Fire and aquatic ecosystems of the western USA: Current knowledge and key questions

Forest Ecology and Management

Volumn 178, Issue 1-2, 2003, Pages 213-229

  Bisson, Peter A ^a   Rieman, Bruce E ^b   Luce, Charlie ^b   Hessburg, Paul F ^a   Lee, Danny C ^c   Kershner, Jeffrey L ^d   Reeves, Gordon H ^e   Gresswell, Robert E ^f  

^a PACIFIC NORTHWEST RESEARCH STATION   (United States)

^b ROCKY MOUNTAIN RESEARCH STATION   (United States)

^c PACIFIC SOUTHWEST RESEARCH STATION   (United States)

^d USDA FOREST SERVICE   (United States)

^e PACIFIC NORTHWEST RESEARCH STATION   (United States)

^f FOREST AND RANGELAND ECOSYSTEM SCIENCE CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Aquatic and riparian ecosystems; Conservation; Fire and fuels management; Restoration; Wildfire

Indexed keywords

BIODIVERSITY; ECOSYSTEMS; FIRES; FORESTRY;

AQUATIC HABITATS; FIRE MANAGEMENT;

MARINE BIOLOGY;

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM; CONSERVATION; FIRE MANAGEMENT; RIPARIAN VEGETATION; WILDFIRE;

BIODIVERSITY; ECOSYSTEMS; FOREST FIRES; FOREST MANAGEMENT; WATER BIOLOGY;

RIPARIA;

EID: 0038413827     PISSN: 03781127     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0378-1127(03)00063-X     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (115)

1. Agee, J.K., 1998. The landscape ecology of western forest fire regimes. Northwest Sci. 72, 24-34.
2. Andersson, K., 1998. The Quincy Library Bill, tinder strips in timber tracts. Wildland Firefighter 1, 30-32.
3. Babbitt, B., 1999. Making peace with wildland fire. Land Water 43, 14-19.
4. Baker, W.L., 1989. Effect of spatial heterogeneity on fire-interval distributions. Can. J. For. Res. 19, 700-706.
5. Baker, W.L., 1992. Effects of settlement and fire suppression on landscape structure. Ecology 73, 1879-1887.
6. Baker, W.L., 1993. Spatially heterogeneous multi- scale response of landscapes to fire suppression. Oikos 66, 66-71.
7. Baker, W.L., 1994. Restoration of landscape structure altered by fire suppression. Conserv. Biol. 8, 763-769.
8. Beechie, T., Bolton, S., 1999. An approach to restoring salmonid habitat-forming processes in Pacific Northwest watersheds. Fisheries 24 (4), 6-15.
9. Benda, L.E., Miller, D.J., Dunne, T., Reeves, G.H., Agee, J.K., 1998. Dynamic landscape systems. In: Naiman, R.J., Bilby, R.E. (Eds.), River Ecology and Management: Lessons from the Pacific Coastal Ecoregion. Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 261-288.
10. Benda, L.E., Miller, D., Bigelow, P., Andras, K. Fires, erosion, and floods: the role of disturbance in forest ecosystems. For. Ecol. Manage., this issue.
11. Beschta, R.L., Frissell, C.A., Gresswell, R.E., Hauer. R.. Karr, J.R., Minshall, G.W., Perry, D.A., Rhodes, J.J., 1995. Wildfire and salvage logging: recommendations for ecologically sound post-fire salvage management and other post-fire treatments on federal lands in the West. Unpublished Report, Pacific Rivers Council, Portland, OR.
12. Bisson, P.A., Reeves, G.H., Bilby, R.E., Naiman, R.J., 1997. Watershed management and Pacific salmon: desired future conditions. In: Stouder, D.J., Bisson, P.A., Naiman, R.J. (Eds.), Pacific Salmon and their Ecosystems: Status and Future Options. Chapman & Hall, New York, pp. 447-474.
13. Bormann, B.T., Martin, J.R., Wagner, F.H., Wood, G.W., Alegria, J., Cunningham, P.G., Brookes, M.H., Friesema, P., Berg, J., Henshaw, J.R., 1999. Adaptive management. In: Johnson, N.C., Malk, A.J., Szaro, R.C., Sexton, W.T. (Eds.), Ecological Stewardship: A Common Reference for Ecosystem Management, vol. III. Elsevier, Oxford, UK, pp. 505-534.
14. Brown, D.K., Echell, A.A., Propst, D.L., Brooks, J.E., Fisher, W.L., 2001. Catastrophic wildfire and number of populations as factors influencing risk of extinction for Gila trout (Oncorhynchus gilae). West. North. Am. Nat. 61 (2), 139-148.
15. Bull, W.B., 1991. Geomorphic Responses to Climate Change. Oxford University Press, New York.
16. Cissel, J.H., Swanson, F.J., Grant, G.E., Olson, D.H., Gregory, S.V., Garman, S.L., Ashkenas, L.R., Hunter, M.G., Kertis, J.A., Mayo, J.A., McSwain, M.D., Swetland, S.G., Swindle, K.A., Wallin, D.O., 1998. A landscape plan based on historical fire regimes for a managed forest ecosystem: the Augusta Creek study. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-422, US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR.
17. Cissel, J.H., Swanson, F.J., Weisberg, P.J., 1999. Landscape management using historical fire regimes: Blue River, Oregon. Ecol. Appl. 9 (4), 1217-1234.
18. Covington, W.W., Everett, R.L., Steele, R., Irwin, L.L., Daer, T.A., Auclair, A.N.D., 1994. Historical and anticipated changes in forest ecosystems of the Inland West of the United States. In: Sampson, R.N., Adams, D.L. (Eds.), Assessing Forest Ecosystem Health in the Inland West. The Haworth Press, New York, pp. 13-63.
19. DellaSala, D.A., Frost, E., 2001. An ecologically based strategy for fire and fuels management in National Forest roadless areas. Fire Manage. Today 61, 12-23.
20. Dettinger, M.D., Cayan, D.R., Diaz, H.F., Meko, D.M., 1998. North-south precipitation patterns in western North America on interannual-decadal time scales. J. Climate 11 (12), 3095-3111.
21. Dunham, J.B., Young, M., Gresswell, R. Effects of fire on fish populations: landscape perspectives on persistence of native fishes and non-native fish invasions. For. Ecol. Manage., this issue.
22. Ebersole, J.L., Liss, W.J., Frissell, C.A., 1997. Restoration of stream habitats in the western United States: restoration as reexpression of habitat capacity. Environ. Manage. 21 (1), 1-14.
23. Frissell, C.A., Liss, W.J., Gresswell, R.E., Nawa, R.K., Ebersole, J.L., 1997. A resource in crisis: changing the measure of salmon management. In: Stouder, D.J., Bisson, R.A., Naiman, R.J. (Eds.), Pacific Salmon and their Ecosystems: Status and Future Options. Chapman & Hall, New York, pp. 411-444.
24. Gabriel, W., Lynch, M., 1992. The selective advantage of reaction norms for environmental tolerance. J. Evol. Biol. 5, 41-59.
25. Gray, A.N., 2000. Adaptive ecosystem management in the Pacific Northwest: a case study from coastal Oregon. Conserv. Ecol. 4 (2), 6. Available online: http://www.consecol.org/vol4/iss2/art6.
26. Gregory, S.V., Swanson, F.J., McKee, W.A., Cummins, K.W., 1991. An ecosystem perspective of riparian zones. Bioscience 41 (8), 540-551.
27. Gresswell, R.E., 1999. Fire and aquatic ecosystems in forested biomes of North America. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 128 (2), 193-221.
28. Gresswell, R.E., Liss, W.J., Larson, G.L., 1994. Life-history organization of Yellowstone cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki bouvieri) in Yellowstone Lake. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 51 (1), 298-309.
29. Gunderson, L., 1999. Resilience, flexibility and adaptive management-antidotes for spurious certitude? Conserv. Ecol. 3 (1), 7. Available online: http://www.consecol.org/vol3/issl/art7.
30. Haftl, L., 1999. Fire management in transition. Wildland Firefighter 2, 21-24.
31. Hann, W.J., Jones, J.L., Karl, M.G., Hessburg, P.F., Keane, R.E., Long, D.G., Menakis, J.P., McNicoll, C.H., Leonard, S.G., Gravenmier, R.A., Smith, B.G., 1997. An assessment of landscape dynamics of the Basin. In: Quigley, T.M., Arbelbide, S.J. (Eds.), An Assessment of Ecosystem Components in the Interior Columbia Basin and Portions of the Klamath and Great Basins. PNW-GTR-405, US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR.
32. Hare, S.R., Mantua, N.J., 2000. Empirical evidence for North Pacific regime shifts in 1977 and 1989. Prog. Oceanogr. 47 (2-4), 103-146.
33. Healey, M.C., Prince, A., 1995. Scales of variation in life history tactics of Pacific salmon and the conservation of phenotype and genotype. In: Nielsen, J. (Ed.), Evolution and the Aquatic Ecosystem, Proceedings of the 17th Symposium of the American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, MD, pp. 176-184.
34. Hessburg, P., Agee, J. An environmental narrative of inland northwest US forests, 1800-2000. For. Ecol. Manage., this issue.
35. Hessburg, P.F., Smith, B.G., Salter, R.B., 1999a. Detecting change in forest spatial patterns. Ecol. Appl. 9 (4), 1232-1252.
36. Hessburg, P.F., Smith, B.G., Salter, R.B., 1999b. Using estimates of natural variation to detect ecologically important change in forest spatial patterns: a case study, Cascade Range, Eastern Washington. Research Paper PNW-RP-514, US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR.
37. Hessburg, P.F., Smith, B.G., Salter, R.B., Ottmar, R.D., Alvarado, E., 2000. Recent changes (1930s-1990s) in spatial patterns of interior northwest forests, USA. For. Ecol. Manage. 136, 53-83.
38. Holling, C.S. (Ed.), 1978. Adaptive Environmental Assessment and Management. Wiley, New York.
39. Houghton, J.T., Ding, Y., Griggs, D.J., Noguer, M., Linden, P.J.V.D., Xiaosu, D. (Eds.), 2001. Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis, Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
40. Huff, M.H., Ottmar, R.D., Lehmkuhl, J.F., Hessburg, P.F., Everett, R.L., Alvarado, E., Vihanek, R.H., 1995. Historical and current forest landscape of eastern Oregon and Washington. Part II. Potential fire behavior and smoke production. In: Hessburg, P.F. (Ed.), Eastside Forest Ecosystem Health Assessment: Assessment, vol. III. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-355, US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR.
41. Hummel, M., Freet, B., 1999. Collaborative processes for improving land stewardship and sustainability. In: Johnson, N.C., Malk, A.J., Szaro, R.C., Sexton, W.T. (Eds.), Ecological Stewardship: A Common Reference for Ecosystem Management, vol. III. Elsevier, Oxford, UK, pp. 97-129.
42. Hurley, M., Jensen, M.E., 2001. Geomorphic patterns, processes, and perspectives in aquatic assessment. In: Jensen, M.E., Bourgeron, P.S. (Eds.), A Guidebook for Integrated Ecological Assessments. Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 367-389.
43. Jain, S., Lall, U., 2001. Floods in a changing climate: does the past represent the future? Water Resour. Res. 37, 3193-3206.
44. Johnson, B.L., 1999. The role of adaptive management as an operational approach for resource management agencies. Conserv. Ecol. 3 (2), 8. Available online: http://www.consecol.org/vol3/iss2/art8.
45. Jones, J.A., Swanson, F.J., Wemple, B.C., Snyder, K.U., 2000. Effects of roads on hydrology, geomorphology, and disturbance patches in stream networks. Conserv. Biol. 14, 76-85.
46. Keane, R.E., Parsons, R., Hessburg, P.F., 2002. Estimating historical range and variation of landscape patch dynamics: limitations of the simulation approach. Ecol. Model. 151 (1), 29-49.
47. Kruse, C.G., Hubert, W.A., Rahel, F.J., 2001. An assessment of headwater isolation as a conservation strategy for cutthroat trout in the Absaroka Mountains of Wyoming. Northwest Sci. 75, 1-11.
48. Lal, P., Lim-Applegate, H., Scoccimarro, M., 2001. The adaptive decision-making process as a tool for integrated natural resource management: focus, attitudes, and approach. Conserv. Ecol. 5 (2), 11. Available online: http://www.consecol.org/vol5/iss2/art11.
49. Laverty, L., Williams, J., 2000. Protecting people and sustaining resources in fire-adapted ecosystems: a cohesive strategy. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC. Available online: http://www.fireplan.gov/cohesive.cfm.
50. Lee, K.N., 1993. Compass and Gyroscope: Integrating Science and Politics for the Environment. Island Press, Washington, DC.
51. Lee, K.N., 1999. Appraising adaptive management. Conserv. Ecol. 3 (2), 3. Available online: http://www.consecol.org/vol3/iss2/art3.
52. Lee, D., Sedell, J., Rieman, B., Thurow, R., Williams, J., 1997. Broad-scale assessment of aquatic species and habitats. In: Quigley, T.M., Arbelbide, S.J. (Eds.), An Assessment of Ecosystem Components in the Interior Columbia Basin and Portions of the Klamath and Great Basins. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-405, US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR (Chapter 4).
53. Luce, C.H., Rieman, B.E., Dunham, J.B., Clayton, J.L., King, J.G., Black, T.A., 2001. Incorporating aquatic ecology into decisions on prioritization of road decommissioning. Water Resour. Impact (May), 8-14.
54. Ludwig, D., Hilbom, R., Waiters, C., 1993. Uncertainty, resource exploitation, and conservation: lessons from history. Science 260, 35-36.
55. Ludwig, D., Walker, B., Holling, C.S., 1997. Sustainability, stability, and resilience. Conserv. Ecol. 1 (1), 7. Available online: http://www.consecol.org/vol1/iss1/art7.
56. Mantua, N.J., Hare, S.R., Zhang, Y., Wallace, J.M., Francis, R.C., 1997. A Pacific interdecadal climate oscillation with impacts on salmon production. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 78, 1069-1079.
57. Meehan, W.R. (Ed.), 1991. Influences of forest and rangeland management on salmonid fishes and their habitats. American Fisheries Society Special Publication 19, American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, MD.
58. Meyer, G.A., Pierce, J.L. Geomorphic and climatic controls on fire-induced sediment pulses in Yellowstone and central Idaho forests: a Holocene perspective. For. Ecol. Manage., this issue.
59. Meyer, G.A., Wells, S.G., Bailing Jr., R.C., Jull, A.J.T., 1992. Response of alluvial systems to fire and climate change in Yellowstone National Park. Nature 357, 147-150.
60. Miller, D., Luce, C., Benda, L. Time space and episodicity of physical disturbance in streams. For. Ecol. Manage., this issue.
61. Minshall, G.W. Community/food web responses of stream macroinvertebrates to fire. For. Ecol. Manage., this issue.
62. Morgan, P., Hardy, C.C., Swetnam, T.W., Rollins, M.G., Long, D.G., 2001. Mapping fire regimes across time and space: understanding coarse and fine-scale fire patterns. Int. J. Wildland Fire 10, 329-342.
63. Naiman, R.J., Bilby, R.E., Bisson, P.A., 2000. Riparian ecology and management in the Pacific coastal rain forest. Bioscience 50 (11), 996-1011.
64. National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), 1999. The habitat approach: implementation of Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act for actions affecting the habitat of Pacific anadromous salmonids. US Department of Commerce, NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service, Northwest Regions Habitat and Conservation and Protected Resources Division, Portland, OR.
65. National Research Council (NRC), 1992. Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystems. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
66. National Research Council (NRC), 1996. Upstream: Salmon and Society in the Pacific Northwest. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
67. Pederson, J.L., Smith, G.A., Pazzaglia, F.J., 2001. Comparing the modern, quaternary, and neogene records of climate-controlled hillslope sedimentation in southeast Nevada. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 113, 305-319.
68. Pess, G.R., Montgomery, D.R., Steel, E.A., Bilby, R.E., Feist, B.E., Greenberg, H.M., 2002. Landscape characteristics, land use, and coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) abundance, Snohomish River, Washington, USA. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 59 (4), 613-623.
69. Petit, J.R., Jouzel, J., Raynaud, D., Barkov, N.I., Barnola, J.-M., Basile, I., Bender, M., Chappellaz, J., Davis, M., Delayque, G., Delmotte, M., Kotlyakov, V.M., Legrand, M., Lipenkov, V.Y., Lorius, C., Pépin, L., Ritz, C., Saltzman, E., Stievenard, M., 1999. Climate and atmospheric, Antarctica history of the past 420,000 years from the Vostok ice core. Nature 399, 429-436.
70. Pilliod, D.S., Bury, R.B., Hyde, E.J., Pearl, C.A., Corn, P.S. Potential effects of fire and fuel reduction practices on aquatic amphibians in the United States. For. Ecol. Manage., this issue.
71. Poff, N.L., Allan, J.D., Bain, M.B., Karr, J.R., Prestegaard, K.L., Richter, B.D., Sparks, R.E., Stromber, J.C., 1997. The natural flow regime: a paradigm for river conservation and restoration. Bioscience 47 (11), 769-784.
72. Poff, N.L., Brinson, M.M., Day Jr., J.W., 2002. Aquatic ecosystems and global climate change: potential impacts on inland freshwater and coastal wetland ecosystems in the United States. Report from the Pew Center on Global Climate Change. Available online: http://www.pewclimate.org/projects/aquatic.
73. Poole, G., Dunham, J., Hicks, M., Keenan, D., Lockwood, J., Matema, E., McCullough, D., Mebane, C., Risley, J., Sauter, S., Spalding, S., Sturdevant, D., 2001. Scientific issues relating to temperature criteria for salmon, trout, and char native to the Pacific Northwest. A Summary Report submitted to the Policy Workgroup of the EPA Region 10 Water Temperature Criteria Guidance Project, EPA Region 10 Office, Seattle, WA.
74. Pyne, S.J., 1984. Introduction to Wildland Fire: Fire Management in the United States. Wiley, New York.
75. Quigley, TM., Arbelbide, S.J. (Eds.), 1997. An assessment of ecosystem components in the Interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-405, US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR.
76. Reeves, G.H., Benda, L.E., Burnett, K.M., Bisson, P.A., Sedell, J.R., 1995. A disturbance-based ecosystem approach to maintaining and restoring freshwater habitats of evolutionarily significant units of anadromous salmonids in the Pacific Northwest. In: Nielsen, J. (Ed.), Evolution and the Aquatic Ecosystem, Proceedings of the 17th Symposium of the American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, MD, pp. 334-349.
77. Reeves, G.H., Bisson, P.A., Dambacher, J.M., 1998. Fish communities. In: Naiman, R.J., Bilby, R.E. (Eds.), River Ecology and Management: Lessons from the Pacific Coastal Ecoregion. Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 200-234.
78. Rieman, B., Clayton, J., 1997. Wildfire and native fish: issues of forest health and conservation of sensitive species. Fisheries 22 (11), 6-15.
79. Rieman, B.E., Dunham, J.B., 2000. Metapopulation and salmonids: a synthesis of life history patterns and empirical observations. Ecol. Freshwater Fish 9, 51-64.
80. Rieman, B.E., Hessburg, P.F., Lee, D.C., Thurow, R.F., Sedell, J.R., 2000. Toward an integrated classification of ecosystems: defining opportunities for managing fish and forest health. Environ. Manage. 25 (4), 425-444.
81. Rieman, B., Gresswell, R., Young, M., Burns, D., Lee, D., Stowell, R., Rinne, J., Howell, P. Current status and conservation of native fishes and issues for integration with fire and fuels management. For. Ecol. Manage., this issue.
82. Robichaud, P., Beyers, J.L., Neary, D.G., 2000. Evaluating the effectiveness of post-fire rehabilitation treatments. General Technical Report RMRS-63, US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, CO.
83. Rogers, K., 1998. Managing science/management partnerships: a challenge of adaptive management. Conserv. Ecol. 2 (2), R1. Available online: http://www.consecol.org/vol2/iss2/.
84. Roghair, C.N., Dollof, C.A., Underwood, M.K., 2002. Response of a brook trout population and instream habitat to a catastrophic flood and debris flow. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 131 (4), 718-730.
85. Roni, P., Beechie, T.J., Bilby, R.E., Leonetti, F.E., Pollock, M.M., Pess, G.R., 2002. A review of stream restoration techniques and a hierarchical strategy for prioritizing restoration in Pacific Northwest watersheds. North Am. J. Fish. Manage. 22 (1), 1-20.
86. Samson, F.B., Knopf, F.L., 2001. Archaic agencies, muddled missions, and conservation in the 21st century. Bioscience 51 (10), 869-873.
87. Schullery, P., 1989. The fires and fire policy. Bioscience 39, 686-694.
88. Schumm, S.A., Hadley, R.J., 1957. Arroyos and the semi-arid cycle of erosion. Am. J. Sci. 225, 161-174.
89. Seymour, R.S., Hunter Jr., M.L., 1999. Principles of ecological forestry. In: Hunter Jr., M.L. (Ed.), Maintaining Biodiversity in Forest Ecosystems. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 22-61.
90. Shindler, B., Cheek, K.A., 1999. Integrating citizens in adaptive management: a propositional analysis. Conserv. Ecol. 3 (1), 9. Available online: http://www.consecol.org/vol3/iss1/art9.
91. Shinneman, D.J., Baker, W.L., 1997. Non-equilibrium dynamics between catastrophic disturbances and old-growth forests in ponderosa pine landscapes of the Black Hills. Conserv. Biol. 11, 1276-1288.
92. Skinner, C.N., Chang, C., 1996. Fire regimes, past and present. Sierra Nevada Ecosystem Project: Final Report to Congress, University of California, Centers for Water and Wildland Resources, Davis, CA, pp. 1041-1069.
93. Snyder, G., 2001. Sustainable forestry practices: science can suggest them but the culture must choose the path. Fire Manage. Today 61, 33-36.
94. Southwood, T.R.E., 1977. Habitat, the templet for ecological strategies? J. Anim. Ecol. 46, 337-365.
95. Spanos, A., 1999. Probability Theory and Statistical Inference: Econometric Modeling with Observational Data. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
96. Spencer, C.N., Hauer, F.R., Gabel, K.O. Wildfire effects on nutrient dynamics and streams food webs in Glacier National Park, USA. For. Ecol. Manage., this issue.
97. Strauss, D., Bednar, L., Mees, R., 1989. Do one percent of forest fires cause ninety-nine percent of the damage? For. Sci. 35, 319-328.
98. Swetnam, T.W., Betancourt, J.L., 1990. Fire-Southern Oscillation relations in the southwestern United States. Science 249, 1017-1020.
99. Swetnam, T.W., Betancourt, J.L., 1992. Temporal patterns of El Nino/Southern Oscillation - wildfire patterns in the southwestern United States. In: Diaz, H.F., Markgraf, V.M. (Eds.), El Nino: Historical Paleoclimatic Aspects of the Southern Oscillation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 259-270.
100. Swetnam, T.W., Betancourt, J.L., 1998. Mesoscale disturbance and ecological response to decadal climatic variability in the American Southwest. J. Climate 11, 3128-3147.
101. The White House, 2002. Healthy forests: an initiative for wildfire prevention and stronger communities. Available online: http://www.whitehouse.gov/infocus/healthyforests/Healthy_Forests_v2.pdf.
102. Trombulka, S.C., Frissell, C.A., 2000. Review of ecological effects of roads on terrestrial and aquatic communities. Conserv. Biol. 14 (1), 18-30.
103. Turner, M.G., Hargrove, W.W., Gardner, R.H., Romme, W.H., 1994. Effects of fire on landscape heterogeneity in Yellowstone National Park. J. Veg. Sci. 5, 731-742.
104. US Department of Agriculture (USDA), 2000. National Fire Plan implementation. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC. Available online: http://www.fireplan.gov/.
105. US Department of Agriculture (USDA), 2002. The process predicament: how statutory, regulatory, and administrative factors affect national forest management. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC. Available online: http://www.fs.fed.us/projects/documents/Gridrev5.2.pdf.
106. US Department of Agriculture/US Department of the Interior (USDA/USDI), 2000. Interior Columbia Basin Supplemental Draft Environmental Impact Statement. Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project, Boise, ID.
107. Veblen, T.T., Kitzberger, T., Donnegan, J., 2000. Climatic and human influences on fire regimes in ponderosa pine forests in the Colorado Front Range. Ecol. Appl. 10 (4), 1178-1195.
108. Walker, B.S., Carpenter, S., Anderies, J., Abel, N., Cumming, G., Janssen, M., Lebel, L., Norberg, J., Peterson, GD., Pritchard, R., 2002. Resilience management in social-ecological systems: a working hypothesis for a participatory approach. Conserv. Ecol. 6 (1), 14. Available online: http://www.consecol.org/vol6/iss1/art14.
109. Walters, C., 1986. Adaptive Management of Renewable Resources. Macmillan, New York.
110. Walters, C., 1997. Challenges in adaptive management of riparian and coastal ecosystems. Conserv. Ecol. 1 (2), 1. Available online: http//www.consecol.org/vol1/iss2/art1.
111. Webb III, T., Bartlein, P.J., 1992. Global changes during the last 3 million years: climatic controls and biotic responses. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 23, 141-173.
112. Whitlock, M.C., 1996. The red queen beats the jack-of-all-trades: the limitations on the evolution of phenotypic plasticity and niche breadth. Am. Nat. 148, S65-S77.
113. Whitlock, C., Shafer, S.L., Marlon, J. The role of climate and vegetation change in shaping past and future fire regimes in the northwestern US and the implications for ecosystem management. For. Ecol. Manage., this issue.
114. Williams, J., 1998. Ecosystem management brings concepts into practice. Fire Manage. Today 58, 14-16.
115. Wondzell, S.M., King, J. Post-fire erosional processes: comparing the Pacific Northwest region to the Interior Northwest and northern Rocky Mountain. For. Ecol. Manage., this issue.