American thoracic society statement: Occupational contribution to the burden of airway disease

American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine

Volumn 167, Issue 5, 2003, Pages 787-797

[No Author Info available]

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BODY BURDEN; CALCULATION; CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE LUNG DISEASE; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL PRACTICE; CLINICAL RESEARCH; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; HEALTH CARE POLICY; HEALTH SURVEY; HUMAN; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; OCCUPATIONAL ASTHMA; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; PATHOGENESIS; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; SYMPTOM; TECHNIQUE; ARTICLE; ATTRIBUTABLE RISK; OBSTRUCTIVE AIRWAY DISEASE; ORGANIC DUST; ORGANIC DUST INDUCED ASTHMA LIKE DISORDER; POPULATION ATTRIBUTABLE RISK; POPULATION RISK; ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGE; AGED; ASTHMA; CASE CONTROL STUDY; CHEMICALLY INDUCED DISORDER; CHRONIC BRONCHITIS; COHORT ANALYSIS; COMPARATIVE STUDY; CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY; EUROPE; FEMALE; LONGITUDINAL STUDY; MALE; MEDICAL SOCIETY; MIDDLE AGED; OCCUPATIONAL DISEASE; PULMONOLOGY; RESEARCH; SEX DIFFERENCE; UNITED STATES;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGE FACTORS; AGED; ASTHMA; BRONCHITIS, CHRONIC; CASE-CONTROL STUDIES; COHORT STUDIES; CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES; EUROPE; FEMALE; HUMANS; LONGITUDINAL STUDIES; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; PREVALENCE; PULMONARY DISEASE (SPECIALTY); PULMONARY DISEASE, CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE; RESEARCH; RISK FACTORS; SEX FACTORS; SOCIETIES, MEDICAL; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0038046553     PISSN: 1073449X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1164/rccm.167.5.787     Document Type: Review

References (157)

1. Meyer JD, Holt DL, Cherry NM, McDonald JC. SWORD '98: surveillance of work-related and occupational respiratory disease in the UK. Occup Med (Lond) 1999;49:485-489.
2. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and World Health Organization. Global strategy for asthma management and prevention: NHLBI/WHO workshop report: global initiative for asthma. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health; 2002.
3. Bernstein IL, Chan-Yeung M, Malo J-L, Bernstein DI. Definition and classification of asthma. In: Bernstein IL, Chan-Yeung M, Malo J-L, Bernstein DI, editors. Asthma in the workplace, 2nd ed. New York: Marcel Dekker: 1999. p. 1-4.
4. Milton DK, Solomon G, Rosiello RA, Herrick RF. Risk and incidence of asthma attributable to occupational exposure among HMO members. Am J Ind Med 1998;33:1-10.
5. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and World Health Organization. Global initiative for chronic obstructive lung disease: a collaborative project of the National, Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and the World Health Organization. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health; 2001.
6. Venables KM, Dally MB, Nunn AJ, Stevens JF, Stephens R, Farrer N, Hunter JV, Stewart M, Hughes EG, Newman-Taylor AJ. Smoking and occupational allergy in workers in a platinum refinery. Br J Ind Med 1989;299:939-942.
7. Mitchell CA, Gandevia B. Respiratory symptoms and skin reactivity in workers exposed to proteolytic enzymes in the detergent industry. Am Rev Respir Dis 1971;104:1-12.
8. Becklake MR, Malo J-L, Chan-Yeung M. Epidemiological approaches in occupational asthma. In: Bernstein IL, Chan-Yeung M, Malo J-L. Bernstein DI, editors. Asthma in the workplace, 2nd ed. New York: Marcel Dekker; 1999. p. 27-65.
9. Musk AW, Venables KM, Crook B, Nunn AJ, Hawkins R, Crook GDW, Graneek BJ, Tee RD, Farrer N, Johnson DS, et al. Respiratory symptoms, lung function, and sensitization to flour in a British bakery. Br J Ind Med 1989;46:636-642.
10. Malo J-L, Cartier A, L'Archeveque J, Ghezzo H, Lagier F, Trudeau C, Dolovich J. Prevalence of occupational asthma and immunologic sensitization to psyllium among health care personnel in chronic care hospitals. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990;142:1359-1366.
11. Platts-Mills TAE, Longbottom J, Edwards J, Cockcroft A. Occupational asthma and rhinitis related to laboratory rats: serum IgE and IgE antibodies to the rat urinary allergen. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1987;79:505-515.
12. Venables KM, Upton JL, Hawkins ER, Tee RD, Longbottom JL, Newman-Taylor AJ. Smoking, atopy and laboratory animal allergy. Br J Ind Med 1988;45:667-671.
13. Calverley AE, Rees D, Dowdeswell RJ, Linnett PJ, Kielkowski D. Platinum salt sensitivity in refinery workers: incidence and effects of smoking and exposure. Occup Environ Med 1995;52:661-666.
14. Paggiaro PL, Loi AM, Rossi O, Ferrante B, Pardi F, Roselli MG, Bachieri L. Follow-up study of patients with respiratory disease due to toluene diisocyanate (TDI). Clin Allergy 1984;14:463-469.
15. Chan-Yeung M, Lam S, Koerner S. Clinical features and natural history of occupational asthma due to western red cedar (Thuja plicata). Am J Med 1982;72:411-415.
16. Jajosky RA, Harrison R, Flattery J, Chan J, Tumpowsky C, Davis L, Reilly MJ, Rosenman KD, Kalinowski D, Stanbury M, et al. Surveillance of work-related asthma in selected US States: California, Massachusetts, Michigan, and New Jersey, 1993-1995. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ 1999;48:1-20.
17. Renisch F, Harrison RJ, Cussler S, Athanasoulis M, Balmes J, Blanc P, Cone J. Physician reports of work-related asthma, 1993-1996. Am J Ind Med 2001;39:72-83.
18. Kern DG. Outbreak of the reactive airways dysfunction syndrome after a spill of glacial acetic acid. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991;144:1058-1064.
19. Blanc P, Galbo M, Hiatt P, Olson KR. Morbidity following acute irritant inhalation in a population-based study. JAMA 1991;266:664-669.
20. Brooks SM, Hammad Y, Richards I, Giovinco-Barbas J, Jenkins K. The spectrum of irritant-induced asthma: sudden and not-so-sudden and the role of allergy. Chest 1998;113:42-49.
21. Chan-Yeung M, Malo J-L. Tables of major inducers of occupational asthma. In: Bernstein IL, Chan-Yeung M, Malo J-L, Bernstein DI, editors. Asthma in the workplace, 2nd ed. New York: Marcel Dekker; 1999. p. 683-720.
22. Van Kampen V, Merget R, Baur X. Occupational airway sensitizers: an overview on the respective literature. Am J Ind Med 2000;38:164-218.
23. Baker DB, Gann PH, Brooks SM, Gallagher J, Bernstein IL. Cross-sectional study of platinum salts sensitization among precious metals refinery workers. Am J Ind Med 1990;18:653-654.
24. Barker RD, van Tongeren MJA, Harris JM, Gardiner K, Venables KM, Newman-Taylor AJ. Risk factors for sensitisation and respiratory symptoms among workers exposed to acid anhydrides: a cohort study. Occup Environ Med 1998;55:684-691.
25. Cartier A, Grammar L, Malo J-L, Lagier F, Ghezzo H, Harris K, Patterson R. Specific serum antibodies against isocyanates: association with occupational asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1989;84:507-514.
26. Tse KS, Chan H, Chan-Yeung M. Specific IgE antibodies in patients with occupational asthma due to western red cedar (Thuja plicata). Clin Allergy 1982;12:249-258.
27. Frew A, Chang JH, Chan H, Quirce S, Noertjojo K, Keown P, Chan-Yeung M. T-lymphocyte responses to plicatic acid-human serum albumin conjugate in occupational asthma caused by western red cedar. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1998;101:841-847.
28. Kusaka Y, Nakano Y, Shirakawa T, Morimoto K. Lymphocyte transformation with cobalt in hard metal asthma. Ind Health 1989;27:155-163.
29. Gallagher JS, Tse CST, Brooks SM, Bernstein IL. Diverse profiles of immunoreactivity in toluene diisocyanate (TDI) asthma. J Occup Med 1981;23:610-616.
30. Maestrelli P, Del Prete GF, De Carli M, D'Elios MM, Saetta M, Di Stefano A, Mapp C, Romagnani S, Fabbri L. CD-8 T-cells producing interleukin-5 and interferon-gamma in bronchial mucosa of patients with asthma induced by toluene diisocyanate. Scand J Work Environ Health 1994;20:376-381.
31. Bignon JS, Aron L, Ju LY, Kopferschmitt MC, Garnier R, Mapp C, Fabbri LM, Pauli G, Lockart A, Charron D, et al. HLA class II alleles in isocyanate-induced asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994;149:71-75.
32. Balboni A, Baricordi OR, Fabbri LM, Gandini E, Ciaccia A, Mapp CE. Association between toluene diisocyanate induced asthma and DQB1 markers: a possible role for aspartic acid at position 57. Eur Respir J 1996;9:207-210.
33. Young RP, Barker RD, Pile KD, Cookson OCM, Newman-Taylor AJ. The association of HLA-DR3 with specific IgE to inhaled acid anhydrides. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;151:219-221.
34. Newman-Taylor AJ, Cullinan P, Lympany PA, Harris JM, Dowdeswell R, du Bois RM. Interaction of HLA phenotype and exposure intensity in sensitisation to complex platinum salts. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;160:435-438.
35. Horne C, Quintana PJE, Keown PA, Dimich-Ward H, Chan-Yeung M. Distribution of DRB1 and DQB1 HLA class II alleles in patients with occupational asthma due to western red cedar. Eur Respir J 2000;15:911-914.
36. Gordon T, Sheppard D, McDonald DM, Distefano S, Scypinski L. Airway hyperresponsiveness and inflammation induced by toluene diisocyanate in guinea pigs. Am Rev Respir Dis 1985;132:1106-1112.
37. Alberts WM, do Pico GA. Reactive airways dysfunction syndrome. Chest 1996;109:1618-1626.
38. Gautrin D, Bernstein IL, Brooks S. Reactive airways dysfunction syndrome, or irritant-induced asthma. In: Bernstein IL, Chan-Yeung M, Malo J-L, Bernstein DI, editors. Asthma in the workplace, 2nd ed. New York: Marcel Dekker; 1999. p. 565-593.
39. Sheppard D, Thompson JE, Scypinski L, Dusser D, Nadel JA, Borson DB. Toluene diisocyanate increases airway responsiveness to substance P and decreases airway neutral endopeptidase. J Clin Invest 1988;81:1111-1115.
40. Barnes PJ. Airway neuropeptides and their role in asthma. In: Holgate ST, Busse WW, editors. Inflammatory mechanisms in asthma. New York: Marcel Dekker; 1998.
41. Surgeon General US. The health consequences of smoking: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Rockville, MD: United States Department of Health and Human Services; 1984. No. 84-50205.
42. Fletcher C, Peto R, Tinker C, Speizer FE. The natural history of chronic bronchitis and emphysema. New York: Oxford University Press: 1976.
43. Burrows B, Knudson RJ, Cline MG, Lebowitz MD. Quantitative relationships between cigarette smoking and ventilatory function. Am Rev Respir Dis 1977;115:195-205.
44. Higgins MW, Keller JB, Becker M. An index of risk for obstructive airways disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1982;125:144-151.
45. Mannino DM, Gagnon RC, Petty TL, Lydick E. Obstructive lung disease and low function in adults in the United States: data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994. Arch Intern Med 2000;160:1683-1689.
46. Hendrick DJ. Occupation and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 1996;51:947-955.
47. Viegi G, Scognamiglio A, Baldacci S, Pistelli F, Carozzi L. Epidemiology of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Respiration 2001;68:4-19.
48. Coggon D, Taylor AN. Coal mining and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a review of the evidence. Thorax 1998;53:398-407.
49. Hnizdo E, Baskind E, Sluis-Cremer GK. Combined effect of silica dust exposure and tobacco smoking on the prevalence of respiratory impairments among gold miners. Scand J Work Environ Health 1990;16:411-422.
50. Nakadate T, Aizawa Y, Yagami T, Zheg Y-Q, Kotani M, Ishiwata K. Change in obstructive pulmonary function as a result of cumulative exposure to welding fumes as determined by magnetopneumography in Japanese arc welders. Occup Environ Med 1998;55:673-677.
51. Davison AG, Fayers PM, Newman-Taylor AJ, Venables KM, Darbyshire J, Pickering CA, Chettle DR, Franklin D, Guthrie CJ, Scott MC. Cadmium fume inhalation and emphysema. Lancet 1988;1:663-667.
52. Irslinger GB, Visser PJ, Spangenberg PAL. Asthma and chronic bronchitis in vanadium workers. Am J Ind Med 1999;35:366-374.
53. Becklake MR, Goldman HI, Bosman AR, Freed CC. The long-term effects of exposure to nitrous fumes. Am Rev Tuberc Pulm Dis 1957;76:398-409.
54. Piirila PL, Nordman H, Korhonen OS, Winblad I. A thirteen-year follow-up of respiratory effects of acute exposure to sulfur dioxide. Scand J Work Environ Health 1996;22:191-196.
55. Becklake MR. Chronic airflow limitation: its relationship to work in dusty occupations. Chest 1985;88:606-617.
56. Becklake MR. Occupational exposures: evidence for a causal association with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989;140:S85-S91.
57. Love RG, Miller BG. Longitudinal study of lung function in coalminers. Thorax 1982;37:193-197.
58. 1 in United States coalminers. Thorax 1985;40:132-137.
59. Attfield MD, Hodus TK. Pulmonary function of US coalminers related to dust exposure estimates. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992;145:605-609.
60. Seixas NS, Robins TG, Attfield MD, Moulton LH, Longitudinal and cross-sectional analyses of coal mine dust and pulmonary function in new miners. Br J Ind Med 1993;50:929-937.
61. Holman CDJ, Psaila-Savona P, Roberts M, McNulty JC. Determinants of chronic bronchitis and lung dysfunction in Western Australian gold miners. Br J Ind Med 1987;44:810-818.
62. Ulvestad B, Bakke B, Eduard W, Kongerud J, Lund MB. Cumulative exposure to dust causes accelerated decline in lung function in tunnel workers. Occup Environ Med 2001;58:663-669.
63. Meijer E, Kromhoult H, Heederik D. Respiratory effects of exposure to low levels of concrete dust containing crystalline silica. Am J Ind Med 2001;40:133-140.
64. Kauffmann F, Drouet D, Lellouch J, Brille D. Occupational exposure and 12 year spirometric changes among Paris area workers. Br J Ind Med 1982;39:221-232.
65. Krzyzanowski M, Jedrychowski W, Wysocki M. Factors associated with the change in ventitatory function and the development of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in a 13-year follow-up of the Cracow study. Am Rev Respir Dis 1986;134:1011-1019.
66. 1 and airflow limitation related to occupational exposures in men of an urban community. Eur Respir J 1993;6:1095-1103.
67. Xu X, Christiani DC, Dockery DW, Wang L. Exposure-response relationships between occupational exposures and chronic respiratory illness: a community-based study. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992;146:413-418.
68. Becklake MR, Irwig L, Kielkowski D, Webster I, de Beer M, Landau S. The predictors of emphysema in South African goldminers. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987;135:1234-1241.
69. Hnizdo E, Sluis-Cremer GK, Abramowits JA. Emphysema type in relation to silica dust exposure in South African gold miners. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991;143:1241-1247.
70. Cockcroft A, Seal AM, Wagner JC, Lyons JP, Ryder R, Andersson N. Postmortem study of emphysema in coalworkers and non-coalworkers. Lancet 1982;2:600-603.
71. Ruckley VA, Fernie JM, Chapman JS, Collings P, Davis JM, Douglas AN, Lamb D, Seaton A. Comparison of radiographic appearances with associated pathology and lung dust content in a group of coalworkers. Br J Ind Med 1984;41:459-467.
72. Leigh J, Driscoll TR, Cole BD, Beck RW, Hull BP, Yang J. Quantitative relation between emphysema and lung mineral content in coalworkers. Occup Environ Med 1994;51:400-407.
73. Becklake MR. The work relatedness of airways dysfunction. In: Proceedings of the 9th International Symposium in Epidemiology in Occupational Health. Rockville, MD: United States Department of Health and Human Services; 1994;1-28. No. 94-4445.
74. Barnes PJ. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med 2000;343:269-280.
75. Shore S, Kobzik L, Long NC, Skornik W, Van Staden CJ, Boulet L, Rodger IW, Pon DJ. Increased airway responsiveness to inhaled methacholine in a rat model of chronic bronchitis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;151:1931-1938.
76. Churg A, Hobson J, Wright J. Functional and morphologic comparison of silica- and elastase-induced airflow obstruction. Exp Lung Res 1989;15:813-822.
77. Bonner JC, Rice AB, Moomaw CR, Mogan DL. Airway fibrosis in rats induced by vanadium pentoxide. Am J Physiol 2000;278:L209-L216.
78. Harkema JR, Hotchkiss JA. Ozone- and endotoxin-induced mucous metaplasias in rat airway epithelium: novel animal models to study toxicant-induced epithelil transformation in airways. Toxicol Lett 1993;68:251-263.
79. Putulainen E, Tornling G, Erickson S. Effect of age and occupational exposure to airway irritants on lung function in nonsmoking individuals with severe α1-antitrypsin deficiency (PiZZ). Thorax 1997;52:244-248.
80. Mayer AS, Stoller JK, Bucher-Bartelson B, Ruttenber AJ, Sandhaus RA, Newman LS. Occupational exposure risks in individuals with PI*Z α1-antitrypsin deficiency. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000;162:553-558.
81. Shapiro SD. Animal models for COPD. Chest 2000;117:223S-227S.
82. Kennedy SM. Agents causing chronic airflow obstruction. In: Harber P, Schenker MB, Balmes JR, editors. Occupational and environmental respiratory disorders. St. Louis: Mosby; 1996. p. 433-449.
83. Becklake MR. Occupational exposures as a cause of chronic airways disease. In Rom WN, editor. Environmental and occupational medicine, 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lipincott-Raven; 1998. p. 573-586.
84. Niven R. McL R, Fletcher AM, Pickering CAC, Fishwick D, Warburton CJ, Simpson JCG, Francis H, Oldham LA. Chronic bronchitis in textile workers. Thorax 1997;52:22-27.
85. Glindmeyer HW, Lenfante JJ, Jones RN, Rando RJ, Kader HAA, Weill H. Exposure-related declines in the lung function of cotton textile workers. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991;144:675-683.
86. Schwartz DA, Thorne PS, Yagla SJ, Burmeister LF, Olenchock SA, Watt JL, Quinn TJ. The role of endotoxin in grain dust-induced lung disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;152:603-608.
87. Chan-Yeung M, Enarson D, Kennedy S, The impact of grain dust on respiratory health. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992;145:476-487.
88. Chan-Yeung M, Enarson DA. Prospective changes in lung function in grain elevator workers in large terminals in Vancouver. In: Dosman J, Cockcroft D, editors. Principles of Health and Safety in Agriculture. New York: Academic Press; 1990. p. 131-134.
89. Tabona M, Chan-Yeung M, Enarson DA, Dorke E, Schulzer M. Host factors affecting longitudinal decline in spirometry among grain elevator workers. Chest 1984;85:782-786.
90. Kennedy SM, Christiani DC, Eisen EA, Wegman DH, Greaves IA, Olenchock SA, Ye T-T, Lu P-L. Cotton dust and endotoxin exposure-response relationships in cotton textile workers. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987;135:605-610.
91. DoPico GA, Flaherty D, Bhansali P, Chavaje N. Grain fever syndrome induced by inhalation of airborne grain dust. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1982;69:435-443.
92. Olenchock SA, Mull JC, Major PC. Extracts of airborne grain dusts activate alternative and classical complement pathways. Ann Allergy 1980;44:23-28.
93. Von Essen SG, Robbins RA, Thompson AB, Ertl RF, Linder J, Rennard S. Mechanisms of neutrophil recruitment to the lung by grain dust exposure. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988;138:921-927.
94. Schwartz DA, Thorne PS, Jagielo PJ, White GE, Bleuer SA, Frees KL. Endotoxin responsiveness and grain dust-induced inflammation in the lower respiratory tract. Am J Physiol 1994;267:L609-L617.
95. Jagielo PJ, Thorne PS, Watt JL, Frees KL, Quinn TJ, Schwartz DA. Grain dust and endotoxin inhalation produce similar inflammatory responses in normal subjects. Chest 1996;110:263-270.
96. Gordon T, Balmes J, Fine J, Sheppard D. Airway edema and obstruction in guinea pigs exposed to inhaled endotoxin. Br J Ind Med 1991;48:629-635.
97. Cooper JA Jr, Merrill WW, Buck MG, Schacter EN. The relationship between bronchoalveolar neutrophil recruitment and bronchoconstriction induced by a soluble extract of cotton bracts. Am Rev Respir Dis 1986;134:975-982.
98. Castellan RM, Olenchock SA, Hankinson JL, Millner PD, Cocke JB, Bragg CK, Perkins HH, Jacobs RR. Acute bronchoconstriction induced by cotton dust: dose-related responses to endotoxin and other dust factors. Ann Intern Med 1984;101:157-163.
99. Castellan RM, Olenchock SA, Kinesly KB, Hankinson JL. Inhaled endotoxin and decreased spirometric values. N Engl J Med 1987;317:605-610.
100. Fishwick D, Fletcher AM, Pickering CAC, Niven RM, Faragher EB. Lung function, bronchial reactivity, atopic status, and dust exposure in Lancashire cotton mill operatives. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992;145:1103-1108.
101. Wagner GR, Wegman DH. Occupational asthma: prevention by definition. Am J Ind Med 1998;33:427-429.
102. Northridge ME. Public health methods: attributable risk as a link between causality and public health action. Am J Public Health 1995;85:1202-1204.
103. Wacholder S, Benichou J, Heineman EF, Hartge P, Hoover RN. Attributable risk: advantages of a broad definition of exposure. Am J Epidemiol 1994;140:303-309.
104. Rothman K, Greenland S. Modern epidemiology. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven: 1998. p. 295.
105. Benichou J. Methods of adjustment for estimating the attributable risk in case-control studies: a review. Stat Med 1991;10:1753-1773.
106. Benichou J, Gail MH. Variance calculations and confidence intervals for estimates of the attributable risk based on logistic models. Biometrics 1990;46:991-1003.
107. Hémon D, Goldberg M, Mur J-M. Introduction: restrospective evaluation of occupational exposures in epidemiology: a European concerted action 1990-1992. Int J Epidemiol 1993;22:S3-S4.
108. Korn RJ, Dockery DW, Speizer FE, Ware JH, Ferris BG. Occupational exposures and chronic respiratory symptoms: a population-based study. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987;136:298-304.
109. Johnson A, Dimich-Ward H, Manfreda J, Sears MR, Becklake MR, Ernst P, Sears MR, Bowie DM, Sweet L, Chan-Yeung M. The prevalence of suspected occupational asthma (OA) in a population based survey. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;162:2058-2062.
110. Burney PGJ, Luczynska C, Chinn S, Jarvis D. The European Community Respiratory Health Survey. Eur Respir J 1994;7:954-960.
111. Siemiatycki J, Day NE, Fabry J, Cooper JA. Discovering carcinogens in the occupational environment: a novel epidemiologic approach. J Natl Cancer Inst 1981;66:217-225.
112. Post WK, Heederik D, Kromhout H, Kromhout D. Occupational exposures estimated by a population specific job exposure matrix and 25 year incidence rate of chronic nonspecific lung disease (CNSLD): the Zutphen Study. Eur Respir J 1994;7:1048-1055.
113. Sunyer J, Kogevinas M, Kromhout H, Antó JM, Roca J, Tobias A, Vermeulen R, Payo F, Maldonado JA, Martinez-Moratalla J, et al. Pulmonary ventilatory defects and occupational exposures in a population-based study in Spain. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;157:512-517.
114. Pannett B, Coggon D, Acheson ED. A job-exposure matrix for use in population based studies in England and Wales. Br J Ind Med 1985;42:777-783.
115. Goldberg M, Kromhout H, Guénel P, Fletcher AC, Gérin M, Glass DC, Heederik D, Kauppinen T, Ponti A. Job exposure matrices in industry. Int J Epidemiol 1993;22:S10-S15.
116. Viegi G, Di Pede C. Chronic obstructive lung diseases and occupational exposure. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol 2002;2:1-7.
117. Becklake MR, Lalloo U. The "healthy smoker": a phenomenon of health selection. Respiration 1990;57:137-144.
118. Viegi G, Prediletto R, Paoletti P, Carrozzi L, Di Pede F, Vellutini M, Di Pede C, Giuntini C, Lebowitz MD. Respiratory effects of occupational exposure in a general population sample in North Italy. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991;143:510-515.
119. Bakke P, Eide GE, Hanoa R, Gulsvik. Occupational dust or gas exposure and the prevalences of respiratory symptoms and asthma in the general population. Eur Respir J 1991;4:273-278.
120. Blanc P. Occupational asthma in a national disability survey. Chest 1987;92:613-617.
121. Forastiere F, Balmes J, Scarinci M, Tager IB. Occupations, asthma and chronic respiratory symptoms in a community sample of older women. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;157:1864-1870.
122. Isoaho R, Puolijoki H, Huhti E, Kivelä SL, Tala E. Prevalence of asthma in elderly Finns. J Clin Epidemiol 1994;47:1109-1118.
123. Kogevinas M, Antó JM, Sunyer J, Tobías A, Kromhout H, Burney P. A population-based study on occupational asthma in Europe and other industrialised countries. Lancet 1999;353:175-1754.
124. Neijari C, Tessier JF, Letenneur L, Dartigues JF, Barbarger-Gateau P, Salamon R. Prevalence of self-reported asthma symptoms in a French elderly sample. Respir Med 1996;90:401-408.
125. Monso E, Munoz-Rino F, Izquierdo J, Roca J, Masia N, Rosell A, Morera J. Occupational asthma in the community: risk factors in a western Mediterranean population. Arch Environ Health 1998;53:93-98.
126. Xu X, Christiani DC. Occupational exposures and physician-diagnosed asthma. Chest 1993;104:1364-1370.
127. Milton D, Christiani D. The risk of asthma attributable to occupational exposures: a population-based study in Spain [letter]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;155:382.
128. Reijula K, Haahtela T, Klaukka T, Rantanen J. Incidence of occupational asthma and persistent asthma in young adults has increased in Finland. Chest 1996;110:50-61.
129. Katz I, Moshe S, Sosna J. The occurrence, recrudescence, and worsening of asthma in a population of young adults. Chest 1999;116:614-618.
130. Flodin U, Ziegler J, Jönsson P, Axelson O. Bronchial asthma and air pollution at workplaces. Scand J Work Environ Health 1996;22:451-456.
131. Ng TP, Hong CY, Goh LG, Wong ML, Koh KTC, Ling SL. Risks of asthma associated with occupations in a community-based case-control study. Am J Ind Med 1994;25:709-718.
132. Toren K, Balder B, Brisman J, Lindholm N, Lowhagen O, Palmqvist M, Tunsater A. The risk of asthma in relation to occupational exposures: a case control study. Eur Respir J 1999;13:496-501.
133. Blanc PD, Cisternas M, Smith S, Yelin E. Occupational asthma in a community-based survey of adult asthma. Chest 1996;109:56s-57s.
134. Blanc PD, Eisner MD, Israel L, Yelin EH. The association between occupation and asthma in general medical practice. Chest 1999;115:1259-1264.
135. De Bono J, Hudsmith L. Occupational asthma: a community based study. Occup Med 1999;49:217-219.
136. Senthilselvan A, Chen Y, Dosman JA. Predictors of asthma and wheezing in adults. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993;148:667-670.
137. Syabbalo N. Occupational asthma in a developing country [letter]. Chest 1991;99:528.
138. Timmer ST, Rosenman K. Occurrence of occupational asthma. Chest 1993;104:816-820.
139. Blanc PD, Toren K. How much adult asthma can be attributed to occupational factors? Am J Med 2000;107:580-587.
140. Tarlo SM, Leung K, Broder I, Silverman F, Holness DL. Asthmatic subjects symptomatically worse at work: prevalence and characterization among a general asthma clinic population. Chest 2000;118:1309-1314.
141. Karjalainen A, Kurpa K, Martikainen R, Klauka T, Karjalainen J. Work is related to a substantial portion of adult-onset asthma incidence in the Finnish population. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;164:565-568.
142. Mannino DM. How much asthma is occupationally related? Occup Med 2000;15:359-368.
143. American Thoracic Society. Standards for the diagnosis and care of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;152:S77-S120.
144. Siafakas NM, Vermeire P, Pride NB, Paoletti P, Gibson J, Howard P, Yernault JX, Decramer M, Higenbottam T, Postma DS, Rees J. European Respiratory Society Consensus Statement. Optimal assessment and management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Eur Respir J 1995;8:1398-1420.
145. British Thoracic Society. Guidelines for the management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 1997;52:S1-S28.
146. Krzyzanowski M, Kauffmann F. The relation of respiratory symptoms and ventilatory function to moderate occupational exposure in a general population: results from the French PAARC study of 16000 adults. Int J Epidemiol 1988;17:397-406.
147. Bakke P, Eide GE, Hanoa R, Gulsvik A. Occupational dust or gas exposure and prevalence of respiratory symptoms and asthma in a general population. Eur Respir J 1991;4:273-278.
148. Krzyzanowski M, Jedrychowski W. Occupational exposure and incidence of chronic respiratory symptoms among residents of Cracow followed for 13 years. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 1990;62:311-317.
149. Fishwick D, Bradshaw LM, D'souza W, Town I, Armstrong R, Pearce N, Crane J. Chronic bronchitis, shortness of breath, and airway obstruction by occupation in New Zealand. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;156:1440-1446.
150. Lebowitz MD. Occupational exposures in relation to symptomatology and lung function in a community population. Environ Res 1977;14:59-67.
151. Zock J-P, Sunyer J, Kogevinas M, Kromhoult H, Burney P, Anto JM. Occupation, chronic bronchitis, and lung function in young adults: an international study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;163:1572-1577.
152. Suadicani P, Hein HO, Meyer HW, Gyntelberg F. Exposure to cold and draught, alcohol consumption, and the N-S phenotype are associated with chronic bronchitis: an epidemiological investigation of 3387 men aged 53-75 years: the Copenhagen Male Study. Occup Environ Med 2002;58:160-164.
153. Leigh JP, Romano PS, Schenker MB, Kreiss K. Costs of occupational chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma. Chest (In press)
154. Friedman-Jimenez G, Beckett WS, Szeinuk J, Petsonk EL. Clinical evaluation, management, and prevention of work-related asthma. Am J Ind Med 2000;37:121-141.
155. Venables KM. Prevention of occupational asthma. Eur Respir J 1994;7:768-778.
156. Petty TL, Weinmann GG. Building a national strategy for the prevention and management of and research in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute workshop summary. JAMA 1997;277:246-253.
157. Ramazzini B. Treatise on the diseases of tradesmen. London: Thomas Osborne; 1746.