Regulations in Time of Armed Conflict, and the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki. See the World Medical Association website, www.wma.net.
  • 62
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    • Examples of activities initiated by scientists include programmes in Canada and Germany. See, Toronto: McClelland and Stewart Inc
    • Examples of activities initiated by scientists include programmes in Canada and Germany. See John Bryden, Deadly Allies: Canada's Secret War, 1937-1947 (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart Inc., 1989);
    • (1989) Deadly Allies: Canada's Secret War, 1937-1947
    • Bryden, J.1
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    • 66649129572 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Erhard Geissler, 'Biological Warfare Activities in Germany, 1923-45', in Erhard Geissler and John Ellis van Courtland Moon (eds.), Biological and Toxin Weapons: Research, Development and Use from the Middle Ages to 1945, SIPRI Chemical and Biological Warfare Studies, 18 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 91-124;
    • Erhard Geissler, 'Biological Warfare Activities in Germany, 1923-45', in Erhard Geissler and John Ellis van Courtland Moon (eds.), Biological and Toxin Weapons: Research, Development and Use from the Middle Ages to 1945, SIPRI Chemical and Biological Warfare Studies, 18 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 91-124;
  • 66
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    • and Donald Avery, 'Canadian Biological and Toxin Warfare Research, Development and Planning, 1925-45', in idem., 190-213.
    • and Donald Avery, 'Canadian Biological and Toxin Warfare Research, Development and Planning, 1925-45', in idem., 190-213.
  • 67
    • 66649129850 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For more information about motivations in specific programmes, see Reid, op. cit. note 10;
    • For more information about motivations in specific programmes, see Reid, op. cit. note 10;
  • 73
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    • America's Biological Warfare Program in the Second World War'
    • September
    • Barton J. Bernstein, 'America's Biological Warfare Program in the Second World War', Journal of Strategic Studies, 11 (3), (September 1988), 292-317;
    • (1988) Journal of Strategic Studies , vol.11 , Issue.3 , pp. 292-317
    • Bernstein, B.J.1
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    • Bryden, op. cit. note 46;
    • Bryden, op. cit. note 46;
  • 77
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    • Hansen, op. cit. note 41;
    • Hansen, op. cit. note 41;
  • 78
  • 79
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    • Ken Alibek with Stephen Handelman, Biohazard - The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World - Told from the Inside by the Man Who Ran It (London: Random House, 1999);
    • Ken Alibek with Stephen Handelman, Biohazard - The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World - Told from the Inside by the Man Who Ran It (London: Random House, 1999);
  • 80
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    • British Scientists and the Cold War: The Defense Research Policy Committee and Information Networks, 1947-1963
    • J. Agar and B. Balmer, 'British Scientists and the Cold War: The Defense Research Policy Committee and Information Networks, 1947-1963', Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, 28 (2), (1998), 209-252.
    • (1998) Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences , vol.28 , Issue.2 , pp. 209-252
    • Agar, J.1    Balmer, B.2
  • 81
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    • Bioethics and the Prevention of Biological Warfare
    • Raymond A. Zilinskas ed, Boulder: Lynne Rienner
    • Rita R. Colwell and Raymond A. Zilinskas, 'Bioethics and the Prevention of Biological Warfare', in Raymond A. Zilinskas (ed.), Biological Warfare - Modern Offense and Defense (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2000), 231.
    • (2000) Biological Warfare - Modern Offense and Defense , pp. 231
    • Colwell, R.R.1    Zilinskas, R.A.2
  • 82
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    • Nationalism has been the strongest motivation of scientists participating in wartime CBW programs. The findings of this paper are consistent with those of Colwell and Zilinskas, op. cit. note 48, 225-245
    • Nationalism has been the strongest motivation of scientists participating in wartime CBW programs. The findings of this paper are consistent with those of Colwell and Zilinskas, op. cit. note 48, 225-245.
  • 83
    • 66649085146 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • As Theodor Rosebury, a scientist involved in the American BW program stated, In time of war or if the danger of war is clear and imminent, most scientists, like other men, find no great difficulty in resolving the conflict in their own minds sufficiently to direct a course of action which we cover and condone under the wartime meaning of the word patriotism, Rosebury, op. cit. note 47, 174
    • As Theodor Rosebury, a scientist involved in the American BW program stated, 'In time of war or if the danger of war is clear and imminent, most scientists, like other men, find no great difficulty in resolving the conflict in their own minds sufficiently to direct a course of action which we cover and condone under the wartime meaning of the word "patriotism"', Rosebury, op. cit. note 47, 174.
  • 84
    • 66649094106 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • As late as 1952, Bernard Barber argued that '... neither scientists taken as a whole group nor any individual scientist alone can be considered responsible, in any sensibly direct fashion, for the social consequences of their activities.' His argument is that the social consequences of science are inevitable; that scientists cannot predict the consequences of their discoveries; and that science does not produce consequences in a vacuum, but interacts with the rest of society to produce these consequences. Bernard Barber, Science and the Social Order (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1952), 227.
    • As late as 1952, Bernard Barber argued that '... neither scientists taken as a whole group nor any individual scientist alone can be considered responsible, in any sensibly direct fashion, for the social consequences of their activities.' His argument is that the social consequences of science are inevitable; that scientists cannot predict the consequences of their discoveries; and that science does not produce consequences in a vacuum, but interacts with the rest of society to produce these consequences. Bernard Barber, Science and the Social Order (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1952), 227.
  • 85
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    • Reid, op. cit. note 10, 333
    • Reid, op. cit. note 10, 333.
  • 86
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    • Goal Direction of Scientific Research
    • See, Wolfgang Krohn et al, eds, Dordrecht: Reidel, for one explanation of the distinction between pure, ideologically engaged, and 'useful' science
    • See Ron Johnston and Tom Jagtenberg, 'Goal Direction of Scientific Research', in Wolfgang Krohn et al. (eds.), The Dynamics of Science and Technology. Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1978), vol. II, 29-58, for one explanation of the distinction between pure, 'ideologically engaged', and 'useful' science.
    • (1978) The Dynamics of Science and Technology. Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook , vol.2 , pp. 29-58
    • Johnston, R.1    Jagtenberg, T.2
  • 87
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    • According to Zilinskas and Colwell, op. cit. note 48, 225-245, scientists in the UK, USA and Canada working in BW programmes during the Second World War did not receive significant material benefits as a result. However, their colleagues in totalitarian countries did receive significantly higher pay, and had access to the best equipment and supplies. The same was true for scientists in the Iraqi BW programme.
    • According to Zilinskas and Colwell, op. cit. note 48, 225-245, scientists in the UK, USA and Canada working in BW programmes during the Second World War did not receive significant material benefits as a result. However, their colleagues in totalitarian countries did receive significantly higher pay, and had access to the best equipment and supplies. The same was true for scientists in the Iraqi BW programme.
  • 88
    • 66649092004 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This concept is similar to that of 'transnational peer grouping, a concept used by J.P. Perry Robinson op. cit. note 24, 226. Perry notes that two key attributes of the Pugwash movement leading to its success were access to policy levels of government and transnational peer grouping
    • This concept is similar to that of 'transnational peer grouping', a concept used by J.P. Perry Robinson op. cit. note 24, 226. Perry notes that two key attributes of the Pugwash movement leading to its success were access to policy levels of government and transnational peer grouping.
  • 89
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    • Leopold, op. cit. note 27, 11
    • Leopold, op. cit. note 27, 11.
  • 90
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    • 'Science, Ethics, & Education', Student Pugwash USA, mindfull, 2 (9), (February 1999), www.spusa.org/pugwash/publications/mindfull/mindfull- see.pdf.
    • 'Science, Ethics, & Education', Student Pugwash USA, mindfull, 2 (9), (February 1999), www.spusa.org/pugwash/publications/mindfull/mindfull- see.pdf.
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    • Introduction: Epistemic Communities and International Policy Coordination
    • Winter
    • Peter M. Haas, 'Introduction: Epistemic Communities and International Policy Coordination', International Organization, 46 (1), (Winter 1992), 3.
    • (1992) International Organization , vol.46 , Issue.1 , pp. 3
    • Haas, P.M.1
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    • Conclusion: Epistemic Communities, World Order, and the Creation of a Reflective Research Program
    • See also, Winter
    • See also Emanuel Adler and Peter Haas, 'Conclusion: Epistemic Communities, World Order, and the Creation of a Reflective Research Program', International Organization, 46 (1), (Winter 1992), 367-390;
    • (1992) International Organization , vol.46 , Issue.1 , pp. 367-390
    • Adler, E.1    Haas, P.2
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    • The Emergence of Cooperation: National Epistemic Communities and the International Evolution of the Idea of Nuclear Arms Control
    • Winter
    • Emanuel Adler, 'The Emergence of Cooperation: National Epistemic Communities and the International Evolution of the Idea of Nuclear Arms Control', International Organization, 46 (1), (Winter 1992), 101-145;
    • (1992) International Organization , vol.46 , Issue.1 , pp. 101-145
    • Adler, E.1
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    • Challenging Conventional Explanations of International Cooperation: Negotiation Analysis and the Case of Epistemic Communities
    • Winter
    • and James K. Sebenius, 'Challenging Conventional Explanations of International Cooperation: Negotiation Analysis and the Case of Epistemic Communities', International Organization, 46 (1), (Winter 1992), 323-365.
    • (1992) International Organization , vol.46 , Issue.1 , pp. 323-365
    • Sebenius, J.K.1
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    • Epistemic Communities and the Dynamics of International Environmental Co-operation
    • Volker Rittberger ed, Oxford: Clarendon Press
    • Peter M. Haas, 'Epistemic Communities and the Dynamics of International Environmental Co-operation', in Volker Rittberger (ed.), Regime Theory and International Relations (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), 179.
    • (1993) Regime Theory and International Relations , pp. 179
    • Haas, P.M.1
  • 97
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    • Nadelmann, op. cit. note 16, 524
    • Nadelmann, op. cit. note 16, 524.
  • 98
    • 66649120454 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Haas, op. cit. note 59, 180
    • Haas, op. cit. note 59, 180.
  • 99
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    • Adler, op. cit. note 58, 116
    • Adler, op. cit. note 58, 116.
  • 100
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    • The survey forms the basis of a SIPRI project which will produce a comprehensive listing of professional ethical codes
    • The survey forms the basis of a SIPRI project which will produce a comprehensive listing of professional ethical codes.
  • 102
    • 66649120161 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • An example is found at: helpline@onlineethics.org
    • An example is found at: helpline@onlineethics.org.
  • 103
    • 66649122792 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See www.whistleblower.org, for activities in this area.
    • See www.whistleblower.org, for activities in this area.


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