Intermedia agenda setting in the 1996 presidential election

Journalism and Mass Communication Quaterly

Volumn 78, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 26-44

  Boyle, Thomas P ^a  

^a SUSQUEHANNA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0041026922     PISSN: 10776990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107769900107800103     Document Type: Article

References (69)

1. L. Patrick Devlin, "Contrasts in Presidential Campaign Commercials of 1996," American Behavioral Scientist 40 (August 1997): 1066-1077.
2. Everett M. Rogers, James W. Dearing, and Dorine Bregman, "The Anatomy of Agenda-Setting Research," Journal of Communication 43 (spring 1993): 68-84.
3. "Who's on the attack?" New York Times, 22 October 1996, sec. A, p. 22.
4. Darrell M. West, Air Wars, Television Advertising in Election Campaigns, 1952-1996 (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly, 1997), 31.
5. Rogers, Dearing, and Bregman, "The Anatomy of Agenda-Setting Research," 68-84.
6. Maxwell E. McCombs and Donald L. Shaw, "The agenda-setting focus of mass media," Public Opinion Quarterly 36 (summer 1972): 176-87.
7. Rogers, Dearing, and Bregman, "The Anatomy of Agenda-Setting Research," 68-84.
8. Thomas E. Patterson, The Mass Media Election: How Americans Choose Their President (New York, NY: Praeger Publishers, 1980), 89-90.
9. Thomas E. Patterson, Out of Order, (NY: Vintage Books, 1994).
10. Marion R. Just, Ann N. Crigler, Dean E. Alger, Timothy E. Cook, Montague Kern, and Darrell M. West, Crosstalk, Citizens, Candidates, and the Media in a Presidential Campaign (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1996), 109-112.
11. Just, Crigler, Alger, Cook, Kern, and West, Crosstalk, Citizens, Candidates, and the Media in a Presidential Campaign, 118.
12. Just, Crigler, Alger, Cook, Kern, and West, Crosstalk, Citizens, Candidates, and the Media in a Presidential Campaign, 116.
13. Courtney Bennett, "Assessing the impact of ad watches on the strategic decision-making process: A comparative analysis of ad watches in the 1992 and 1996 presidential elections," American Behavioral Scientist 40 (August 1997): 1161-1182.
14. Bennett, "Assessing the impact of ad watches on the strategic decision-making process: A comparative analysis of ad watches in the 1992 and 1996 presidential elections," 1168.
15. Bennett, "Assessing the impact of ad watches on the strategic decision-making process: A comparative analysis of ad watches in the 1992 and 1996 presidential elections," 1168.
16. Just, Crigler, Alger, Cook, Kern, and West, Crosstalk, Citizens, Candidates, and the Media in a Presidential Campaign.
17. Bennett, "Assessing the impact of ad watches on the strategic decision-making process: A comparative analysis of ad watches in the 1992 and 1996 presidential elections."
18. Bennett, "Assessing the impact of ad watches on the strategic decision-making process: A comparative analysis of ad watches in the 1992 and 1996 presidential elections."
19. Bennett, "Assessing the impact of ad watches on the strategic decision-making process: A comparative analysis of ad watches in the 1992 and 1996 presidential elections."
20. Bennett, "Assessing the impact of ad watches on the strategic decision-making process: A comparative analysis of ad watches in the 1992 and 1996 presidential elections."
21. S. Robert Lichter, Richard E. Noyes, and Lynda Lee Kaid, "No News or Negative News: How the Networks Nixed the '96 Campaign," in The Electronic Election, Perspectives on the 1996 Campaign Communication, ed. Lynda Lee Kaid and Dianne G. Bystrom (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999), 3-14.
22. Lichter, Noyes and Kaid, "No News or Negative News: How the Networks Nixed the '96 Campaign," 6-7.
23. McCombs and Shaw, "The agenda-setting focus of mass media," 176-87.
24. Rogers, Dearing, and Bregman, "The Anatomy of Agenda-Setting Research," 68-84.
25. Rogers, Dearing, and Bregman, "The Anatomy of Agenda-Setting Research," 80.
26. Marilyn Roberts and Maxwell McCombs, "Agenda Setting and Political Advertising: Origins of the News Agenda," Political Communication 11 (July-September 1994): 249-62.
27. Roberts and McCombs, "Agenda Setting and Political Advertising: Origins of the News Agenda," 257.
28. Roberts and McCombs, "Agenda Setting and Political Advertising: Origins of the News Agenda," 258.
29. Roberts and McCombs, "Agenda Setting and Political Advertising: Origins of the News Agenda," 258.
30. Marilyn S. Roberts, "Predicting Voting Behavior via the Agenda-Setting Tradition," Journalism Quarterly 69 (winter 1992): 878-92.
31. Roberts, "Predicting Voting Behavior via the Agenda-Setting Tradition," 890-92.
32. Lucig H. Danielian and Stephen D. Reese, "A Closer Look at Intermedia Influences on Agenda Setting: The Cocaine Issue of 1986," in Communication Campaigns About Drugs, Government, Media and the Public, ed. Pamela J. Shoemaker (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1989), 41.
33. Danielian and Reese, "A Closer Look at Intermedia Influences on Agenda Setting: The Cocaine Issue of 1986," 50-52.
34. Just, Crigler, Alger, Cook, Kern, and West, Crosstalk, Citizens, Candidates, and the Media in a Presidential Campaign, 118.
35. Roberts and McCombs, "Agenda Setting and Political Advertising: Origins of the News Agenda."; Danielian and Reese, "A Closer Look at Intermedia Influences on Agenda Setting: The Cocaine Issue of 1986."
36. Roberts and McCombs, "Agenda Setting and Political Advertising: Origins of the News Agenda."; Danielian and Reese, "A Closer Look at Intermedia Influences on Agenda Setting: The Cocaine Issue of 1986."
37. Roberts and McCombs, "Agenda Setting and Political Advertising: Origins of the News Agenda," 259-60.
38. Roberts and McCombs, "Agenda Setting and Political Advertising: Origins of the News Agenda," 259-60.
39. This list was constructed from issues used in the 1992 American National Election Study, but was updated for 1996. Pilot tests were used to ensure the list of categories were exhaustive, yet parsimonious enough to efficiently test the hypotheses. Consequently, some of the categories were collapsed (e.g., Foreign Policy in Latin America into Foreign Policy). For a list of the categories see Warren E. Miller, Donald R. Kinder, Steven J. Rosenstone, and the National Election Studies, American National Election Study, 1992: Pre-and Post-Election Survey [Enhanced with 1990 and 1991 Data] (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, 1993), 1079-1083.
40. Robert P. Weber, Basic Content Analysis (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1990).
41. Pilot tests of the advertisements by the primary investigator, who was the first coder, were conducted and the instructions were constructed. After these tests, the second coder was trained and the instructions were further clarified based on that session.
42. Edwin Diamond and Stephen Bates, The Spot, The Rise of Political Advertising on Television (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1992), 117-30.
43. Time was measured in whole seconds and column inches in inches and fractions of inches.
44. Simple random sampling was used to select the television network news and newspaper stories analyzed by the second coder. This procedure was also used to select candidate advertisements from a master list of all of the ads.
45. Dixie Evatt and Tamara Bell, "The Political Dance: A Test of Agenda-Setting Effects in the 1994 Texas Gubernatorial Election" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the AEJMC, Washington, DC, 1995); Lynda L. Kaid, "Videostyle and the Effects of the 1996 Presidential Campaign Advertising," in The 1996 Presidential Campaign, A Communication Perspective, ed. Robert E. Denton (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998): 143-159; Lynda L. Kaid and Anne Johnston, "Negative versus Positive Television Advertising in U.S. Presidential Campaigns, 1960-1988," Journal of Communication 41 (summer, 1991): 53-64; Lori M. McKinnon, Lynda L. Kaid, Janet Murphy, and Cynthia K. Acree, "Policing Political Ads: An Analysis of Five Leading Newspaper's Response to 1992 Political Advertisements," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (spring 1996): 66-76; Roberts and McCombs, "Agenda Setting and Political Advertising: Origins of the News Agenda," 249-62.
46. Dixie Evatt and Tamara Bell, "The Political Dance: A Test of Agenda-Setting Effects in the 1994 Texas Gubernatorial Election" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the AEJMC, Washington, DC, 1995); Lynda L. Kaid, "Videostyle and the Effects of the 1996 Presidential Campaign Advertising," in The 1996 Presidential Campaign, A Communication Perspective, ed. Robert E. Denton (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998): 143-159; Lynda L. Kaid and Anne Johnston, "Negative versus Positive Television Advertising in U.S. Presidential Campaigns, 1960-1988," Journal of Communication 41 (summer, 1991): 53-64; Lori M. McKinnon, Lynda L. Kaid, Janet Murphy, and Cynthia K. Acree, "Policing Political Ads: An Analysis of Five Leading Newspaper's Response to 1992 Political Advertisements," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (spring 1996): 66-76; Roberts and McCombs, "Agenda Setting and Political Advertising: Origins of the News Agenda," 249-62.
47. Dixie Evatt and Tamara Bell, "The Political Dance: A Test of Agenda-Setting Effects in the 1994 Texas Gubernatorial Election" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the AEJMC, Washington, DC, 1995); Lynda L. Kaid, "Videostyle and the Effects of the 1996 Presidential Campaign Advertising," in The 1996 Presidential Campaign, A Communication Perspective, ed. Robert E. Denton (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998): 143-159; Lynda L. Kaid and Anne Johnston, "Negative versus Positive Television Advertising in U.S. Presidential Campaigns, 1960-1988," Journal of Communication 41 (summer, 1991): 53-64; Lori M. McKinnon, Lynda L. Kaid, Janet Murphy, and Cynthia K. Acree, "Policing Political Ads: An Analysis of Five Leading Newspaper's Response to 1992 Political Advertisements," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (spring 1996): 66-76; Roberts and McCombs, "Agenda Setting and Political Advertising: Origins of the News Agenda," 249-62.
48. Dixie Evatt and Tamara Bell, "The Political Dance: A Test of Agenda-Setting Effects in the 1994 Texas Gubernatorial Election" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the AEJMC, Washington, DC, 1995); Lynda L. Kaid, "Videostyle and the Effects of the 1996 Presidential Campaign Advertising," in The 1996 Presidential Campaign, A Communication Perspective, ed. Robert E. Denton (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998): 143-159; Lynda L. Kaid and Anne Johnston, "Negative versus Positive Television Advertising in U.S. Presidential Campaigns, 1960-1988," Journal of Communication 41 (summer, 1991): 53-64; Lori M. McKinnon, Lynda L. Kaid, Janet Murphy, and Cynthia K. Acree, "Policing Political Ads: An Analysis of Five Leading Newspaper's Response to 1992 Political Advertisements," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (spring 1996): 66-76; Roberts and McCombs, "Agenda Setting and Political Advertising: Origins of the News Agenda," 249-62.
49. Dixie Evatt and Tamara Bell, "The Political Dance: A Test of Agenda-Setting Effects in the 1994 Texas Gubernatorial Election" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the AEJMC, Washington, DC, 1995); Lynda L. Kaid, "Videostyle and the Effects of the 1996 Presidential Campaign Advertising," in The 1996 Presidential Campaign, A Communication Perspective, ed. Robert E. Denton (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998): 143-159; Lynda L. Kaid and Anne Johnston, "Negative versus Positive Television Advertising in U.S. Presidential Campaigns, 1960-1988," Journal of Communication 41 (summer, 1991): 53-64; Lori M. McKinnon, Lynda L. Kaid, Janet Murphy, and Cynthia K. Acree, "Policing Political Ads: An Analysis of Five Leading Newspaper's Response to 1992 Political Advertisements," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (spring 1996): 66-76; Roberts and McCombs, "Agenda Setting and Political Advertising: Origins of the News Agenda," 249-62.
50. The formula allows the measurement of the number of correct categorizations out of the total number of categories coded by two or more coders. As noted in Robert C. North, Ole R. Holsti, M. George Zaninovich, and Dina A. Zinnes, Content Analysis, A Handbook with Applications for the Study of International Crisis (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1963), 49, the formula is ℛ = 2(C1, 2)/C1 + C2. This formula has been used frequently by media scholars (i.e., Kaid and Johnston, "Negative versus Positive Television Advertising in U.S. Presidential Campaigns, 1960-1988").
51. The formula allows the measurement of the number of correct categorizations out of the total number of categories coded by two or more coders. As noted in Robert C. North, Ole R. Holsti, M. George Zaninovich, and Dina A. Zinnes, Content Analysis, A Handbook with Applications for the Study of International Crisis (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1963), 49, the formula is ℛ = 2(C1, 2)/C1 + C2. This formula has been used frequently by media scholars (i.e., Kaid and Johnston, "Negative versus Positive Television Advertising in U.S. Presidential Campaigns, 1960-1988").
52. Lynda L. Kaid, "Political Advertising in the 1992 Campaign," in The 1992 Presidential Campaign, A Communication Perspective, ed. Robert E. Denton Jr. (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1994), 111-28; Kaid and Johnston, "Negative versus Positive Television Advertising in U.S. Presidential Campaigns, 1960-1988," 53-64.
53. Lynda L. Kaid, "Political Advertising in the 1992 Campaign," in The 1992 Presidential Campaign, A Communication Perspective, ed. Robert E. Denton Jr. (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1994), 111-28; Kaid and Johnston, "Negative versus Positive Television Advertising in U.S. Presidential Campaigns, 1960-1988," 53-64.
54. e.g., Roberts and McCombs, "Agenda Setting and Political Advertising: Origins of the News Agenda," 252.
55. Unlike some sources that provide only story summaries, these verbatim written transcripts provide a much better source for content analysis. The transcripts were obtained from Burrelle's Transcripts, Livingston, NJ, and the General Document Clearing House, Inc., Landover, MD.
56. Judy R. Sims and Joseph Giordano, "Newspaper coverage of the 1992 presidential campaign: A content analysis of character/competence/image issues versus platform/political issues" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Speech Communication Association, Miami Beach, FL, 1993).
57. Susan H. Miller, Reporters and Congressmen: Living in Symbiosis, Journalism Monographs, no. 53 (Columbia, SC: AEJMC, January 1978).
58. W. Lance Bennett, News, The Politics of Illusion (White Plains, NY: Longman, 1996), 23.
59. Hierarchical regression analysis was used to allow a consideration of the campaign and news variables. In the models, the candidate advertising variables were considered for their predictive ability followed by the news variables block. This stepwise modeling allowed a consideration of both blocks in a parsimonious fashion and has been used in similar studies (e.g., Dan Drew and David Weaver, "Voter Learning in the 1996 Presidential Election: Did the Media Matter?" Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 75 [summer 1998]: 292-301).
60. W. Lance Bennett, "Cracking the News Code: Some Rules That Journalists Live By," in Do the Media Govern? Politicians, Voters, and Reporters in America, ed. Shanto Iyengar and Richard Reeves (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997), 109.
61. Robert E. Denton Jr., "Communication Variables and Dynamics of the 1996 Presidential Campaign," in The 1996 Presidential Campaign, A Communication Perspective, ed. Robert E. Denton Jr. (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998), 1-50.
62. Denton, "Communication Variables and Dynamics of the 1996 Presidential Campaign," 23.
63. Patterson, Out of Order.
64. Lichter, Noyes and Kaid, "No News or Negative News: How the Networks Nixed the '96 Campaign."
65. Devlin, "Contrasts in Presidential Campaign Commercials of 1996."
66. E. D. Dover, The Presidential Election of 1996: Clinton's Incumbency and Television (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998), 164-65.
67. Roberts and McCombs, "Agenda Setting and Political Advertising: Origins of the News Agenda."
68. Gerald M. Pomper, Walter Dean Burnham, Anthony Corrado, Marjorie Randon Hershey, Marion R. Just, Scott Keeter, Wilson Carey McWilliams, and William G. Mayer, The Election of 1996 (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House, 1997), 100; Montague Kern, "Social Capital and Citizen Interpretation of Political Ads, News, and Web Site Information in the 1996 Presidential Election," American Behavioral Scientist 40 (August 1997): 1238-1249.
69. Gerald M. Pomper, Walter Dean Burnham, Anthony Corrado, Marjorie Randon Hershey, Marion R. Just, Scott Keeter, Wilson Carey McWilliams, and William G. Mayer, The Election of 1996 (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House, 1997), 100; Montague Kern, "Social Capital and Citizen Interpretation of Political Ads, News, and Web Site Information in the 1996 Presidential Election," American Behavioral Scientist 40 (August 1997): 1238-1249.