Cardiovascular manifestations of substance abuse: Part 1: Cocaine

Heart Disease

Volumn 5, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 187-201

  Frishman, William H ^a,d   Del Vecchio, Alexander ^b   Sanal, Shirin ^a   Ismail, Anjum ^c  

^a WESTCHESTER MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b MONTEFIORE MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^c Heart Institute of Nevada   (United States)

^d NEW YORK MEDICAL COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

Cardiovascular disease; Cocaine; Substance abuse

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ALPHA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; ANALGESIC AGENT; ANTIARRHYTHMIC AGENT; ANTICOAGULANT AGENT; ANTITHROMBOCYTIC AGENT; BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; BICARBONATE; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CARVEDILOL; CATECHOLAMINE; COCAINE; FIBRINOGEN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; FIBRINOLYTIC AGENT; GLYCERYL TRINITRATE; HEPARIN; LABETALOL; LIDOCAINE; NICARDIPINE; NIFEDIPINE; NITRIC ACID DERIVATIVE; NITROPRUSSIDE SODIUM; OPIATE DERIVATIVE; PRAZOSIN; PROPRANOLOL; SODIUM CHANNEL; TISSUE PLASMINOGEN ACTIVATOR; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; UNINDEXED DRUG; VASODILATOR AGENT;

ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; CARDIOMYOPATHY; CARDIOTOXICITY; CARDIOVASCULAR EFFECT; COCAINE DEPENDENCE; CORONARY ARTERY SPASM; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG MECHANISM; FIBRINOLYTIC THERAPY; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HEART DEATH; HEART DISEASE; HEART INFARCTION; HEART LEFT VENTRICLE HYPERTROPHY; HEART MUSCLE ISCHEMIA; HUMAN; INTRACARDIAC THROMBOSIS; LOCAL ANESTHESIA; MALIGNANT HYPERTENSION; REVIEW; SUBSTANCE ABUSE; SUDDEN DEATH; TACHYPHYLAXIS; UNSTABLE ANGINA PECTORIS;

ANIMALS; COCAINE; COCAINE-RELATED DISORDERS; DOPAMINE UPTAKE INHIBITORS; HEART CONDUCTION SYSTEM; HEART DISEASES; HUMANS; MOLECULAR STRUCTURE; MUSCLE, SMOOTH, VASCULAR; TACHYPHYLAXIS; VASOCONSTRICTOR AGENTS;

EID: 0037937577     PISSN: 1521737X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/01.hdx.0000074519.43281.fa     Document Type: Review

References (150)

1. Catterall WA, Mackie K. Local Anesthetics. In: Hardman JG, Limbird LE (eds): Goodman & Gilman's, The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. 10th ed. New York: McGraw Hill; 2001:367-384.
2. Lange RA, Hillis LD. Cardiovascular complications of cocaine use. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:351-358.
3. Das G. Cocaine abuse in North America. J Clin Pharmacol. 1993;33:296-310.
4. Goldfrank LR, Hoffman RS. The cardiovascular effects of cocaine. Ann Emerg Med. 1991;20:165-75.
5. Gioia G, Manuel M, Russell J, Heo J. Myocardial perfusion pattern in patients with cocaine induced chest pain. Am J Cardiol. 1995;75:396-8.
6. Frishman WH, Karpenos A, Molloy TJ. Cocaine induced coronary artery disease. Med Clinics N Am. 1989;73:475-586.
7. Das G. Cardiovascular effects of cocaine abuse. Intl J Clin Pharmacol Ther Toxicol. 1993;31:521-528.
8. Crawley IS, Schlant RC. Effect of noncardiac drugs, electricity, poisons, and radiation on the heart. In: Schlant RC, Alexander RW, O'Rourke RA, et al. eds. Hurst's The Heart. 8th ed. New York: McGraw Hill; 1994:1989-2006.
9. Stewart DJ, Inaba T, Lucassen M, Kalow W. Cocaine Metabolism: cocaine and norcaine hydrolysis by liver and serum esterases. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1979;25:464-468.
10. Leshner A. Molecular mechanisms of cocaine addiction. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:128-129.
11. Jain RK, Jain MK, Bachenheimer LC, et al. Factors determining whether cocaine will potentiate the cardiac effects of neurally released norepinephrine. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1990;252:147-153.
12. 2+ handling and myofilament Ca2+ responsiveness of ferret ventricular myocardium. Br J Pharmacol. 1990;101:679-685.
13. Pitts WR, Vongpatanasin W, Cigarroa JE, et al. Effects of the intracoronary infusion of cocaine on left ventricular systolic and diastolic function in humans. Circulation. 1998;97:1270-1273.
14. Isner JM, Chokshi SK. Cardiovascular complications of cocaine. Curr Probl Cardiol. 1991;64:94-123.
15. Keller DJ, Todd GL. Acute cardiotoxic effects of cocaine and a hyperadrenergic state in anesthetized dogs. Intl J Cardiol. 1994;44:19-28.
16. Gillis RA, Bachenheimer LC, Dretchen KL, et al. Role of the sympathetic nervous system in the cardiovascular effects of cocaine. NIDA Research Monograph. 1991;108:92-109.
17. Melon PG, Ngyuen N, DeGrado TR, et al. Imaging of cardiac neuronal function after cocaine exposure using carbon-11 hydroxyephedrine and positron emission tomography. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1994;23:1693-1699.
18. Fowler JS, Ding YS, Volkow, ND, et al. PET studies of cocaine inhibition of myocardial norepinephrine uptake. Synapse. 1994;16:312-317.
19. Sharkey J, Ritz MC, Schenden JA, et al. Cocaine inhibits muscarinic cholinergic receptors in heart and brain. J Pharm Exp Ther. 1988;246:1048-1052.
20. Newlin DB, Wong CJ, Stapleton JM, London ED. Intravenous cocaine decreases cardiac vagal tone, vagal index and heart period complexity in cocaine abusers. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2000;23:560-568.
21. Vongpatanasin W, Mansour Y, Chavosham B, et al. Cocaine stimulates the human cardiovascular system via a central mechanism of action. Circulation. 1999;100:497-502.
22. Shannon RP, Mathier MA, Shen YT. Role of cardiac nerves in the cardiovascular response to cocaine in conscious dogs. Circulation. 2001;103:1674-1680.
23. Jones LF, Tackett RL. Differential routes of cocaine administration indicate a peripheral cardiotoxic action. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1991;38:601-603.
24. Billman GE. Mechanism responsible for the cardiovascular effects of cocaine. FASEB J. 1990;4:2469-2475.
25. Lange RA, Ciggarroa RG, Yancy CW, et al. Cocaine induced coronary artery vasoconstriction. N Engl J Med. 1989;321:1557-1562.
26. Lange RA, Ciggarroa RG, Flores ED, et al. Potentiation of cocaine induced coronary vasoconstriction by beta adrenergic blockade. Ann Intern Med. 1990;112:897-903.
27. Shannon RF, Manders T, Shen YT. Role of blood doping in the coronary vasoconstrictor response to cocaine. Circulation. 1995;92:96-105.
28. Prekumar LS. Selective potentiation of L-type calcium channel currents by cocaine in cardiac myocytes. Mol Pharmacol. 1999;56:1138-1142.
29. Gardin JM, Wong N, Alker K, et al. Acute cocaine administration induces ventricular regional wall motion abnormalities in an anesthetized rabbit model. Am Heart J. 1994;128:1117-1129.
30. Abel FL, Wilson SP, Zhao RR, Fenell WH. Cocaine depresses the canine myocardium. Circ Shock. 1989;28:309-319.
31. Hale SL, Alker KJ, Rezkella SH, et al. Nifedipine protects the heart from the acute deleterious effects of cocaine if administered before but not after cocaine. Circulation. 1991;83:1437-1443.
32. Morcos NC, Fairhurst A, Henry WL. Direct myocardial effects of cocaine. Cardiovasc Res. 1993;27:269-273.
33. Renard DC, Delaville FJ, Thomas AP. Inhibitory effects of cocaine on Ca2+ transients and contraction in single cardiomyocytes. Am J Physiol. 1994;266:H555-H567.
34. Perrault CL, Hauge NL, Morgan KG, et al. Negative inotropic and relaxant effects of cocaine on myopathic humn ventricular myocardium and epicardial coronary arteries in vitro. Cardiovasc Res. 1993;27:262-268.
35. Stewart G, Rubin E, Thomas AP. Inhibition by cocaine of excitation contraction coupling in isolated cardiomyocytes. Am J Physiol. 1991;260:H50-H57.
36. Yuan C, Acosta D. Inhibitory effect of cocaine on calcium mobilization in cultured rat myocardial cells. J Mol Cell Cardiol. 1994;26:1415-1419.
37. Tomita F, Basset AL, Myerberg RJ, Kimura S. Effects of cocaine on sarcoplasmic reticulum in skinned rat heart muscle. Am J Physiol. 1993;264:H845-H850.
38. Pilati CF, Espinal AR, Pukys TF. Persistent left ventricular dysfunction after cocaine treatment in rabbits. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1993;203:100-107.
39. Kambam JR, Franks JJ, Mets B, et al. The effects of hepatectomy and plasma cholinesterase inhibition on cocaine metabolism and cardiovascular responses in pigs. J Lab Clin Med. 1994;124:715-722.
40. Crumb WJ, Clarkson CW. Characteristics of the sodium channel blocking properties of the major metabolites of cocaine in single cardiac myocytes. J Pharmacol Exper Ther. 1992;261:910-917.
41. Egashira K, Morgan KG, Morgan JP. Effects of cocaine on excitationcontraction coupling of aortic smooth muscle from the ferret. J Clin Invest. 1991;87:1322-1328.
42. Clarkson CW, Chang C, Stolfi A, et al. Electrophysiological effects of high cocaine concentrations on intact canine heart. Evidence for modulation by both heart rate and autonomic nervous system. Circulation. 1993;87:950-962.
43. Temesy-Armos PN, Fraker TD, Brewster PS, et al. The effects of cocaine on cardiac electrophysiology in conscious dogs. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1992;19:883-891.
44. Hale SL, Alker KJ, Rezkella S, et al. Adverse effects of cocaine on cardiovascular dynamics, myocardial blood flow and coronary artery diameter in an experimental model. Am Heart J. 1989;118:827-833.
45. Pagel PS, Tessemer JP, Warlitier DC. Systemic and coronary hemodynamic effects of repetitive cocaine administration in conscious dogs. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1994;24:443-453.
46. Fischman MW, Schuster CR, Javaid J, et al. Acute tolerance development to the cardiovascular and subjective effects of cocaine. J Pharmacol Ther. 1985;235:677-685.
47. Shannon RP, Lozano P, Cai Q, et al. Mechanism of the systemic, left ventricular, and coronary vascular tolerance to a binge of cocaine in conscious dogs. Circulation. 1996;94:534-541.
48. Trulson ME, Epps LR, Joe JC. Cocaine: long term administration depletes cardiac enzymes in the rat. Acta Anatomica. 1987;129:165-168.
49. Virmani R. Cocaine associated cardiovascular disease. NIDA Res Monogr. 1991;108:220-229.
50. Virmani R, Robinowitz M, Smialek JE, Smyth DF. Cardiovascular effects of cocaine: and autopsy study of 40 patients. Am Heart J. 1988;115:1068-1076.
51. Tazelaar HD, Karch SB, Stephans BG, Billingham ME. Cocaine and the heart. Human Pathol. 1987;18:195-199.
52. Peng SK. Direct cocaine cardiotoxicity demonstrated by endomyocardial biopsy. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1989;113:842-845.
53. Vitullo JC, Mekhail NA, Estafanous FG, et al. Acute morphological effects of cocaine on rat cardiomyocytes. Cytobios. 1993;76:31-39.
54. Xiao Y, Xiao D, He J, Zhang L. Maternal cocaine administration during pregnancy induces apoptosis in fetal rat heart. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2001;37:639-648.
55. He J, Xiao Y, Zhang L. Cocaine induces apoptosis in human coronary artery endothelial cells. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2000;35:572-580.
56. Zhang L, Xiao Y, He J. Cocaine and apoptosis in myocardial cells. Anat Record. 1999;257:208-216.
57. Linder JD, Monkemuller KE, Raijman I, et al. Cocaine associated ischemic colitis. Southern Med J. 2000;93:909-913.
58. Albrecht CA, Jafri A, Linville L, Anderson V. Cocaine-induced pneumopericardium. Circulation. 2000;102:2792-2794.
59. Pentel PR, Thompson T, Hatsukami DK, et al. 12 lead and continuous ECG recording of subjects during inpatient administration of smoked cocaine. Drug Alcohol Dependence. 1994;35:107-116.
60. Hollander JE, Burstein JL, Hoffman RS, et al. Cocaine associated myocardial infarction. Clinical safety of thrombolytic therapy. Chest. 1995;107:1237-1241.
61. Kloner RA, Hale S, Alker K, Rezkella S. The effect of acute and chronic cocaine use on the heart. Circulation. 1992;85:407-419.
62. Isner JM, Estes NA, Thompson PD, et al. Acute cardiac events temporally related to cocaine abuse. N Engl J Med. 1986;315:1438-1443.
63. Isner JM, Chokshi SK. Cardiac complications of cocaine abuse. Ann Rev Med. 1991;42:133-138.
64. Qureshi AI, Suri FK, Gutterman LR, Hopkins LN. Cocaine use and the likelihood of nonfatal myocardial infarction and stroke. Circulation. 2001;103:502-506.
65. Gitter MJ, Goldsmith SR, Dunbar DN, Sharkey SW. Cocaine and chest pain clinical features and outcome of patients hospitalized to rule out myocardial infarction. Ann Intern Med. 1991;115:277-282.
66. Zimmerman JL, Dellinger RP, Majid PA. Cocaine associated chest pain. Ann Emerg Med. 1991;20:611-617.
67. Minor RL, Scott BD, Brown DD, Winnifred MD. Cocaine induced myocardial infarction in patients with normal coronary arteries. Ann Intern Med. 1991;115:797-806.
68. Mittleman MA, Mintzer D, Maclure M, et al. Triggering of myocardial infarction by cocaine. Circulation. 1999;99:2737-2741.
69. Hollander JE, Hoffman RS. Cocaine induced myocardial infarction: an analysis and review of the literature. J Emerg Med. 1992;10:169-172.
70. Garcia-Rubira JC, Badiola H, Marcos F. Acute myocardial infarction in two young male users of cocaine treated with thrombolytic therapy. Int J Cardiol. 1992;35:422-424.
71. Togna G, Tempesta E, Togna AR, et al. Platelet responsiveness and biosynthesis of thromboxane and prostacyclin in response to in vitro cocaine treatment. Haemostasis. 1985;15:100-107.
72. Rezkella SH, Mazza JJ, Kloner RA, et al. Effects of cocaine on human platelets in healthy subjects. Am J Cardiol. 1993;72:243-246.
73. Lee HO, Eisenberg MJ, Drew D, Schiller NB. Intraventricular thrombus after cocaine induced myocardial infarction. Am Heart J. 1995;129:403-405.
74. Dressler FA, Malekzadeh S, Roberts WC. Quantitative analysis of amounts of coronary arterial narrowing in cocaine addicts. Am J Cardiol. 1990;65:303-308.
75. Kolodgie FD, Virimani R, Cornhill JF, et al. Increases in atherosclerosis and adventitial mast cells in cocaine abusers: and alternative mechanism of cocaine associated coronary vasospasm and thrombosis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1991;17:1553-1560.
76. Benzaquen BS, Cohen V, Eisenberg MJ. Effects of cocaine on the coronary arteries. Am Heart J. 2001;142:402-410.
77. Zimmerman FH, Gustafson GM, Kemp HG. Recurrent myocardial infarction associated with cocaine abuse in a young man with normal coronary arteries evidence for coronary artery spasm thrombosis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1987;9:964-968.
78. Ascher EK, Stauffer JC, Gaasch WH. Coronary artery spasm, cardiac arrest, transient electrocardiographic Q waves and stunned myocardium in cocaine associated acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol. 1988;61:939-941.
79. Daniel WC, Lange RA, Landau C, et al. Effects of the intracoronary infusion of cocaine on coronary arterial dimensions and blood flow in humans. Am J Cardiol. 1996;78:288-291.
80. Eisenberg MJ, Yakel DL, Mendelson J, et al. Immediate effects of intravenous cocaine on the thoracic aorta and coronary arteries. Chest. 1996;110:147-154.
81. Simons AJ, Arazoza E, Hare C, et al. Circumferential aortic dissection in a young woman. Am Heart J. 1992;123:1077-1079.
82. Wilbert-Lampen U, Seliger C, Zilker T, Arendt RM. Cocaine increases the endothelial release of immunoreactive endothelin and its concentrations in human plasma and urine. Reversal by coincubation with α-receptor antagonists. Circulation. 1998;98:385-390.
83. Havranek EP, Nademanee K, Grayburn PA, Eichhorn EJ. Endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation is impaired in cocaine arteriopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1996;28:1168-1174.
84. Rinder HM, Ault KA, Jatlow PI, et al. Platelet alpha granule release in cocaine users. Circulation. 1994;90:1162-1167.
85. Kugelmass AD, Oda A, Monahan K, et al. Activation of human platelets by cocaine. Circulation. 1993;88:876-883.
86. Kugelmass AD, Shannon RP, Yeo EL, Ware JA. Intravenous cocaine induced platelet activation in the conscious dog. Circulation. 1995;91:1336-1340.
87. Eichhorn EJ, Demian SE, Alvarez LG. Cocaine induced alterations in prostaglandin production in rabbit aorta. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1992;19:696-703.
88. DelVecchio A, Frishman WH, Fadel A, Ismail A. Cardiovascular manifestations of substance abuse. In Frishman WH, Sonnenblick EH, eds. Cardiovascular Pharmacotherapeutics. New York: McGraw Hill; 1997:1115-1149.
89. Heesch CM, Wilhelm CR, Ristich J, et al. Cocaine activates platelets and increases the formation of circulating platelet containing microaggregates in humans. Heart. 2000;83:688-695.
90. Henning RJ, Silva J, Reddy V, et al. Cocaine increases beta-myosin heavy-chain protein expression in cardiac myocytes. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther. 2000;5:313-522.
91. Siegel AJ, Sholar MB, Mendelson JH, et al. Cocaine-induced erythrocytosis and increase in von Willebrand factor: evidence for drug-related blood doping and prothrombotic effects. Arch Intern Med. 1999;159:1925-1929.
92. Jennings LK, White MM, Sauer CM, et al. Cocaine induced platelet defects. Stroke. 1993;24:1352-1359.
93. Heesch CM, Negus BH, Steiner M, et al. Effects of in vivo cocaine administration on human platelet aggregation. Am J Cardiol. 1996;78:237-239.
94. Langner RO, Bement CL. Cocaine induced changes in biochemistry and morphology of rabbit aorta. NIDA Research Monograph. 1991;108:154-166.
95. Wilson LD. Rapid progression of coronary artery disease in the setting of chronic cocaine abuse. J Emerg Med. 1998;16:631-634.
96. Weber JE, Chudnofsky CR, Boczar M, et al. Cocaine associated chest pain: How common is myocardial infarction? Acad Emerg Med. 2000;7:873-877.
97. Feldman JA, Fish SS, Beshansky JR, et al. Acute cardiac ischemia in patients with cocaine-associated complaints: results of a multicenter trial. Ann Emerg Med. 2000;36:469-476.
98. Yuen-Green MS, Yen CK, Lim CK, et al. Tc-99m sestamibi myocardial imaging at rest for evaluation of cocaine induced myocardial ischemia and infarction. Clin Nucl Med. 1992;17:923-925.
99. Hollander JE, Wilson LD, Leo PJ, et al. Complications from the use of thrombolytic agents in patients with cocaine associated chest pain. J Emerg Med. 1996;14:731-736.
100. Boniface KS, Feldman JA. Thrombolytic therapy and cocaine associated acute myocardial infarction. Am J Emerg Med. 2000;18:612-615.
101. Hollander JE, Shih RD, Hoffman RS, et al. Predictors of coronary artery disease in patients with cocaine associated myocardial infarction. Am J Med. 1997;102:158-163.
102. Weber JE, Shofer FS, Larkin GL, et al. Validation of a brief observation period for patients with cocaine-associated chest pain. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:510-517.
103. Hollander JE, Levitt MA, Young GP, et al. Effect of recent cocaine use on the specificity of cardiac markers for the diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction. Am Heart J. 1998;135:245-252.
104. Bush HS. Cocaine associated myocardial infarction. Chest. 1988;94:878.
105. LoVecchio F, Nelson L. Intraventricular bleeding after the use of thrombolytics in a cocaine user. Am J Emerg Med. 1996;14:663-664.
106. Yao SS, Spindola-Franco H, Menegus M, et al. Successful intracoronary thrombolysis in cocaine associated acute myocardial infarction. Catheteriz Cardiovasc Diag. 1997;42:294-297.
107. Shah DM, Dy TC, Szto GY, et al. Percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty and stenting for cocaine-induced acute myocardial infarction: a case report and review. Catheteriz Cardiovasc Intervent. 2000;49:447-451.
108. Hollander JE, Hoffman RS, Gennis P, et al. Nitroglycerin in the treatment of cocaine associated chest pain: clinical safety and efficacy. J Toxicol. 1994;32:243-256.
109. Baumann BM, Perrone J, Hornig SE, et al. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of diazepam, nitroglycerin, or both for treatment of patients with potential cocaine associated coronary syndromes. Acad Emerg Med. 2000;7:878-885.
110. Mouhaffel AH, Madu EC, Satmary WA. Cardiovascular complications of cocaine. Chest. 1995;107:428-434.
111. Hollander JE. The management of cocaine associated myocardial ischemia. N Engl J Med. 1995;333:1267-1272.
112. Boehrer JD, Moliterno DJ, Willard JE, et al. Influence of labetolol on cocaine induced coronary vasoconstriction in humans. Am J Med. 1993;94:608-610.
113. Sofuoglu M, Brown S, Babb DA, et al. Carvedilol affects the physiological and behavioral response to smoked cocaine in humans. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2000;60:69-76.
114. Frangogiannis NG, Farmer JA, Lakkis NM. Tirofiban for cocaineinduced coronary artery thrombosis. A novel therapeutic approach. Circulation. 1999;100:1939.
115. Lerner RG, Frishman WH, Mohan KT. Clopidogrel. A new antiplatelet drug. Heart Disease. 2000;2:168-173.
116. Castro VJ, Nacht R. Cocaine induced bradyarrhythmia. Chest. 2000;117:275-277.
117. Gamouras GA, Monir G, Plunkitt K, et al. Cocaine abuse: repolarization abnormalities and ventricular arrhythmias. Am J Med Sci. 2000;320:9-12.
118. Mittleman RE, Wetli CV. Cocaine and sudden "natural death". J Forensic Sci. 1987;32:11-19.
119. Bauman JL, Grawe JJ, Winecoff AP, et al. Cocaine related sudden cardiac death: a hypothesis correlating basic science and clinical observations. J Clin Pharmacol. 1994;34:902-911.
120. Combs AB, Acosta D. Toxic mechanism of the heart: a review. Toxicol Pathol. 1990;18:583-596.
121. Schwartz AB, Janzen D, Jones RT. Electrophysiologic effects of cocaine on the canine ventricle. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1989;13:253-257.
122. Kimura S, Bassett AL, Xi H, et al. Early afterdepolarization and triggered activity induced by cocaine. A possible mechanism of cocaine arrhythmogenesis. Circulation. 1992;85:2227-2228.
123. Starmer CF, Lancaster AR, Lastra AA, Grant AO. Cardiac inability amplified by use dependent Na channel blockade. Am J Physiol. 1992;262:H1305-H1310.
124. Billman GE. The effect of adrenergic antagonists on cocaine-induced ventricular fibrillation: alpha but not beta adrenergic receptor antagonists prevent malignant arrhythmias independent of heart rate. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1994;269:409-416.
125. Crumb WJ, Clarkson CW. Characterization of cocaine induced block of cardiac sodium channels. Biophys J. 1990;57:589-599.
126. Carpentier RG, Sherief HT. Cocaine suppression of triggered activity. A possible mechanism of antiarrhythmic action. J Electrocardiog. 1994;27:35-39.
127. Przywara DA, Dambach GE. Direct action of cocaine on cardiac cellular electrical activity. Circ Res. 1989;65:185-192.
128. Billman GE. Effect of calcium channel antagonists on cocaine induced malignant arrhythmias: protection against ventricular fibrillation. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1993;266:407-416.
129. Gatenberg NS, Hagemen GR. Cocaine enhanced arrhythmogenesis. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 1992;70:240-246.
130. Beckman KJ. Cocaine and sodium bicarbonate. Circulation. 1991;83:1799-1807.
131. Shih RD, Hollander JE, Burstein JL, et al. Clinical safety of lidocaine in patients with cocaine associated myocardial infarction. Ann Emerg Med. 1995;26:702-706.
132. Littmann L, Monroe MH, Svenson RH. Brugada-type electrocardiographic pattern induced by cocaine. Mayo Clinic Proc. 2000;75:845-849.
133. Chambers HF, Morris DL, Tauber MG, et al. Cocaine use and the risk for endocarditis in intravenous users. Ann Intern Med. 1987;106:833-836.
134. Brickner ME, Willard JE, Eichhorn EJ, et al. Left ventricular hypertrophy associated with chronic cocaine abuse. Circulation. 1991;84:1130-1135.
135. Ciggarroa CG, Boehrer JD, Brickner ME, et al. Exaggerated pressor response to treadmill exercise in chronic cocaine abusers with left ventricular hypertrophy. Circulation. 1992;86:226-231.
136. Om A, Ellahham S, Vetrovec GW, et al. Left ventricular hypertrophy in normotensive cocaine users. Am Heart J. 1993;125:1441-1443.
137. Hoegerman GS, Lewis CE, Flack J, et al. Lack of association of recreational cocaine and alcohol use with left ventricular mass in young adults. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1995;25:895-900.
138. Missouris CG, Swift PA, Singer DRJ. Cocaine use and acute left ventricular dysfunction (case report). Lancet. 2001;357:1586.
139. Sherzoy A, Sadler D, Brown J. Cocaine related acute aortic dissection diagnosed by transesophageal echocardiography. Am Heart J. 1994;128:841-843.
140. Hsue PY, Salinas CL, Bolger AF, et al. Acute aortic dissection related to crack cocaine. Circulation. 2002;105:1592-1595.
141. Eagle KA, Isselbacher EM, DeSanctis RW, the International Registry for Aortic Dissection (IRAD) Investigators. Cocaine-related aortic dissection in perspective. Circulation. 2002;105:1529-1530.
142. Abel FL, Wilson SP. The effects of nimodipine on cocaine toxicity. Am J Med Sci. 1992;303:372-378.
143. Wilson LD, Jeromin J, Garvey L, et al. Cocaine, ethanol, and cocaethylene cardiotoxicity in an animal model of cocaine and ethanol abuse. Acad Emerg Med. 2001;8:211-222.
144. Mehta MC, Jain AC, Billie M. Effects of cocaine and alcohol alone and in combination on cardiovascular performance in dogs. Am J Med Sci. 2002;324:76-83.
145. Wilkerson RD. Cardiovascular effects of cocaine: enhancement by yohimbine and atropine. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1989;248:57-61.
146. Xu YQ, Crumb WJ, Clarkson CW. Cocaethylene, a metabolite of cocaine and ethanol, is a potent blocker of cardiac sodium channels. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1994;271:319-325.
147. Pan WJ, Hedaya MA. Cocaine and alcohol interactions in the rat: contribution of cocaine metabolites to the pharmacological effects. J Pharmacol Sci. 1999;April:468-476.
148. Perez-Reyes M, Jeffcoat AR. Ethanol/cocaine interactions: cocaine and cocaethylene plasma concentrations and their relationship to subjective and cardiovascular effects. Life Sci. 1992;51:553-563.
149. Trouve R, Nahas G. Nitrendipine an antidote to cardiac and lethal toxicity of cocaine. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1986;183:392-397.
150. Melchert RB, Eselin JA, O'Dell JF, et al. Effects of nitrendipine on cocaine induced toxicity evaluated in primary myocardial cell cultures. J Pharmaceut Sci. 1991;80:700-704.