Why I killed Canadian history: Towards an anti-racist history in Canada

Histoire Sociale

Volumn 33, Issue 65, 2000, Pages 78-102

  Stanley, Timothy J ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0040357447     PISSN: 00182257     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (146)

1. My use of the plural is consistent with anti-racist theory. It acknowledges that racism has taken so many different forms that it cannot be considered a single thing. I discuss this further below.
2. On "anti-racism", see George J. Sefa Dei, Anti-Racism Education: Theory and Practice (Halifax: Fernwood, 1996); Ali Rattansi, "Changing the Subject? Racism, Culture and Education", in James Donald and Ali Rattansi, eds., "Race", Culture and Difference (London: Sage, 1992), pp. 11-48. On the term "critical multiculturalism", see David Theo Goldberg, "Introduction: Multiculture Condition", in Goldberg, ed., Multiculturalism. A Critical Reader (Oxford, U.K., and Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1994), pp. 1-41.
3. On "anti-racism", see George J. Sefa Dei, Anti-Racism Education: Theory and Practice (Halifax: Fernwood, 1996); Ali Rattansi, "Changing the Subject? Racism, Culture and Education", in James Donald and Ali Rattansi, eds., "Race", Culture and Difference (London: Sage, 1992), pp. 11-48. On the term "critical multiculturalism", see David Theo Goldberg, "Introduction: Multiculture Condition", in Goldberg, ed., Multiculturalism. A Critical Reader (Oxford, U.K., and Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1994), pp. 1-41.
4. On "anti-racism", see George J. Sefa Dei, Anti-Racism Education: Theory and Practice (Halifax: Fernwood, 1996); Ali Rattansi, "Changing the Subject? Racism, Culture and Education", in James Donald and Ali Rattansi, eds., "Race", Culture and Difference (London: Sage, 1992), pp. 11-48. On the term "critical multiculturalism", see David Theo Goldberg, "Introduction: Multiculture Condition", in Goldberg, ed., Multiculturalism. A Critical Reader (Oxford, U.K., and Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1994), pp. 1-41.
5. See Leslie G. Roman, "White is a Color! White Defensiveness, Postmodernism, and Anti-Racist Pedagogy", in Cameron McCarthy and Warren Crichlow, eds., Race, Identity and Representation in Education (New York and London: Routledge, 1993), pp. 71-88; Christine Sleeter, "How White Teachers Construct Race", in McCarthy and Crichlow, eds. Race, Identity and Representation, pp. 157-171. Sec also Leslie G. Roman, "Denying (White) Racial Privilege: Redemptive Discourse and the Uses of Fantasy", in Michelle Fine et al., eds., Off White: Readings on Society, Race and Culture (New York: Routledge, 1997), pp. 270-282.
6. See Leslie G. Roman, "White is a Color! White Defensiveness, Postmodernism, and Anti-Racist Pedagogy", in Cameron McCarthy and Warren Crichlow, eds., Race, Identity and Representation in Education (New York and London: Routledge, 1993), pp. 71-88; Christine Sleeter, "How White Teachers Construct Race", in McCarthy and Crichlow, eds. Race, Identity and Representation, pp. 157-171. Sec also Leslie G. Roman, "Denying (White) Racial Privilege: Redemptive Discourse and the Uses of Fantasy", in Michelle Fine et al., eds., Off White: Readings on Society, Race and Culture (New York: Routledge, 1997), pp. 270-282.
7. See Leslie G. Roman, "White is a Color! White Defensiveness, Postmodernism, and Anti-Racist Pedagogy", in Cameron McCarthy and Warren Crichlow, eds., Race, Identity and Representation in Education (New York and London: Routledge, 1993), pp. 71-88; Christine Sleeter, "How White Teachers Construct Race", in McCarthy and Crichlow, eds. Race, Identity and Representation, pp. 157-171. Sec also Leslie G. Roman, "Denying (White) Racial Privilege: Redemptive Discourse and the Uses of Fantasy", in Michelle Fine et al., eds., Off White: Readings on Society, Race and Culture (New York: Routledge, 1997), pp. 270-282.
8. A useful introduction to racism in Canada today is Frances Henry et al., The Colour of Democracy: Racism in Canadian Society, 2nd ed. (Toronto: Harcourt Brace Canada, 2000). On aspects of contemporary popular racism, see Leslie G. Roman and Timothy J. Stanley, "Empires, Émigrés, and Aliens: Young People's Negotiations of Official and Popular Racism in Canada", in Leslie G. Roman and Linda Eyre, eds., Dangerous Territories: Struggles for Equality and Difference in Education (New York and London: Routledge, 1997), pp. 205-232.
9. A useful introduction to racism in Canada today is Frances Henry et al., The Colour of Democracy: Racism in Canadian Society, 2nd ed. (Toronto: Harcourt Brace Canada, 2000). On aspects of contemporary popular racism, see Leslie G. Roman and Timothy J. Stanley, "Empires, Émigrés, and Aliens: Young People's Negotiations of Official and Popular Racism in Canada", in Leslie G. Roman and Linda Eyre, eds., Dangerous Territories: Struggles for Equality and Difference in Education (New York and London: Routledge, 1997), pp. 205-232.
10. Ruth Frankenburg, White Women, Race Matters: The Social Construction of Whiteness (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993); Philip Cohen, "The Perversions of Inheritance: Studies in the Making of Multi-Racist Britain", in Philip Cohen and Harwant S. Bains, eds., Multi-Racist Britain (Houndsmill, Basingstoke: Macmillan Education, 1988), pp. 9-118.
11. Ruth Frankenburg, White Women, Race Matters: The Social Construction of Whiteness (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993); Philip Cohen, "The Perversions of Inheritance: Studies in the Making of Multi-Racist Britain", in Philip Cohen and Harwant S. Bains, eds., Multi-Racist Britain (Houndsmill, Basingstoke: Macmillan Education, 1988), pp. 9-118.
12. I am not being modest here. My Chinese is good enough to recognize the importance of a document, hut often not good enough to read it with any case. The fact that I am among the few historians of Canada who read any Chinese at all, when Chinese languages are the third most common in Canada, is itself an indication of the weakness of the field.
13. Keith Jenkins, Re-Thinking History (London and New York: Routledge, 1991).
14. Martin Bunzl, Real History: Reflections on Historical Practice (London and New York: Routledge, 1997); Satya P. Mohanty, Literary Theory and the Claims of History: Postmodernism, Objectivity, Multicultural Politics (Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997).
15. Martin Bunzl, Real History: Reflections on Historical Practice (London and New York: Routledge, 1997); Satya P. Mohanty, Literary Theory and the Claims of History: Postmodernism, Objectivity, Multicultural Politics (Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997).
16. My usage of the term "grand narrative" follows Allan Megill, "'Grand Narrative' and the Discipline of History", in Frank Ankersmit and Hans Kellner, eds., A New Philosophy of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), pp. 151-173.
17. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983).
18. On the American case, see Dorothy Ross, "Grand Narrative in American Historical Writing: From Romance to Uncertainty", American Historical Review, vol. 100, no. 3 (June 1995), pp. 651-677.
19. I take this spelling from the Gage Canadian Dictionary ([Toronto]: Oxford University Press, 1998), reproduced in Canadian Encyclopedia 2000 World Edition [cd-rom] (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1999).
20. I take this spelling from the Gage Canadian Dictionary ([Toronto]: Oxford University Press, 1998), reproduced in Canadian Encyclopedia 2000 World Edition [cd-rom] (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1999).
21. Daniel Francis, National Dreams: Myth, Memory, and Canadian History (Vancouver: Arsenal Pulp Press, 1997).
22. Consider the Canada Hall at the Canadian Museum of Civilization. It starts its historical account with the arrival of Europeans (the Vikings at L'Anse Aux Meadows) and portrays the Chinese through the reproduction of a hand laundry. See "Canada Hall - Phase I" and "Canada Hall - Phase II", http:// www.civilisations.ca/indexle.html, accessed September 1, 2000.
23. CRB Foundation Heritage Project, The Heritage Minutes/ Les reflets du patrimoine [videorecording] (Kingston, Ont.: CRB Foundation, [1995]).
24. I have in mind a series of beer commercials modelled on the Heritage Minutes.
25. I arrive at this conclusion from having observed practicum students in both elementary and high schools. "Grand narrative" seems to be the stuff of most public school teaching, even if it does not represent best practices. Since few teachers before senior high school have any critical formation in history, this should not be surprising.
26. Timothy J. Stanley, "The Struggle for History: Historical Narratives and Anti-Racist Pedagogy", Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, vol. 19, no. 1 (1998), pp. 41-52.
27. George J. Sefa Dei, Josephine Mazzuca, Elizabeth McIsaac, and Jasmin Zine, Reconstructing "Dropout": A Critical Ethnography of the Dynamics of Black Students' Disengagement from School (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998), p. 138.
28. Ibid.
29. Ibid., p. 137.
30. Ibid., passim.
31. This resulted in the ethnic histories that Roberto Perin rightly criticized as "filiopietist". See Roberto Perin, "Clio as Ethnic: The Third Force in Canadian Historiography", Canadian Historical Review, vol. 64, no. 4 (1983), pp. 441-467.
32. On Chinese railway workers, see the excellent account of Patricia E. Roy, "A Choice Between Evils: The Chinese and the Construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway in British Columbia", in Hugh A. Dempsey, ed., The CPR West: The Iron Road and the Making of a Nation (Vancouver: Douglas and MacIntyre, 1984), pp. 13-34.
33. See Wing Chung Ng, The Chinese in Vancouver, 1945-1980: The Pursuit of Identity and Power (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1999), for a brilliant account of such continuities. See also Timothy J. Stanley, " 'Chinamen, Wherever We Go': Chinese Nationalism and Guangdong Merchants in British Columbia, 1871-1911", Canadian Historical Review, vol. 77, no. 4(Fal 1996), pp. 475-503.
34. See Wing Chung Ng, The Chinese in Vancouver, 1945-1980: The Pursuit of Identity and Power (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1999), for a brilliant account of such continuities. See also Timothy J. Stanley, " 'Chinamen, Wherever We Go': Chinese Nationalism and Guangdong Merchants in British Columbia, 1871-1911", Canadian Historical Review, vol. 77, no. 4(Fal 1996), pp. 475-503.
35. Eleanor Laquian, Aprodicio Laquian, and Terry McGee, eds., The Silent Debate: Asian Immigration and Racism in Canada (Vancouver: Institute of Asian Research, University of British Columbia, 1998).
36. See Donald Harman Akenson, "The Historiography of English-Speaking Canada and the Concept of Diaspora: A Sceptical Appreciation", Canadian Historical Review, vol. 76, no. 3 (September 1995), pp. 377-409.
37. Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993).
38. J. L. Granatstein, Who Killed Canadian History? (Toronto: HarperCollins, 1998).
39. Ibid., p. 149. People on both sides of the death of Canadian history debate often underestimate the difficulties of teaching history in elementary and secondary schools.
40. Granatstein, Who Killed Canadian History?, pp. 42-50, 149-150.
41. Ibid., pp. 101-102. I am not sure how seriously Granatstein would be willing to argue, as this statement's exaggerated rhetoric implies, that the values of other civilizations have been "tested" and found to be "untrue". His use of the first person plural is even more problematic. Very much to the point is the question of who is included and who include themselves in his "our/we".
42. Granatstein, Who Killed Canadian History?, p. 148.
43. A. B. McKillop, "Who Killed Canadian History? A View from the Trenches", Canadian Historical Review, vol. 80, no. 2 (June 1999), pp. 269-299.
44. Ibid., p. 272.
45. Ibid., p. 297.
46. McKillop's reduction of history to the civic purposes of the nation-state has rightly been criticized by Bryan Palmer, "Of Silences and Trenches: A Dissident View of Granatstein's Meaning", Canadian Historical Review, vol. 80, no. 4 (December 1999), pp. 676-686.
47. Granatstein, Who Killed Canadian History?, pp. 96-98. Granatstein's discussion of the internment of Ukrainians during World War I and Italians during the Second World War, if anything, highlights that the Japanese "evacuation" was of a different order. The former actions were aimed at individuals, even if they swept up innocent bystanders as well. The latter was aimed at an entire population.
48. Granatstein, Who Killed Canadian History?, p. 102. Contrast the limited notion of context in Granatstein's understanding of the Pacific war to that of John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986). A useful typology of racisms distinguishes between racism as individual, as institutional, and as cultural. The last two forms especially shape the nation-state itself. On this typology, see Benjamin P. Bowser, "Introduction: The Global Community, Racism, and Anti-Racism", in Bowser, ed., Racism and Anti-Racism in World Perspective (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1995), pp. ix-xxix.
49. Granatstein, Who Killed Canadian History?, p. 102. Contrast the limited notion of context in Granatstein's understanding of the Pacific war to that of John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986). A useful typology of racisms distinguishes between racism as individual, as institutional, and as cultural. The last two forms especially shape the nation-state itself. On this typology, see Benjamin P. Bowser, "Introduction: The Global Community, Racism, and Anti-Racism", in Bowser, ed., Racism and Anti-Racism in World Perspective (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1995), pp. ix-xxix.
50. Granatstein, Who Killed Canadian History?, p. 102. Contrast the limited notion of context in Granatstein's understanding of the Pacific war to that of John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986). A useful typology of racisms distinguishes between racism as individual, as institutional, and as cultural. The last two forms especially shape the nation-state itself. On this typology, see Benjamin P. Bowser, "Introduction: The Global Community, Racism, and Anti-Racism", in Bowser, ed., Racism and Anti-Racism in World Perspective (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1995), pp. ix-xxix.
51. Granatstein, Who Killed Canadian History?, p. 94.
52. Two recent examples are James W. St. G. Walker, "Race", Rights and the Law in the Supreme Court of Canada: Historical Case Studies ([Waterloo, Ont]: Osgoode Society for Canadian Legal History, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, c1997); Constance Backhouse, Colour-Coded: A Legal History of Racism in Canada, 1900-1950 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999). Significantly both of these works address issues in law, an area that has paid considerable attention to anti-racist history. Backhouse in particular frames her study in terms of critical race theory.
53. Two recent examples are James W. St. G. Walker, "Race", Rights and the Law in the Supreme Court of Canada: Historical Case Studies ([Waterloo, Ont]: Osgoode Society for Canadian Legal History, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, c1997); Constance Backhouse, Colour-Coded: A Legal History of Racism in Canada, 1900-1950 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999). Significantly both of these works address issues in law, an area that has paid considerable attention to anti-racist history. Backhouse in particular frames her study in terms of critical race theory.
54. Margaret Conrad, Alvin Finkel, et al., History of the Canadian Peoples, 2 vols. (Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman, 1993). While Granatstein calls the authors to task for a number of shortcomings, he rightly sees their account as a departure from the political history that he wishes to restore. See Granatstein, Who Killed Canadian History?, pp. 57-58. Granatstein's critique of the authors' treatment of the two world wars seems especially well taken. It will be interesting to see if subsequent editions correct this. For a rather different appreciation of the significance of Conrad et al., one more consistent with McKillop's, see Jean-Paul Bernard, "L'historiographie canadienne récente (1964-94) el l'histoire des peuples du Canada", Canadian Historical Review, vol. 76, no. 3 (September 1995), pp. 321-353.
55. Margaret Conrad, Alvin Finkel, et al., History of the Canadian Peoples, 2 vols. (Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman, 1993). While Granatstein calls the authors to task for a number of shortcomings, he rightly sees their account as a departure from the political history that he wishes to restore. See Granatstein, Who Killed Canadian History?, pp. 57-58. Granatstein's critique of the authors' treatment of the two world wars seems especially well taken. It will be interesting to see if subsequent editions correct this. For a rather different appreciation of the significance of Conrad et al., one more consistent with McKillop's, see Jean-Paul Bernard, "L'historiographie canadienne récente (1964-94) el l'histoire des peuples du Canada", Canadian Historical Review, vol. 76, no. 3 (September 1995), pp. 321-353.
56. Margaret Conrad, Alvin Finkel, et al., History of the Canadian Peoples, 2 vols. (Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman, 1993). While Granatstein calls the authors to task for a number of shortcomings, he rightly sees their account as a departure from the political history that he wishes to restore. See Granatstein, Who Killed Canadian History?, pp. 57-58. Granatstein's critique of the authors' treatment of the two world wars seems especially well taken. It will be interesting to see if subsequent editions correct this. For a rather different appreciation of the significance of Conrad et al., one more consistent with McKillop's, see Jean-Paul Bernard, "L'historiographie canadienne récente (1964-94) el l'histoire des peuples du Canada", Canadian Historical Review, vol. 76, no. 3 (September 1995), pp. 321-353.
57. Conrad et al., History of the Canadian Peoples, Volume I: Beginnings to 1867, p. xvi.
58. Ibid., pp. 10-11.
59. See, for example, ibid., pp. 82-123. The second volume is Alvin Finkel et al., History of the Canadian Peoples, Volume II: 1867 to the Present.
60. See, for example, ibid., pp. 82-123. The second volume is Alvin Finkel et al., History of the Canadian Peoples, Volume II: 1867 to the Present.
61. Conrad et al., History of the Canadian Peoples, Volume I, pp. 48-81.
62. See, for example, ibid., pp. 497-502.
63. See, for example, ibid., pp. 502-508.
64. Ibid., pp. 470-471.
65. See, for examples, Finkel et al., History of the Canadian Peoples, Volume II, pp. 100-101, 118-119.
66. Edgar Wickberg, ed., From China to Canada: A History of the Chinese Communities of Canada (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1982); Anthony B. Chan, Gold Mountain: The Chinese in the New World (Vancouver: New Star Books, 1983); Peter S. Li, The Chinese in Canada (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1988).
67. Edgar Wickberg, ed., From China to Canada: A History of the Chinese Communities of Canada (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1982); Anthony B. Chan, Gold Mountain: The Chinese in the New World (Vancouver: New Star Books, 1983); Peter S. Li, The Chinese in Canada (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1988).
68. Edgar Wickberg, ed., From China to Canada: A History of the Chinese Communities of Canada (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1982); Anthony B. Chan, Gold Mountain: The Chinese in the New World (Vancouver: New Star Books, 1983); Peter S. Li, The Chinese in Canada (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1988).
69. Finkel, et al., History of the Canadian Peoples, Volume II, pp. 259-260.
70. Ibid., pp. xii-xv.
71. Jean Barman, The West Beyond the West: A History of British Columbia (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991); Hugh M. Johnson, ed., The Pacific Province: A History of British Columbia (Vancouver: Douglas and McIntyre, 1996).
72. Jean Barman, The West Beyond the West: A History of British Columbia (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991); Hugh M. Johnson, ed., The Pacific Province: A History of British Columbia (Vancouver: Douglas and McIntyre, 1996).
73. Barman, "Disregard for Native Peoples, 1858-1945", The West Beyond the West, pp. 151-175.
74. Douglas Cole, "Leisure, Taste and Tradition in British Columbia", in Johnson, ed., The Pacific Province, pp. 344-381. However much this may be a step forward in some respects, it is historically highly problematic. For a different assessment of the role of the Chinese in British Columbia, see Robert Galois and R. Cole Harris, "Racalibrating Society: The Population Geography of British Columbia", The Canadian Geographer, vol. 38, no. 1 (1994), pp. 37-53.
75. Douglas Cole, "Leisure, Taste and Tradition in British Columbia", in Johnson, ed., The Pacific Province, pp. 344-381. However much this may be a step forward in some respects, it is historically highly problematic. For a different assessment of the role of the Chinese in British Columbia, see Robert Galois and R. Cole Harris, "Racalibrating Society: The Population Geography of British Columbia", The Canadian Geographer, vol. 38, no. 1 (1994), pp. 37-53.
76. See Carl Berger, The Writing of Canadian History: Aspects of Engish-Canadian Historical Writing Since 1900), 2nd ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1986).
77. David T. H. Lee [Lee T'ung-hai], Jianada Huaqiao shi [A history of Chinese in Canada] (Taibei: Zhonghua Da Dian Bianying Hui, 1967).
78. David T. H. Lee (Lee T'ung-hai) [Li Donghai], ed., Jianada Yuduoli Zhonghua Huiguan/ Huaqiao Xuexiao chengli qishiwu/ liushi zhounian jinian tekan [Special memorial publication marking the 75th anniversary of Canada's Victoria Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association and the 60th anniversary of the Overseas Chinese School] (Victoria: Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association, 1960).
79. Wickberg, ed. From China to Canada, p. 334.
80. An informal English translation of Jianada Huaqiao shi was prepared as part of the background material for From China to Canada (Edgar Wickberg, personal communication, March 4, 1999). This translation can be found in the Chinese Canadian Research Collection of the Special Collections Division, University of British Columbia.
81. Consider the time line discussion of major events in Lee, Jianada Huaqiao shi, pp. 479-507.
82. See the chapters on Li Hongzhang, Kang Youwei, and Sun Yat-sen in ibid., pp. 256-272, 273-278, 279-320.
83. For a full discussion of the term, see Wang Gungwu, "Patterns of Chinese Migration in Historical Perspective", in Wang Gungwu, China and the Overseas Chinese (Singapore: Times Academic Press, 1991), pp. 3-21.
84. Lee, Jianada Huaqiao shi, pp. 469-478. Part of this chapter is translated in Ng, The Chinese in Vancouver.
85. Lee, Jianada Huaqiao shi, pp. 469-478. Part of this chapter is translated in Ng, The Chinese in Vancouver.
86. Lee, Jianada Huaqiao shi, pp. 443-444.
87. See, for example, the chapter on "Overseas Chinese Culture and Education" in ibid., pp. 321-354.
88. The absence of Aborigianl peoples and other non-Chinese in Jianada Huaqiao shi demonstrates that one grand narrative cannot simply replace another.
89. Wickberg, ed., From China to Canada, p. 334.
90. See the intriguing Grant Hardy, "Can an Ancient Chinese Historian Contribute to Modern Western Theory? The Multiple Narratives of Ssu-Ma Chien", History and Theory, vol. 33, no. 1 (1995), pp. 20-39, which suggests that such multiple, overlapping, and contradictory accounts may be more accurate than the over-arching narratives of European histories.
91. These can be found in the City of Vancouver Archives, Yip Family and Yip Sang Company Ltd. Papers, Add. Ms. 1108, vol. 89-91.
92. While there is a significant literature on particular racisms in history, including in Canada, only recently has the salience of racism to historical theory been explored. See, for example, Ann Laura Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1995). My discussion here follows David Theo Goldberg, Racist Culture: Philosophy and the Politics of Meaning (Oxford, England; and Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1993).
93. While there is a significant literature on particular racisms in history, including in Canada, only recently has the salience of racism to historical theory been explored. See, for example, Ann Laura Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1995). My discussion here follows David Theo Goldberg, Racist Culture: Philosophy and the Politics of Meaning (Oxford, England; and Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1993).
94. Christian Delacampagne, L'invention du racisme : antiquité et Moyen-Âge (Paris: Fayard, 1983), p. 13.
95. See the various contributions to Donald and Rattansi, eds., "Race", Culture and Difference.
96. Goldberg, Racist Culture, p. 91.
97. Ibid., p. 97.
98. Tani Barlow, "Theorizing Women: Funü, Guojia, Jiating (Chinese Women, Chinese State, Chinese Family]̈, Genders, no. 10 (Spring 1991), pp. 132-160. See also Barlow, "Politics and Protocols of Funü: (Un)Making National Women", in Christina Gilmartin et al., eds., Engendering China: Women, Culture and the State, Harvard Contemporary China Series (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994), pp. 339-359.
99. Tani Barlow, "Theorizing Women: Funü, Guojia, Jiating (Chinese Women, Chinese State, Chinese Family]̈, Genders, no. 10 (Spring 1991), pp. 132-160. See also Barlow, "Politics and Protocols of Funü: (Un)Making National Women", in Christina Gilmartin et al., eds., Engendering China: Women, Culture and the State, Harvard Contemporary China Series (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994), pp. 339-359.
100. Theodore W. Allen, The Invention of the White Race, 2 vols. (London and New York: Verso, 1994); Bowser, ed., Racism and Anti-racism in World Perspective.
101. See Robert Miles, Racism, Key Ideas Series (London: Routledge, 1989), p. 74.
102. Ibid., p. 7.
103. Goldberg, Racist Culture, pp. 94-95. Racialization is not in and of itself racist.
104. Hannah Arendt, "Race-Thinking Before Racism", Review of Politics, vol. 6 (1944), pp. 36-73.
105. English and French differences have been conceived in racial terms. Perhaps best known is Pierre Vallières, Nègres blancs d'Amérique, new rev. ed. (Montreal: Typo, 1994). But see also André Siegfried, The Race Question in Canada (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1966). "Race" is a rather slippery category whose elements shift over time. See, for examples, Michael Banton, Racial Theories (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); Nancy L. Stepan, The Idea of Race in Science: Great Britain, 1800-1960 (London: Macmillan, 1982).
106. English and French differences have been conceived in racial terms. Perhaps best known is Pierre Vallières, Nègres blancs d'Amérique, new rev. ed. (Montreal: Typo, 1994). But see also André Siegfried, The Race Question in Canada (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1966). "Race" is a rather slippery category whose elements shift over time. See, for examples, Michael Banton, Racial Theories (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); Nancy L. Stepan, The Idea of Race in Science: Great Britain, 1800-1960 (London: Macmillan, 1982).
107. English and French differences have been conceived in racial terms. Perhaps best known is Pierre Vallières, Nègres blancs d'Amérique, new rev. ed. (Montreal: Typo, 1994). But see also André Siegfried, The Race Question in Canada (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1966). "Race" is a rather slippery category whose elements shift over time. See, for examples, Michael Banton, Racial Theories (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); Nancy L. Stepan, The Idea of Race in Science: Great Britain, 1800-1960 (London: Macmillan, 1982).
108. English and French differences have been conceived in racial terms. Perhaps best known is Pierre Vallières, Nègres blancs d'Amérique, new rev. ed. (Montreal: Typo, 1994). But see also André Siegfried, The Race Question in Canada (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1966). "Race" is a rather slippery category whose elements shift over time. See, for examples, Michael Banton, Racial Theories (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); Nancy L. Stepan, The Idea of Race in Science: Great Britain, 1800-1960 (London: Macmillan, 1982).
109. Paul Gilroy, "Nationalism, History and Ethnic Absolultism", History Workshop Journal, no. 30 (Autumn 1990), pp. 114-120.
110. Canada, House of Commons, Debates (Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1885), p. 1589.
111. Goldberg, Racist Culture, pp. 98-103.
112. Ibid., pp. 111-116.
113. In addition to works cited above, consider M. Ibrahim Alladin, ed., Racism in Canadian Schools (Toronto: Harcourt Brace, 1995); E. Ellis Cashmore, The Logic of Racism (London: Allen & Unwin, 1987); Barry Troyna and Richard Hatcher, Racism in Children's Lives: A Study of a Mainly-White Primary School (London and New York: Routledge, 1992); Michael Omi, Michael Winant, and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States from the 1960s to the 1980s (New York and London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986); David Theo Goldberg, ed., Anatomy of Racism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990); Christine Sleeter and Peter McLaren, eds., Multicultural Education, Critical Pedagogy, and the Politics of Difference (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995); Roxana Ng et al., Anti-Racism, Feminism and Critical Approaches to Education (Westpan, Conn.: Bergin and Garvey, 1995); M. Jacqui Alexander and Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Feminist Genealogies, Colonial Legacies, Democratic Futures (London and New York: Routledge, 1997); Alistair Bonnet, Anti-Racism (London: Routledge, 2000).
114. In addition to works cited above, consider M. Ibrahim Alladin, ed., Racism in Canadian Schools (Toronto: Harcourt Brace, 1995); E. Ellis Cashmore, The Logic of Racism (London: Allen & Unwin, 1987); Barry Troyna and Richard Hatcher, Racism in Children's Lives: A Study of a Mainly-White Primary School (London and New York: Routledge, 1992); Michael Omi, Michael Winant, and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States from the 1960s to the 1980s (New York and London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986); David Theo Goldberg, ed., Anatomy of Racism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990); Christine Sleeter and Peter McLaren, eds., Multicultural Education, Critical Pedagogy, and the Politics of Difference (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995); Roxana Ng et al., Anti-Racism, Feminism and Critical Approaches to Education (Westpan, Conn.: Bergin and Garvey, 1995); M. Jacqui Alexander and Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Feminist Genealogies, Colonial Legacies, Democratic Futures (London and New York: Routledge, 1997); Alistair Bonnet, Anti-Racism (London: Routledge, 2000).
115. In addition to works cited above, consider M. Ibrahim Alladin, ed., Racism in Canadian Schools (Toronto: Harcourt Brace, 1995); E. Ellis Cashmore, The Logic of Racism (London: Allen & Unwin, 1987); Barry Troyna and Richard Hatcher, Racism in Children's Lives: A Study of a Mainly-White Primary School (London and New York: Routledge, 1992); Michael Omi, Michael Winant, and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States from the 1960s to the 1980s (New York and London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986); David Theo Goldberg, ed., Anatomy of Racism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990); Christine Sleeter and Peter McLaren, eds., Multicultural Education, Critical Pedagogy, and the Politics of Difference (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995); Roxana Ng et al., Anti-Racism, Feminism and Critical Approaches to Education (Westpan, Conn.: Bergin and Garvey, 1995); M. Jacqui Alexander and Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Feminist Genealogies, Colonial Legacies, Democratic Futures (London and New York: Routledge, 1997); Alistair Bonnet, Anti-Racism (London: Routledge, 2000).
116. In addition to works cited above, consider M. Ibrahim Alladin, ed., Racism in Canadian Schools (Toronto: Harcourt Brace, 1995); E. Ellis Cashmore, The Logic of Racism (London: Allen & Unwin, 1987); Barry Troyna and Richard Hatcher, Racism in Children's Lives: A Study of a Mainly-White Primary School (London and New York: Routledge, 1992); Michael Omi, Michael Winant, and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States from the 1960s to the 1980s (New York and London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986); David Theo Goldberg, ed., Anatomy of Racism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990); Christine Sleeter and Peter McLaren, eds., Multicultural Education, Critical Pedagogy, and the Politics of Difference (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995); Roxana Ng et al., Anti-Racism, Feminism and Critical Approaches to Education (Westpan, Conn.: Bergin and Garvey, 1995); M. Jacqui Alexander and Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Feminist Genealogies, Colonial Legacies, Democratic Futures (London and New York: Routledge, 1997); Alistair Bonnet, Anti-Racism (London: Routledge, 2000).
117. In addition to works cited above, consider M. Ibrahim Alladin, ed., Racism in Canadian Schools (Toronto: Harcourt Brace, 1995); E. Ellis Cashmore, The Logic of Racism (London: Allen & Unwin, 1987); Barry Troyna and Richard Hatcher, Racism in Children's Lives: A Study of a Mainly-White Primary School (London and New York: Routledge, 1992); Michael Omi, Michael Winant, and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States from the 1960s to the 1980s (New York and London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986); David Theo Goldberg, ed., Anatomy of Racism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990); Christine Sleeter and Peter McLaren, eds., Multicultural Education, Critical Pedagogy, and the Politics of Difference (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995); Roxana Ng et al., Anti-Racism, Feminism and Critical Approaches to Education (Westpan, Conn.: Bergin and Garvey, 1995); M. Jacqui Alexander and Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Feminist Genealogies, Colonial Legacies, Democratic Futures (London and New York: Routledge, 1997); Alistair Bonnet, Anti-Racism (London: Routledge, 2000).
118. In addition to works cited above, consider M. Ibrahim Alladin, ed., Racism in Canadian Schools (Toronto: Harcourt Brace, 1995); E. Ellis Cashmore, The Logic of Racism (London: Allen & Unwin, 1987); Barry Troyna and Richard Hatcher, Racism in Children's Lives: A Study of a Mainly-White Primary School (London and New York: Routledge, 1992); Michael Omi, Michael Winant, and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States from the 1960s to the 1980s (New York and London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986); David Theo Goldberg, ed., Anatomy of Racism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990); Christine Sleeter and Peter McLaren, eds., Multicultural Education, Critical Pedagogy, and the Politics of Difference (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995); Roxana Ng et al., Anti-Racism, Feminism and Critical Approaches to Education (Westpan, Conn.: Bergin and Garvey, 1995); M. Jacqui Alexander and Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Feminist Genealogies, Colonial Legacies, Democratic Futures (London and New York: Routledge, 1997); Alistair Bonnet, Anti-Racism (London: Routledge, 2000).
119. In addition to works cited above, consider M. Ibrahim Alladin, ed., Racism in Canadian Schools (Toronto: Harcourt Brace, 1995); E. Ellis Cashmore, The Logic of Racism (London: Allen & Unwin, 1987); Barry Troyna and Richard Hatcher, Racism in Children's Lives: A Study of a Mainly-White Primary School (London and New York: Routledge, 1992); Michael Omi, Michael Winant, and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States from the 1960s to the 1980s (New York and London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986); David Theo Goldberg, ed., Anatomy of Racism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990); Christine Sleeter and Peter McLaren, eds., Multicultural Education, Critical Pedagogy, and the Politics of Difference (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995); Roxana Ng et al., Anti-Racism, Feminism and Critical Approaches to Education (Westpan, Conn.: Bergin and Garvey, 1995); M. Jacqui Alexander and Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Feminist Genealogies, Colonial Legacies, Democratic Futures (London and New York: Routledge, 1997); Alistair Bonnet, Anti-Racism (London: Routledge, 2000).
120. In addition to works cited above, consider M. Ibrahim Alladin, ed., Racism in Canadian Schools (Toronto: Harcourt Brace, 1995); E. Ellis Cashmore, The Logic of Racism (London: Allen & Unwin, 1987); Barry Troyna and Richard Hatcher, Racism in Children's Lives: A Study of a Mainly-White Primary School (London and New York: Routledge, 1992); Michael Omi, Michael Winant, and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States from the 1960s to the 1980s (New York and London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986); David Theo Goldberg, ed., Anatomy of Racism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990); Christine Sleeter and Peter McLaren, eds., Multicultural Education, Critical Pedagogy, and the Politics of Difference (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995); Roxana Ng et al., Anti-Racism, Feminism and Critical Approaches to Education (Westpan, Conn.: Bergin and Garvey, 1995); M. Jacqui Alexander and Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Feminist Genealogies, Colonial Legacies, Democratic Futures (London and New York: Routledge, 1997); Alistair Bonnet, Anti-Racism (London: Routledge, 2000).
121. In addition to works cited above, consider M. Ibrahim Alladin, ed., Racism in Canadian Schools (Toronto: Harcourt Brace, 1995); E. Ellis Cashmore, The Logic of Racism (London: Allen & Unwin, 1987); Barry Troyna and Richard Hatcher, Racism in Children's Lives: A Study of a Mainly-White Primary School (London and New York: Routledge, 1992); Michael Omi, Michael Winant, and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States from the 1960s to the 1980s (New York and London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986); David Theo Goldberg, ed., Anatomy of Racism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990); Christine Sleeter and Peter McLaren, eds., Multicultural Education, Critical Pedagogy, and the Politics of Difference (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995); Roxana Ng et al., Anti-Racism, Feminism and Critical Approaches to Education (Westpan, Conn.: Bergin and Garvey, 1995); M. Jacqui Alexander and Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Feminist Genealogies, Colonial Legacies, Democratic Futures (London and New York: Routledge, 1997); Alistair Bonnet, Anti-Racism (London: Routledge, 2000).
122. See, especially, W. Peter Ward, White Canada Forever! Popular Attitudes and Public Policy Toward Orientals in British Columbia (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Oueen's University Press, 1978); Patricia E. Roy, A White Man's Province: British Columbia Politicians and Chinese and Japanese Immigrants, 1858-1914 (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1989); Kay J. Anderson, Vancouver's Chinatown: Racial Discourse in Canada, 1875-1980 (Montreal and Kingston: McGillQueen's University Press, 1991).
123. See, especially, W. Peter Ward, White Canada Forever! Popular Attitudes and Public Policy Toward Orientals in British Columbia (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Oueen's University Press, 1978); Patricia E. Roy, A White Man's Province: British Columbia Politicians and Chinese and Japanese Immigrants, 1858-1914 (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1989); Kay J. Anderson, Vancouver's Chinatown: Racial Discourse in Canada, 1875-1980 (Montreal and Kingston: McGillQueen's University Press, 1991).
124. See, especially, W. Peter Ward, White Canada Forever! Popular Attitudes and Public Policy Toward Orientals in British Columbia (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Oueen's University Press, 1978); Patricia E. Roy, A White Man's Province: British Columbia Politicians and Chinese and Japanese Immigrants, 1858-1914 (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1989); Kay J. Anderson, Vancouver's Chinatown: Racial Discourse in Canada, 1875-1980 (Montreal and Kingston: McGillQueen's University Press, 1991).
125. In Patricia E. Roy, J. L. Granatstein, Masako Iino, and Hiroko Takamura, Mutual Hostages: Canadians and Japanese During the Second World War(Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990).
126. For critiques of Ward, see Rennie Warburton and David Cobern, eds., Workers, Capital and the State in British Columbia: Selected Papers (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1988).
127. Ward, White Canada Forever!, especially pp. 1-22.
128. See Roy's discussion of the Coal Mines Regulation Act in A White Man's Province, pp. 134ff.
129. Anderson, Vancouver's Chinatown.
130. Consider the many statements by Anglo-Europeans and the few by Asians in the two Royal Commissions on Chinese immigration. See Canada, Royal Commission on Chinese and Japanese Immigration, Report of the Commissioners Appointed to Inquire into the Subject of Chinese and Japanese Immigration into the Province of British Columbia (Ottawa: S. E. Dawson, Queen's Printer, 1902); Canada, Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration, Report of the Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration: Report and Evidence (Ottawa: By order of the Commission, 1885).
131. Consider the many statements by Anglo-Europeans and the few by Asians in the two Royal Commissions on Chinese immigration. See Canada, Royal Commission on Chinese and Japanese Immigration, Report of the Commissioners Appointed to Inquire into the Subject of Chinese and Japanese Immigration into the Province of British Columbia (Ottawa: S. E. Dawson, Queen's Printer, 1902); Canada, Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration, Report of the Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration: Report and Evidence (Ottawa: By order of the Commission, 1885).
132. See Ward, White Canada Forever!, pp. 119, 169. See also W. Peter Ward, "Class and Race in the Social Structure of British Columbia, 1870-1939", BC Studies, no. 45 (1980), pp. 17-35. Roy's views are most clearly stated in Patricia E. Roy, "British Columbia's Fear of Asians", Histoire socialel Social History, vol. 13, no. 25 (May 1980), pp. 161-172.
133. See Ward, White Canada Forever!, pp. 119, 169. See also W. Peter Ward, "Class and Race in the Social Structure of British Columbia, 1870-1939", BC Studies, no. 45 (1980), pp. 17-35. Roy's views are most clearly stated in Patricia E. Roy, "British Columbia's Fear of Asians", Histoire socialel Social History, vol. 13, no. 25 (May 1980), pp. 161-172.
134. See Ward, White Canada Forever!, pp. 119, 169. See also W. Peter Ward, "Class and Race in the Social Structure of British Columbia, 1870-1939", BC Studies, no. 45 (1980), pp. 17-35. Roy's views are most clearly stated in Patricia E. Roy, "British Columbia's Fear of Asians", Histoire socialel Social History, vol. 13, no. 25 (May 1980), pp. 161-172.
135. I discuss some of the implications of this source in Timothy J. Stanley, "Schooling, White Supremacy and the Formation of the Chinese Merchant Public in British Columbia", BC Studies, no. 107 (1995) pp. 3-27.
136. See Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage Books, 1978) and Culture and Imperialism (New York: Knopf, 1993).
137. See Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage Books, 1978) and Culture and Imperialism (New York: Knopf, 1993).
138. For an example of colonialism's shaping of a European domestic sphere, see Ann McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (New York and London: Routledge, 1995). Although not grounded in postcolonial theory, still of value is John M. MacKenzie, Propaganda and Empire: The Manipulation of British Public Opinion, 1880-1960 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984).
139. For an example of colonialism's shaping of a European domestic sphere, see Ann McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (New York and London: Routledge, 1995). Although not grounded in postcolonial theory, still of value is John M. MacKenzie, Propaganda and Empire: The Manipulation of British Public Opinion, 1880-1960 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984).
140. See Allan McEachern, CJBC, Reasons for Judgment: Delgamuukw v. B.C. (Smithers, B.C.: Supreme Court of British Columbia, 1991). MacEachern's findings have been substantially overturned by the Supreme Court of Canada. See Supreme Court of Canada, Delgamuukw v. British Columbia [1997], 3 SCR, 1010. In calling for Aboriginal title to be established by a combination of European and Aboriginal historical traditions, the Supreme Court seems to be taking an anti-racist stand. I am indebted to Arthur Ray for bringing the significance of the Supreme Court decision to my attention.
141. Peter C Newman, "A Treaty that Threatens the National Agenda", Maclean's, August 10, 1998, p. 52.
142. This has led Cole Harris to speak of "resettlement". See Cole Harris, The Resettlement of British Columbia: Essay on Colonialism and Geographical Change (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1997).
143. I have in mind here Bryan D. Palmer, Working-Class Experience: Rethinking the History of Canadian Labour, 1800-1991 (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1992), although a better demonstration of a failure to conceive Chinese as workers is Rennie Warburton, "Race and Class in British Columbia: A Comment", BC Studies, no. 49 (Spring 1981), pp. 79-85.
144. I have in mind here Bryan D. Palmer, Working-Class Experience: Rethinking the History of Canadian Labour, 1800-1991 (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1992), although a better demonstration of a failure to conceive Chinese as workers is Rennie Warburton, "Race and Class in British Columbia: A Comment", BC Studies, no. 49 (Spring 1981), pp. 79-85.
145. This does not imply that they would not have recognized certain people as like themselves through the performance of certain shared rituals. For a view of traditional Chinese culture as performative, see James L. Watson, "The Renegotiation of Chinese Cultural Identity in the Post-Mao Era: An Autobiographical Perspective", in Kenneth Lieberthal et al., eds., Perspectives on Modern China: Four Anniversaries (Armonk, N.Y. and London: M. E. Sharpe, 1991), pp. 341-363.
146. See Stanley, " 'Chinamen, Wherever We Go' ".