Fall-related upper body injuries in the older adult: A review of the biomechanical issues

Journal of Biomechanics

Volumn 36, Issue 7, 2003, Pages 1043-1053

  DeGoede, K M ^a,b,c   Ashton Miller, J A ^a,b   Schultz, A B ^a,b,d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN HEALTH SYSTEM   (United States)

^c ELIZABETHTOWN COLLEGE   (United States)

^d NONE   (United States)

Author keywords

Biomechanics; Falls; Injury; Survey; Upper extremity

Indexed keywords

BONE; EPIDEMIOLOGY; RISK ASSESSMENT;

BODY INJURIES;

BIOMECHANICS;

AGED; ARM FRACTURE; ARM INJURY; BIOMECHANICS; DISEASE SEVERITY; EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA; FALLING; GERIATRIC CARE; HEALTH SURVEY; HELMET; HUMAN; MEDLINE; PREDICTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; TRUNK;

EID: 0038334816     PISSN: 00219290     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0021-9290(03)00034-4     Document Type: Review

References (105)

1. Alexander B.H., Rivara F.P., Wolf M.E. The cost and frequency of hospitalization for fall-related injuries in older adults. American Journal of Public Health. 82:1992;1020-1023.
2. Alffram P.A., Bauer G.C.H. Epidemiology of fractures of the forearm. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. American Volume. 44:1962;105-114.
3. Augat P., Reeb H., Claes L.E. Prediction of fracture load and different skeletal sites by geometric properties of the cortical shell. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research. 11:1996;1356-1363.
4. Baron, J., Barrett, J., Berger, M., 1996. Incidence and costs to medicare of fractures among medicare beneficiaries aged greater than or equal to 65 years - United States, July 1991-June 1992. CDC Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, Washington, DC, pp. 877-883.
5. Beck T.J., Ruff C.B., Scott W.W., Plato C.C., Tobin J.D., Quan C.A. Sex differences in geometry of the femoral neck with aging. a structural analysis of bone mineral data Calcified Tissue International. 50:1992;24-29.
6. Berg W.P., Alessio H.M., Mills E.M., Tong C. Circumstances and consequences of falls in independent community-dwelling older adults. Age and Ageing. 26:1997;261-268.
7. Blake A.J., Morgan K., Bendall M.J., Dallosso H., Ebrahim S.B., Arie T.H., Fentem P.H., Bassey E.J. Falls by elderly people at home. prevalence and associated factors Age and Ageing. 17:1988;365-372.
8. Bouxsein M.L., Myburgh K.H., VanderMuelen M.C.H., Lindenberger E., Marcus R. Age-related differences in cross-sectional geometry of the forearm bones in healthy women. Calcified Tissue International. 54:1994;113-118.
9. Brooks S.V., Faulkner J.A. Severity of contraction-induced injury is affected by velocity only during stretches of large strain. Journal of Applied Physiology. 91:2001;661-666.
10. Brooks S.V., Zerba E., Faulkner J.A. Injury to muscle fibres after single stretches of passive and maximally stimulated muscles in mice. Journal of Physiology (London). 488:1995;459-469.
11. Burr D.R., Martin R.B. The effects of composition, structure and age on the torsional properties of the human radius. Journal of Biomechanics. 16:1983;603-608.
12. Cavanagh P.R., Lafortune M.A. Ground reaction forces in distance running. Journal of Biomechanics. 13:1980;397-406.
13. Chiu J., Robinovitch S.N. Prediction of upper extremity impact forces during falls on the outstretched hand. Journal of Biomechanics. 31:1998;1169-1176.
14. Chou P.H., Chou Y.L., Lin C.J., Su F.C., Lou S.Z., Lin C.F., Huang G.F. Effect of elbow flexion on upper extremity impact forces during a fall. Clinical Biomechanics. 16:2001;888-894.
15. Courtney T.K., Sorock G.S., Manning D.P., Collins J.W., Holbein-Jenny M.A. Occupational slip, trip, and fall-related injuries - can the contribution of slipperiness be isolated? Ergonomics. 44:2001;1118-1137.
16. Cumming R.G., Klineberg R.J. Fall frequency and characteristics and the risk of hip fractures. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 42:1994;774-778.
17. Cumming R.G., Nevitt M.C., Cummings S.R. Epidemiology of hip fractures. Epidemiologic Reviews. 19:1997;244-257.
18. Cummings S.R., Nevitt M.C., Browner W.S., Stone K., Fox K.M., Ensrud K.E., Cauley J., Black D., Vogt T.M. Risk factors for hip fracture in white women. Study of osteoporotic fractures research group. New England Journal of Medicine. 332:1995;767-773.
19. De Laet C.E., Pols H.A. Fractures in the elderly. epidemiology and demography Baillieres Best Practice Research in Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 14:2000;171-179.
20. DeGoede, K.M., 2000. Arresting forward falls with the upper extremities: biomechanical factors affecting impact forces in young and old humans. PhD thesis, University of Michigan. Ann Arbor.
21. DeGoede K.M., Ashton-Miller J.A. Fall arrest strategy affects peak hand impact force in a forward fall. Journal of Biomechanics. 35:2002;843-848.
22. DeGoede K.M., Ashton-Miller J.A. Biomechanical simulations of forward fall arrests. effects of upper extremity arrest strategy, gender and aging-related declines in muscle strength Journal of Biomechanics. 36:2003;413-420.
23. DeGoede K.M., Ashton-Miller J.A., Liao J.M., Alexander N.B. How quickly can healthy adults move their hands to intercept an approaching object? Age and gender effects. Journals of Gerontology A, Biological Sciences & Medical Sciences. 56:2001;M584-588.
24. DeGoede K.M., Ashton-Miller J.A., Schultz A.B., Alexander N.B. Biomechanical factors affecting the peak hand reaction force during the bimanual arrest of a moving mass. ASME Journal of Biomechanical Engineering. 124:2002;107-112.
25. Dietz V., Noth J. Pre-innervation and stretch responses of triceps brachii in man falling with and without visual control. Brain Research. 142:1978;576-579.
26. Dietz V., Noth J., Schmidtbleicher D. Interaction between pre-activity and stretch reflex in human triceps brachii during landing from forward falls. Journal of Physiology. 311:1981;113-125.
27. Donaldson L.J., Cook A., Thomson R.G. Incidence of fractures in a geographically defined population. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 44:1990;241-245.
28. Englander F., Hodson T.J., Terregrossa R.A. Economic dimensions of slip and fall injuries. Journal of Forensic Sciences. 41:1996;733-764.
29. Eriksson S.A.V., Lindgren J.U. Outcome of falls in women. endogenous factors associated with fracture Age and Ageing. 18:1989;303-308.
30. Flash T., Mussa-Ivaldi F. Human arm stiffness characteristics during the maintenance of posture. Experimental Brain Research. 82:1990;315-326.
31. Frykman G. Fracture of the distal radius including sequelae-shoulder-hand-finger syndrome. disturbance in the distal radio-ulnar joint and impairment of nerve function. A clinical and experimental study Acta Orthopaedica Scandinavica. 108:1967;1-153.
32. Gerritsen K.G.M., van den Bogert A.J., Nigg B.M. Direct dynamics simulation of the impact phase in heel-toe running. Journal of Biomechanics. 28:1995;661-668.
33. Giacobetti F.B., Sharkey P.F., Bos-Giacobetti M.A., Hume E.L., Taras J.S. Biomechanical analysis of the effectiveness of in-line skating wrist guards for preventing wrist fractures. American Journal of Sports Medicine. 25:1997;223-225.
34. Greenwald R.M., Janes P.C., Swanson S.C., McDonald T.R. Dynamic impact response of human cadaveric forearms using a wrist brace. American Journal of Sports Medicine. 26:1998;825-830.
35. Gruber K., Ruder H., Denoth J., Schneider K. A comparative study of impact dynamics. wobbling mass model versus rigid body models Journal of Biomechanics. 31:1998;439-444.
36. Gunby M.C., Morley J.E. Epidemiology of bone loss with aging. Clinics in Geriatric Medicine. 10:1994;557-574.
37. Hayes W.C., Myers E.R., Morris J.N., Gerhart T.N., Yett H.S., Lipsitz L.A. Impact near the hip dominates fracture risk in elderly nursing home residents who fall. Calcified Tissue International. 52:1993;192-198.
38. Hayes W.C., Myers E.R., Robinovitch S.N., Van Den Kroonenberg A., Courtney A.C., McMahon T.A. Etiology and prevention of age-related hip fractures. Bone. 18:1996;77S-86S.
39. Horsman A., Currey J.D., Phil D. Estimation of mechanical properties of the distal radius from bone mineral content and cortical width. Clinical Orthopedics and Related Research. 176:1983;298-304.
40. Hsiao E.T., Robinovitch S.N. Common protective movements govern unexpected falls from standing height. Journal of Biomechanics. 31:1998;1-9.
41. Ingebrigtsen T., Mortensen K., Romner B. The epidemiology of hospital-referred head injury in northern Norway. Neuroepidemiology. 17:1998;139-146.
42. Jergas M., Gluer C.-C. Assessment of fracture risk by bone density measurements. Seminars in Nuclear Medicine. XXVII:1997;261-275.
43. Jones J.J., Jeffreys R.V. Head injury patients admitted to general hospitals in Merseyside. Injury. 14:1983;483-488.
44. Kannus P., Palvanen M. Time trends in severe head injuries among elderly Finns. Journal of the American Medical Association. 286:2001;673-674.
45. Kelsey J.L., Browner W.S., Seeley D.G., Nevitt M.C., Cummings S.R. Risk factors for fractures of the distal forearm and proximal humerus. American Journal of Epidemiology. 135:1992;477-489.
46. Kiebzak G.M. Age-related bone changes. Experimental Gerontology. 26:1991;171-187.
47. King M.B., Tinetti M.E. Falls in community-dwelling older persons. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 43:1995;1146-1154.
48. King M.B., Tinetti M.E. A multifactorial approach to reducing injurious falls. Clinics in Geriatric Medicine. 12:1996;745-759.
49. Koh T.J., Grabiner M.D., Weiker G.G. Technique and ground reaction forces in the back handspring. American Journal of Sports Medicine. 20:1992;61-66.
50. Kroemer K.H.E., Kroemer H.J., Kroemer-Elbert K.E. Engineering Physiology. bases of Human Factors/Ergonomics:1997;Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
51. Kroner K., Lind T., Jensen J. The epidemiology of shoulder dislocations. Archives of Orthopaedic and Trauma Surgery. 108:1989;288-290.
52. Kujala U.M., Kaprio J., Kannus P., Sarna S., Koskenvuo M. Physical activity and osteoporotic hip fracture risk in men. Archives of Internal Medicine. 160:2000;705-708.
53. Leamon T.B., Murphy P.L. Occupational slips and falls. more than a trivial problem Ergonomics. 38:1995;487-498.
54. Lester G.E., Anderson J.J.B., Tylavsky F.A., Sutton W.R., Stinnett S.S., DeMasi R.A., Talmage R.V. Update on the use of distal radial bone density measurements in prediction of hip and Colles' fracture risk. Journal of Orthopaedic Research. 8:1990;220-226.
55. Loder R.T., Mathew H.E. Common fractures from a fall on an outstretched hand. American Family Physician. 37:1988;327-338.
56. Luchies C.W., Wallace D., Pazdur R., Young S., DeYoung A.J. Effects of age on balance assessment using voluntary and involuntary step tasks. Journals of Gerontology A, Biological Sciences & Medical Sciences. 54:1999;M140-144.
57. Luukinen H., Koski K., Laippala P., Kivela S.-L. Factors predicting fractures during falling impacts among home-dwelling older adults. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 45:1997;1302-1307.
58. Luukinen H., Herala M., Koski K., Kivela S.-L., Honkanen R. Rapid increase of fall-related severe head injuries with age among older people. a population-based study Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 47:1999;1451-1452.
59. Martin R.B., Atkinson P.J. Age and sex-related changes in the structure and strength of the human femoral shaft. Journal of Biomechanics. 10:1977;223-231.
60. McCreadie B.R., Goldstein S.A. Biomechanics of fracture. is bone mineral density sufficient to assess risk? Journal of Bone and Mineral Research. 15:2000;2305-2308.
61. Melton III L.J., Cummings S.R. Heterogeneity of age-related fractures. implications for epidemiology Bone and Mineral. 2:1987;321-331.
62. Mizrahi J., Susak Z. In vivo elastic and damping response of the human leg to impact forces. ASME Journal of Biomechanical Engineering. 104:1982;63-65.
63. Myers E.R., Sebeny E.A., Hecker A.T., Corcoran T.A., Hipp J.A., Greenspan S.L., Hayes W.C. Correlations between photon absorption properties and failure load of the distal radius in vitro. Calcified Tissue International. 49:1991;292-297.
64. Myers E.R., Hecker A.T., Rooks D.S., Hipp J.A., Hayes W.C. Geometric variables from dxa of the radius predict forearm fracture load in vitro. Calcified Tissue International. 52:1993;199-204.
65. Nevitt M.C. Epidemiology of osteoporosis. Rheumatic Diseases Clinics of North America. 20:1994;535-559.
66. Nevitt M.C., Cummings S.R. Type of fall and risk of hip and wrist fractures. the study of osteoporotic fractures Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 41:1993;1226-1234.
67. Nevitt M.C., Cummings S.R., Kidd S., Black D. Risk factors for recurrent nonsyncopal falls. A prospective study. Journal of the American Medical Association. 261:1989;2663-2668.
68. Nigg B.M. Biomechanical aspects of running. Nigg B.M. Biomechanics of running shoes. 1986;1-25 Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, IL.
69. Nigg B.M., Liu W. The effect of muscle stiffness and damping on simulated impact force peaks during running. Journal of Biomechanics. 32:1999;849-856.
70. Nikolic V., Hancevic J., Hudec M., Banovic B. Absorption of the impact energy in the palmar soft tissues. Anatomy and Embryology. 148:1975;215-221.
71. Nilsson B.E., Westlin N.E. The bone mineral content in the forearm of women with Colles' fracture. Acta Orthopaedica Scandinavica. 45:1974;836-844.
72. Nyberg L., Gustafson Y., Berggren D., Brannstrom B., Bucht G. Falls leading to femoral neck fractures in lucid older people. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 44:1996;156-160.
73. O'Loughlin J.L., Robitaille Y., Boivin J.-F., Suissa S. Incidence of and risk factors for falls and injurious falls among the community-dwelling elderly. American Journal of Epidemiology. 137:1993;342-354.
74. O'Neill T.W., Varlow J., Silman A.J., Reeve J., Reid D.M., Todd C., Woolf A.D. Age and sex influences on fall characteristics. Annals of Rheumatic Diseases. 53:1994;773-775.
75. O'Neill T.W., Varlow J., Reeve J., Reid D.M., Todd C., Woolf A.D., Silman A.J. Fall frequency and incidence of distal forearm fracture in the UK. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 49:1995;597-598.
76. Oskam J., Kingma J., Klasen H.J. Fracture of the distal forearm. epidemiological developments in the period 1971-1995 Injury. 29:1998;353-355.
77. Özgüven H.N., Berme N. An experimental and analytical study of impact forces during human jumping. Journal of Biomechanics. 21:1988;1061-1066.
78. Palvanen M., Kannus P., Parkkari J., Pitkajarvi T., Pasanen M., Vuori I., Jarvinen M. The injury mechanisms of osteoporotic upper extremity fractures among older adults. a controlled study of 287 consecutive patients and their 108 controls Osteoporosis International. 11:2000;822-831.
79. Prudham D., Evans J.G. Factors associated with falls in the elderly. a community study Age and Ageing. 10:1981;141-146.
80. Quant S., Maki B.E., Verrier M.C., McIlroy W.E. Passive and active lower-limb movements delay upper-limb balance reactions. Neuroreport. 12:2001;2821-2825.
81. Rice, D., MacKenzie, E., 1989. Cost of injury in the United States: A report to Congress. Baltimore, MD, Injury Prevention Center, The John Hopkins University. Institute for Health & Aging, University of California, San Francisco, CA.
82. Rivara F.P., Grossman D.C., Cummings P. Injury prevention. Second of two parts. New England Journal of Medicine. 337:1997;613-618.
83. Robinovitch S.N., Chiu J. Surface stiffness affects impact force during a fall on the outstretched hand. Journal of Orthopaedic Research. 16:1998;309-313.
84. Robinovitch S.N., Hayes W.C., McMahon T.A. Prediction of femoral impact forces in falls on the hip. ASME Journal of Biomechanical Engineering. 113:1991;366-374.
85. Robinovitch S.N., McMahon T.A., Hayes W.C. Force attenuation in trochanteric soft tissues during impact from a fall. Journal of Orthopaedic Research. 13:1995;956-962.
86. Robinovitch S.N., Hayes W.C., McMahon T.A. Distribution of contact force during impact to the hip. Annals of Biomedical Engineering. 25:1997;499-508.
87. Robinovitch S.N., Chiu J., Sandler R., Liu Q. Impact severity in self-initiated sits and falls associates with center- of-gravity excursion during descent. Journal of Biomechanics. 33:2000;863-870.
88. Runge J.W. The cost of injury. Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America. 11:1993;241-253.
89. Sabick M.B., Hay J.G., Goel V.K., Banks S.A. Active responses decrease impact forces at the hip and shoulder in falls to the side. Journal of Biomechanics. 32:1999;993-998.
90. Sattin R.W., Lambert Huber D.A., DeVito C.A., Rodriguez J.G., Ros A., Bacchelli S., Stevens J.A., Waxweiler R.J. The incidence of fall injury events among the elderly in a defined population. American Journal of Epidemiology. 131:1990;1028-1037.
91. Singer B.R., McLauchlan G.J., Robinson C.M., Christie J. Epidemiology of fractures in 15,000 adults. the influence of age and gender Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, British Volume. 80:1998;243-248.
92. Sjögren H., Björnstig U. Unintentional injuries among elderly people. incidence, causes, severity and costs Accident; Analysis and Prevention. 21:1989;233-242.
93. Smeesters C., Hayes W.C., McMahon T.A. Disturbance type and gait speed affect fall direction and impact location. Journal of Biomechanics. 34:2001;309-317.
94. Spadaro J.A., Werner R.A., Brenner R.A., Fortino M.D., Fay L.A., Edwards W.T. Cortical and trabecular bone contribute strength to the osteopenic distal radius. Journal of Orthopaedic Research. 12:1994;211-218.
95. Sterling D.A., O'Connor J.A., Bonadies J. Geriatric falls. injury severity is high and disproportionate to mechanism Journal of Trauma. 50:2001;116-119.
96. Stevens J.A., Adekoya N. Brain injury resulting from falls among elderly persons. Journal of the American Medical Association. 286:2001;2665-2666.
97. Stotz, P.J., Normandin, S.C., Robinovitch, S.N. 2002. Effect of age on ability to break a fall with the outstretched hands. World Congress of Biomechanics, Calgary.
98. Thelen D.G., Wojcik L.A., Schultz A.B., Ashton-Miller J.A., Alexander N.B. Age differences in using a rapid step to regain balance during a forward fall. Journals of Gerontology A, Biological Sciences & Medical Sciences. 52:1997;M8-13.
99. Tinetti M.E., Speechley M., Ginter S.F. Risk factors for falls among elderly persons living in the community. New England Journal of Medicine. 319:1988;1701-1707.
100. Tinetti M.E., Doucette J., Claus E., Marottoli R. Risk factors for serious injury during falls by older persons in the community. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 43:1995;1214-1221.
101. Tiret L., Hausherr E., Thicoipe M., Garros B., Maurette P., Castel J.P., Hatton F. The epidemiology of head trauma in Aquitaine (France), 1986. a community-based study of hospital admissions and deaths International Journal of Epidemiology. 19:1990;133-140.
102. van den Kroonenberg A.J., Hayes W.C., McMahon T.A. Hip impact velocities and body configurations for voluntary falls from standing height. Journal of Biomechanics. 29:1995;807-811.
103. Vazquez-Barquero A., Vazquez-Barquero J.L., Austin O., Pascual J., Gaite L., Herrera S. The epidemiology of head injury in Cantabria. European Journal of Epidemiology. 8:1992;832-837.
104. Vellas B.J., Wayne S.J., Garry P.J., Baumgartner R.N. A two-year longitudinal study of falls in 482 community-dwelling elderly adults. Journals of Gerontology A, Biological Sciences & Medical Sciences. 53A:1998;M264-M274.
105. Winner S.J., Morgan C.A., Grimley Evans J. Perimenopausal risk of falling and incidence of distal forearm fracture. British Medical Journal. 298:1989;1486-1488.