Production, Properties, and Some New Applications of Chitin and Its Derivatives

Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition

Volumn 43, Issue 2, 2003, Pages 145-171

  Synowiecki, Józef ^a   Al Khateeb, Nadia Ali ^a,b  

^a GDANSK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY   (Poland)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ADEN   (Yemen)

Author keywords

Chitin; Chitosan; Crustacean shells; Mold mycelia; Mucor rouxii

Indexed keywords

CHITOSAN; CRUSTACEAN SHELLS; MOLD MYCELIA; MUCOR ROUXII;

ADSORPTION; BIOPOLYMERS; CONCENTRATION (PROCESS); DEGRADATION; DERIVATIVES; ENZYME KINETICS; FOOD PRODUCTS; FUNGI; MICROORGANISMS; MOLECULAR WEIGHT; SODIUM COMPOUNDS; SOLUTION MINING;

CHITIN;

AMYLOMYCES ROUXII; CRUSTACEA; FUNGI; MUCOR;

CHITIN; CHITOSAN; DRUG DERIVATIVE;

ANIMAL; CHEMISTRY; CRUSTACEA; HUMAN; ISOLATION AND PURIFICATION; REVIEW;

ANIMALS; CHITIN; CHITOSAN; CRUSTACEA; HUMANS;

EID: 0038495578     PISSN: 10408398     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10408690390826473     Document Type: Article

References (108)

1. Aiba, S., Humprey, A.E., and Mills, N., Inżynieria Biochemiczna Warszawa, WNT 1977, 47.
2. Aloise, P.A., Lumme, M., and Haynes, C.A., N-acetyl-D-glucosamine production from chitin-waste using chitinases from Serratia marcescens. In: Muzzarelli, R.A.A., Chitin Enzymology, Atec Edizioni, 1996, 581-593.
3. Arcidiacono, S., Iombardii, S.J., and Kaplan, D.L., Fermentation processing and enzyme characterization for chitosan biosynthesis by Mucor rouxii. In: Skjak-Braek, G., Anthonsen, T., and Sandford, P., Eds., Chitin and Chitosan, London-New York: Elsevier Appl. Sci., 1989, 319-332.
4. Arcidiacono, S. and Kaplan, D.L., Molecular weight distribution of chitosan isolated from Mucor rouxii under different culture and processing conditions. Biotechnol. Bioeng., 1991; 39:281-286.
5. Arredondo, E., Ymashita, Y., Ichikawa, H., Goto, S., Osatomi, K., and Nozaki, Y., Effect of chitosan from shrimp, squid and crab on the state of water and denaturation of myofibrillar protein during frozen storage. In: Domard, A., Roberts, G.A.F., Varum, K.M., Eds., Advances in Chitin Science, Lyon: Jacques Andre Publisher, 1997; 815-822.
6. Ashford, N., Hattis, D., and Murray, A., Industrial prospects for chitin and protein from shellfish wastes. Cambridge Mass. MIT Sea Grant Report MITSG 77-3 MIT, 1977.
7. Austin, P.R., Brine, C.J., Castle, I.E., and Zikakis, J.P., Chitin: new facets of research. Science, 1981; 212:749-753.
8. Bartnicki-Garcia, S. and Nickerson, W. J., Nutrition, growth and morphogenesis of Mucor rouxii. J. Bacterial., 1962; 84:841-858.
9. Bough, W.A., Chitosan - a polymer from seafood waste, for use in treatment of food processing wastes and activated sludge. Process Biochem., 1976; 11:13-22.
10. Bough, W., Salter, W., Wu, A., and Perkins, B., Influence of manufacturing variables on the characteristics and effectiveness of chitosan products. I. Chemical compositions, viscosity, and molecular-weight distribution of chitosan products. Biotech. Bioeng., 1978; 20:1931-1943.
11. Bykowski, P.J., Antarctic krill: harvesting and utilization (in Polish). Studio i Materiaty MIR, 1986.
12. Carroad, P.A. and Tom, R.A., Bioconversion of shellfish chitin waste. Waste pretreatment, enzyme production, process design and economic analysis. J. Food Sci., 1978; 43:1158-1161.
13. Cano-Lopez A., Simpson, B.K., and Haard, N.F., Extraction of carotenoprotein from shrimp process wastes with the aid of trypsin from Atlantic cod. J. Food Sci., 1987; 52:503-504.
14. Chanzy, H., Chitin crystals. In: Domard, A., Roberts, G.A.F., and Varun, K.M., Eds., Advances in Chitin Science, Lyon: Jacques Andre Publisher, 1997; 11-21.
15. Cauchie, H.M., An attempt to estimate crustacean chitin production in the hydrosphere. In: Domard, A., Roberts, G.A.F., and Varum, K.M., Eds., Advances in Chitin Science, Lyon: Jacques Andre Publisher, 1997; 32-38.
16. Chen, H.M., Meyers, S.P., Hardy, R.W., and Biede, S.L., Color stability of astaxanthin pigmented rainbow trout under various packaging conditions. J. Food Sci., 1984; 49:1337-1340.
17. Cosio, I.G., Fisher, R.A., and Carroad, P., Bioconversion of shellfish chitin waste. Waste pretreatment, enzyme production, process design and economic analysis. J. Food Sci., 1982; 47:901-906.
18. Crestini, C. and Giovannozzi-Sermanni G., Solid state fermentation of Lentinus edodes: a new and efficient approach to chitosan production. In: Muzzarelli, R.A.A. Ed., Chitin Enzymology, Atec Edizioni, 1996; 595-600.
19. Davis, L. and Bartnicki-Garcia, S., Chitosan synthesis by the tandem action of chitin synthetase and chitin deacetylase from M. rouxii. Biochemistry, 1984; 23:1065-1073.
20. Garcia-Carreno, F.L., Gollas-Galvan, T., and Navarette del Tore, M., Langostilla (Pleuroncondes planipes) as a source of protein hydrolysate and carotenoprotein. J. Aquatic Food Product Technol., 1999; 8(3):23-38.
21. Gorovoj, L. and Kosyakov, V., Chitin and chitosan bioadsorbents for radionuclids and heavy metals. In: Domard, A., Roberts, G.A.F., Varum, K.M., Eds., Advances in Chitin Science, Lyon: Jacques Andre Publisher, 1997; 858-863.
22. Gorovoj, L., Burdyukova, L., Zemskov, V., and Prilutsky, A., Chitin health product "Mycoton" produced from fungi. In: Advances in Chitin Science, Domard, A., Roberts, G.A.F., Varum, K.M., Eds., Lyon: Jacques Andre Publishers, 1997; 648-655.
23. Hackman, R.H. and Goldberg, M., Studies on chitin. VI. The nature of α- and β-chitins. Austr. J. Biol. Chem., 1965; 18:941-965.
24. Haga, A., and Shirata, A., Analysis of function of chitin prepated from silkworm Bombyx mori. In: Domard, A., Roberts, G.A.F., and Varum, K.M., Eds., Advances in Chitin Science, Lyon: Jacques Andree Publishers, Lyon, 1997; 84-87.
25. Hirano, S. and Nagao, N., Effect of chitosan, pectic acid, lysozyme and chitinase on the growth of several phytopathogens. Agric. Biol. Chem., 1989; 53:3065-3066.
26. Hirano, S., Seino, H., Akiyama, Y., and Nonaka, I., Chitosan: biocompatibile material for oral and intravenous administrations. In: Gebelein, G.G. and Dunn, R.L., Eds., Progress in Biomedical Polymers, New York: Plenum Press, 1990; 283-289.
27. Horner, V., Pittermann, W., and Wacher, R., Efficiency of high molecular weight chitosan in skin care applications. In: Domard, A., Roberts, G.A.F., and Varum, K., Eds., Advances in Chitin Science, Lyon: Jaques Andre Publishers, 1997; 671-677.
28. Hudson, S.M., Application of chitin and chitosan as fiber and textile chemicals. In: Domard, A., Roberts, G.A.F., and Varum, K., Eds., Advances in Chitin Science, Lyon: Jacques Andre Publishers, 1997; 590-599.
29. Ikeda, I., Sugano, M., Yoshida, K., Sasaki, E., Iwamoto, Y., and Hatano,K., Effect of chitosan hydrolysates on lipid absorption and on serum and lipid concentration in rats. J. Agric. Food Chem., 1993; 41:431-435.
30. Ikeda, I., Toyoda, H., Matsuda, Y., and Ouchi, S., A molecular strategy for biological control of powdery midlew pathogens by a chitinase gene chiSSH1 cloned from the Gram-positive bacterium Kurthia zophii. In: Muzzarelli R.A.A., Ed., Chitin Enzymology, Grottamare: Atec Edizioni, 1996; 349-358.
31. Johnson, E.L. and Peniston, Q. P., Utilization of shellfish waste for chitin and chitosan production. In: Martin, R.E., Flick, G.J., Hobard. C.E., and Ward, D.R., Eds., Chemistry and Biochemistry of Marine Food Products. Westport CT, A VI Publ., Co., 1982: 415-419.
32. Kauss, H., The degree of polymerization and N-acetylation of chitosan determine its ability to elicit callose formation in suspension cells and protoplasts of Catharanthus roseus. Planta, 1989; 178:385-392.
33. Knorr, D., Use of chitinous polymers in food. Food Technol., 1984; 38:85-97.
34. Knorr, D. and Klein, J., Production and conversion of chitosan with cultures of Mucor rouxii or Phycomyces blakesleeanus. Biotechnol. Lett., 1986; 8:691-696.
35. Knorr, D., Beaumont, M. D., and Pandya, Y., Potential of acid soluble and water soluble chitosan in biotechnology. In : Skjak-Braek, G., Anthonsen, T., and Sandford, P., Eds., Chitin and Chitosan, London-New York: Elsevier Applied Science, 1989; 101-118.
36. Knorr, D., Recovery and utilization of chitin and chitosan in food processing waste management. Food Technol., 1991; 45:114-122.
37. Kogan, G., Machowa, E., Chorvatovicova, D., Slovakova, L., and Sandula, J., Chitin glucan complexes of Aspergillus niger and its derivatives: antimutagenic, antiinfective and antiviral activity. In: Domard, A., Roberts, G.A.F., and Varum, K.M., Eds., Advances in Chitin Science, Lyon: Jacques Andre Publisher, 1997; 640-647.
38. Kotlodziejska, E. and Sikorski, Z.E., Endogenous enzymes in Antarctic krill: control of activity during storage and utilization. In: Sikorski, Z.E. Ed., Seafood Enzymes, Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, 1999, 505-524.
39. Kotlodziejska, I., Malesa-Ciećwierz, M., Lerska, A., and Sikorski, Z.E., Properties of chitin deacetylase from crude extracts of Mucor rouxii. J. Food Biochem. 1999; 23:45-57.
40. Kotlodziejska, I., Wojtasz-Pajtak A., Ogonowska, G., and Sikorski, Z.E.,Deacetylation of chitin in a two-stage chemical and enzymatic process. Bull. Sea Fish. Inst., 2000, 2:15-24.
41. Kono, M., Matsui, T., and Shimizu, C., Effect of chitin, chitosan and cellulose as diet supplements on the growth of cultured fish. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi, 1987; 53:125-130.
42. Kurita, K., Preparation and evaluation of novel types chitosan derivatives. In: Domard, A., Roberts, G.A.F., and Varum, K.M., Eds., Advances in Chitin Science, Lyon: Jacques Andre Publisher, 1997, 320-327.
43. Li, C.F. and Chung, Y.C., The benefits of chitosan postharvested storage and the quality of fresh strawberries. In: Domard, A., Roberts, G.A.F., and Varum, K.M., Eds., Advances in Chitin Science, Lyon: Jacques Andre Publisher, 1997; 908-913.
44. Long, A. and Haard, N.F., The effect of carotenoid protein association on pigmentation and growth rates of rainbow trout Salmo gaidneri. In: Proc. First Aquaculture Int. Congress, Vancouver, B.C., 1988, 99-101.
45. Manu-Tawiach, W. and Haard, N.F., Recovery of carotenoprotein from the exoskeleton of snow crab Chinoecetes opilio. Can. Inst. Food Sci. Technol. J. 1987; 20:31-33.
46. Mauch, F., Ethylene: symptom, not signal, for the induction of chitinase and β-1,3glucanse in pea pods by pathogens and elicitors. Plant Physiol., 1984; 97:607-611.
47. Mayer, J., Wiley, B., Henderson, and Kaplan, D., Physical properties of films produced from the biopolymers pollulan and chitosan produced by Aureobasidium pullulons and M. rouxii. Washington, DC: Abstracts of Annual Meeting of the Am. Soc. For Microbiology, 1989.
48. McGahren, W.J., Perkinson, G.A., Growich, J.A., Leese, R.A., and Ellestad, G.A., Chitosan by fermentation. Process Biochem. 1984; 19:88-90.
49. Mc Kay, G., Sorption of metal ions by chitosan. In: Eccles, H. and Hunt, S., Eds., Immobilization of Ions by Biosorption, Chichester: Ellis Horwood Limited, 1986; 59-69.
50. Meyers, S.P. and Chen, H.M., Process for the utilization of shellfish waste. US Patent, No. 4,505,936, 1985.
51. Monaghan, R.L. and Eveleigh, D.E., Chitosanase, a novel enzyme. Nature New Biol., 1973; 245:78-80.
52. Muzzarelli, R.A.A., Chitin. Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1977, 28-35.
53. Muzzarelli, R.A.A., Whole cells and enzymes immobilized on chitosan. In: Muzzarelli, R.A.A., Jeuniaux, C., and Gooday, G., Eds., Chitin in Nature and Technology, New York, London: Plenum Press, 1986, 407-427.
54. Muzzarelli, R. A. A., Amphoteric derivatives of chitosan and their biological significance. In: Skjak-Braek, G., Anthonsen, T., and Sandford, P., Eds., Chitin and Chitosan, New York, London: Elsevier Appl. Sci., 1989; 87-99.
55. Muzzarelli, R.A.A. Ilari, P., Tarsi, R., Dubini, B., and Xia, W., Chitosan from Absidia coerulea. Carbohydarte Polym., 1994; 25:45-50.
56. Muzzarelli, R.A.A., Mattioli-Belmonte, M., Muzzarelli, B, Mattei, G., Fini, M., and Biagini, M., Medical and veterinary applications of chitin and chitosan. In: Domard, A., Roberts, G.A.F., and Varum, K.M., Eds., Advances in Chitin Science, Lyon: Jacques Andre Publishers, 1997, 580-589.
57. Naczk, M., Synowiecki, J., and Sikorski, Z.E., The gross chemical composition of Antarctic krill shell waste. Food Chem., 1981; 7:175-179.
58. Nagyvary, J. J., Falk, J. D., Hill, M. L., Schmidt,M. L., Wilkins, A. K., and Bradbury, E. L., The hypolipidemic activity of chitosan and other polysaccharides in rats. Nutrition Reports Int., 1979; 120:677-684.
59. No, H. K., Meyers, S. P., and Lee, K. S., Isolation and characterization of chitin from crawfish shell waste. J. Agric. Food Chem., 1989; 37:138-144.
60. No, H.K. and Meyers, S.P., Preparation of chitin and chitosan. In: Muzzarelli, R.A.A. and Peter, M.G., Eds., Chitin Handbook, European Chitin Society, 1997, 475-489.
61. Pawtlowska, E., The assessment of influence of chitosan on the dental pulp in rats. In: Domard, A., Roberts, G.A.F., and Varum, K.M., Eds., Advances in Chitin Science, Lyon: Jacques Andre Publisher, 1997; 705-710.
62. Popper, L. and Knorr, D., Combined application of high pressure homogenization and lytic enzymes or chitosan for food sterilization. Food Technol., 1990; 44:84-49.
63. Pospieszny, H., Struszczyk, H., and Cajza, M., Biological activity of Aspergillus degraded chitosan. In: Muzzarelli, R.A.A., Ed., Chitin Enzymology, Grottammare: Atec Edizioni, 1996, 385-389.
64. Pospieszny, H. and Maćkowiak, A., Effect of chitosan derivatives of plants by pathogenic bacteria. In: Domard, A., Roberts, G.A.F., and Varum, K.M., Eds., Advances in Chitin Science, Lyon: Jacques Andre Publishers, 1997, 759-762.
65. Protas-Drozd, F. and Gwieździński, Z., Chitosan and Chitopan in the tretment of leg ulcers. In: Karnicki, Z.S., Wojtasz-Pajtak, A., Brzeski, M.M., and Bykowski, P.J., Eds., Chitin World, Bremerhaven: Wirtschafts-verlag NW, 1994, 590-592.
66. Ramachandran, N. K. and Madhaven, P., Metal binding properties of chitosan from different sources In: Hirano, S. and Tokura, S., Eds., Proceeding of 2 nd International Conference on Chitin/Chitosan, Sapporo: Japanese Soc. of Chitin and Chitosan, 1982, 314-322.
67. Ramisz, A., Czerwiński, S., Wojtasz-Paj//ak, A., and Balicka-Laurans, A., The influence of chitosan on health and production in pigs. In: Karnicki, Z.S., Wojtasz-Paj//ak, A., Brzeski, M.M., and Bykowski, P.J., Eds., Chitin World, Bremerhaven: Wirtschaftsverlag NW, 1994, 612-616.
68. Reddy, M.V.B., Aral, J., Castaigne, F., and Kasaai, M.R., Effect of chitosan on tissue maceration and production of maceration enzymes by Ervinia carotovora in potato. In: Domard, A., Roberts, G.A.F., and Varum, K.M., Eds., Advances in Chitin Science, Lyon: Jacques Andre Publisher, 1997, 884-889.
69. Roberts, G. A. F., Chitin Chemistry, London: Macmillan Press, Ltd., 1992.
70. Roberts, G., Chitosan production routes and their role in determining the structure and properties of the product. In: Domard, A., Roberts, G.A.F., and Varum K.M., Eds., Advances in Chitin Science, Lyon: Jaques Andre Publisher, 1997, 22-31.
71. Saito, A. and Regier, W., Pigmentation of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) by feeding dried crustacean waste. J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 1971; 28:509-512.
72. Seo, H., Mitsuhashi, K., and Tanibe, H., Antibacterial and antifungal fiber blended by chitosan. In: Brine, C.J., Sandford, P.A., and Zikakis, J.P., Eds., Advances in Chitin and Chitosan, London, New York: Elisevier Applied Science, 1994.
73. Shahabeddin, I, Berthod, F., Damour, O., and Collombel, C., Characterization of skin reconstructed on a chitosan cross-linked collagen-glycosaminoglycan matrix. Skin Pharmacology, 1990; 3:107-114.
74. Shahidi, F. and Synowiecki, J., Isolation and characterization of nutrients and value-added products from Snow Crab (Cinoecetes opilio) and shrimp (Pandalus borealis) processing discards. J. Agric. Food Chem., 1991; 39:1527-1532.
75. Simpson, K.L., The recovery of protein and pigments from shrimp and crab meals and their use in salmonid pigmentation. In: Skjak-Braek, G., Anthonsen, T., and Sandford, P., Eds., Chitin and Chitosan, London-New York: Elsevier Appl. Sci., 1989, 253-262.
76. Simpson, B.K. and Haard, N.F., The use of proteolytic enzymes to extract caroteno-proteins from shrimp wastes, J. Appl. Biochem., 1985; 7:212-222.
77. Simpson, B.K. and Haard, N.F., Extraction of carotenoproteins from crustacean wastes. Canadien Patent, 487, 392-1 (1985).
78. Simpson, B.K. and Haard, N.F., Preparation of chitin and chitosans from crustacean waste by enzymatic methods. In: Reames, S.E., Ed., The Ohio Science Workbook: Biotechnology, 1991, 153-155.
79. Simpson, B.K. and Haard, N.F., Enhancing value of crustacean waste by enzymatic methods. In: Reames, S.E., The Ohio Science Workbook; Biotechnology, 1991, 156-158.
80. Smidsrød, O., Ottøy, M.H., Anthonsen, M.W., and Varum, K.M., Solution properties of chitosan. In: Doard, A., Roberts, G.A.F., and Varum, K.M., Eds., Advances in Chitin Science, Lyon: Jacques Andre Publisher, 1997, 402-409.
81. Spinelli, J., Lehman, L., and Wieg, D., Composition, processing and utilization of red crab (Pleuroncodes planipes) as an aquacultural feed ingredient. J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 1974; 31:1025-1029.
82. Spreen, K. A., Zikakis, J. P., and Austin, P. R., The effect of chitinous materials on the intestinal microflora and the utilization of whey in monogastric animals. In: Zikakis, J.P., Ed., Chitin, Chitosan and Related Enzymes, Orlando: Academic Press, 1984.
83. Struszczyk, H., Pospieszny, H., and Kivekas, O., Bioactivity of chitosans. In: Muzzarelli, R.A.A., Ed., Chitin Enzymology, Grottammare: Atec Edizioni, 1996, 497-502.
84. Surinenaite, B., Bendikiene, V., and Juodka, B., Some properties of Escherichia coli and chicken intestinal alkaline phosphatases immobilized on magnetic supports. Biologija, 1995; (1-2):32-43.
85. Synowiecki, J., Sikorski, Z.E., and Naczk, M., The activity of immobilized enzymes on different krill chitin preparations. Biotechnol. Bioeng., 1981; 23:2211-2215.
86. Synowiecki, J., Use of krill chitin as an enzyme support. In: Muzzarelli, R.A.A., Jeuniaux, C., and Gooday, G., Eds., Chitin in Nature and Technology, New York: Plenum Press, 1986, 417-420.
87. Synowiecki, J., Shahidi, F., and Penney, R.W., Nutrient composition of meat and uptake carotenoids by Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus). J. Aquatic Food Prod. Technol., 1993; 2:37-58.
88. Synowiecki, J., Application of chitin derivatives for animal and human healing (in Polish). Medycyna Wet., 1997; 53:647-649.
89. Synowiecki, J. and Al-Khateeb, N., Mycelia of Mucor rouxii as a source of chitin and chitosan, Food Chem., 1997; 60:605-610.
90. Synowiecki, J. and Al-Khateeb, N., The recovery of protein hydrolysate during enzymatic isolation of chitin from shrimp Crangon crangon processing discards. Food Chem., 2000; 68:147-152.
91. Szosland, L., Rheological properties of dibutyrylchitin semiconcentrated solutions and wet spinning of dibutyrylchitin fibers. In: Domard, A., Roberts, G.A.F., and Varum, K.M., Eds., Advances in Chitin Science, Lyon: Jacques Andre Publisher, 1997, 531-536.
92. Tatsumi, K., Wada, S., and Ichikawa, H., Removal of phenols from waste water by an enzyme and chitosan. In: Domard, A., Roberts, G.A.F., and Varum, K.M., Eds., Advances in Chitin Science, Lyon: Jacques Andre Publisher, 1997; 864-869.
93. Thome, J. P. and Van Daele, Y., Adsorpition of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCP) on chitosan and application to decontamination of polluted water. In: Muzzarelli, R.A.A., Jeuniaux, C., and Gooday, G., Eds., Chitin in Nature and Technology, New York: Plenum Press, 1986, 551-554.
94. Tokura, S., Nishi, N., Itoyama, K., Shirai, A., Nishimura, S., and Azuma, I., Chitin derivatives with biomedical functions. In: Karnicki, Z.S., Wojtasz-Pajtak, A., and Bykowski, P.J., Eds., Chitin World, Bremershaven: Wirtschaftsverlag NW, 1994, 287-297.
95. Torrissen, O.J., Hardy, R.W., and Shearer, K.D., Pigmentation of salmonids-carotenoid deposition and metabolism. CRC. Crit. Rev. Aquatic Sci., 1989, 1:209-225.
96. Toyoda, H., Matsuda, Y., Fukamizo, T., Nonomura,T., and Ouchi, S., Application of chitin-and chitosan-degrading microbes to comprehensive biocontrol of fungal pathogen Fusarium Oxysporum. In: Muzzarelli, R.A.A., Eds., Chitin Enzymology, Grottammare: Atec Edizioni, 1996, 3549-370.
97. Trudel, J. and Asselin, A., Detection of chitin deacetylase activity after polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Anal. Biochem., 1990; 189:249-253.
98. Tsai, G.J., Liau, W.Y., and Chen, C.S., Antimicrobial activities of shrimp chitosan derivatives and their application of food preservation. In: Domard, A., Roberts, G.A.F., and Varum, K.M., Eds., Advances in Chitin Science, Lyon: Jacques Andre Publisher, 1997, 744-750.
99. Tsigos, I., Martinou, A., Kafetzopoulos, D., and Bouriotis, V., Chitin deacetylases: new versatile tools in biotechnology. TIBTECH, 2000; 18:305-312.
100. Venkatrao, B., Baradajaran, A., and Sastry, C., Adsorpition of dyestuffs on chitosan. In: Muzzarelli, R. A. A., Jeuniaux, C., and Gooday, G., Eds., Chitin in Nature and Technology, New York: Plenum Press, 1986, 554-559.
101. Ventura, P., Lipid lowering activity of chitosan, a new dietary integrator. In: Muzzarelli, R.A.A., Ed., Chitin Enzymology, Grottammare: Atec Edizioni, 1996, 55-62.
102. Vincendon, M., Triphenylsilylchitin: a new chitin derivative soluble in organic solvents, In: Domard, A., Roberts, G.A.F., and Varum, K.M., Eds., Advances in Chitin Science, Lyon: Jacques Andree Publisher, 1997, 328-333.
103. Wachter, R. and Stenberg, E., Hydagen® CMF in cosmetic applications. Efficiacy in different in vitro measurements. Adv. Chitin Chem., 1996; 1:381-388.
104. Walker-Simmons, M., Chitosan and pectic polysaccharides both induce the accumulation of the antifungal phytoalexin in pea pods and antinutrients proteinase inhibitors in tomato leaves. Biochem. Biophys. Comm., 1983; 110:194-199.
105. Wang, W., Wood, F.A., and Roberts, G.A.F., Chitosan-coated sand: Preparation and dyeadsorption behaviour. In: Domard, A., Roberts, G.A.F., and Varum, K.M., Eds., Advances in Chitin Science, Lyon: Jacques Andre Publisher, 1997, 920-923.
106. White, S. A., Farina, P. R., and Fulton, I., Production and isolation of chitosan from M. rouxii. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 1979; 38:323-328.
107. Wieczorek, A. and Mucha, M., Application of chitin derivatives and their composites to biodegradable paper coatings. In: Domard, A., Roberts G.A.F., and Varum K.M., Eds., Advances in Chitin Science, Lyon: Jaques Andre Publisher, 1997, 890-896.
108. Yoshihara, Y., Ishii, T., Nakajima.Y., Tojima, T., and Tokura, S., Study of carboxymethyl-chitin and hydroxyapatite composite for bone repairing. In: Domard, A., Roberts, G.A.F., and Varum, K.M., Eds., Advances in Chitin Science, Lyon: Jacques Andre Publisher, 1997, 682-687.